Recent developments in PET instrumentation

Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology

Volumn 11, Issue 6, 2010, Pages 555-571

  Peng, Hao ^a   Levin, Craig S ^a  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Depth of Interaction (DOI); Photon Sensitivity; Positron Emission Tomography (PET); Scintillation Detector; Semiconductor Detector; Spatial Resolution; Time of Flight (TOF)

Indexed keywords

CADMIUM; LANTHANUM; TELLURIUM; ZINC;

CHEMICAL INTERACTION; CLINICAL RESEARCH; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); COMPTON EFFECT; CRYSTAL STRUCTURE; IN VIVO STUDY; INSTRUMENTATION; LIGHT EMITTING DIODE; LIGHT INTENSITY; LIGHT SCATTERING; PHOTON; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; REVIEW; SCINTILLATION; SCINTISCANNING; SIGNAL NOISE RATIO; THREE DIMENSIONAL IMAGING; TIME OF FLIGHT MASS SPECTROMETRY; EQUIPMENT; EQUIPMENT DESIGN; IMAGE ENHANCEMENT; TRANSDUCER;

ANIMALIA;

EQUIPMENT DESIGN; EQUIPMENT FAILURE ANALYSIS; IMAGE ENHANCEMENT; POSITRON-EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; TRANSDUCERS;

EID: 79952116467     PISSN: 13892010     EISSN: 18734316     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/138920110792246555     Document Type: Review

References (97)

1. Gambhir, S.S. Molecular imaging of cancer with positron emission tomography. Nat. Rev. Cancer, 2002, 2, 683-693.
2. Nestle, U.; Weber, Hentschel, W.M.; Grosu. A.L. Biological imaging in radiation therapy: role ofpositron emission tomography. Phys. Med. Biol., 2009, 54. R1-25.
3. Phelps, M.E. Positron emission tomography provides molecular imaging of biological processes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2000, 97, 9226-9233.
4. Rohren, E.M.; Turkington, T.G.; Coleman, E. Clinical applications of PET in oncology. Radiology, 2004, 231, 305-332.
5. Ray, P.; Pimenta, H.; Paulmurugan, R.; Berger, F.; Phelps, M.E.; Iyer, M.; Gambhir, S.S. Noninvasive quantitative imaging of protein-protein interactions in living subjects. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 2002, 99(5), 3105-3110.
6. Luker, G.D.; Sharma, V.; Pica, C.M.; Dahlheimer, J.L.; Li, W.; Ochesky, J.; Ryan, C.E.; Piwnica-Worms, H.; Piwnica-Worms, D. Noninvasive imaging of protein-protein interactions in living Animals. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 2002, 99(10), 6961-6966.
7. Adonai, N.; Nguyen, K.N.; Walsh, J.; Iyer, M.; Toyokuni, T.; Phelps, M.E.; McCarthy, T.; McCarthy D.W.; Gambhir, S.S. (Ex vivo cell labeling with 64Cu-pyruvaldehyde-bis (N4-methylthiosemicarbazone) for imaging cell trafficking in mice with positron emission tomography. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2002, 99(5), 3030-3035.
8. Wang, J.; Maurer, L. Positron emission tomography: Applications in drug discovery and drug development. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 2005, 5(11), 1053-1075.
9. Frangioni, J.V.; Hajjar, R.J. In vivo tracking of stem cells for clinical trials in cardiovascular disease. Circulation. 2004, 110, 3378-3383.
10. Cao, F.; Lin, S.; Xie, X.; Ray, P.; Patel, M.; Zhang, X.; Drukker, M.; Dylla, S.J.; Connolly, A.J.; Chen, X.; Weissman, I.L.; Gambhir, S.S. Wu, J.C. In vivo visualization of embryonic stem cell survival, proliferation, and migration after cardiac delivery. Circulation. 2006, 113(7), 1005-1014.
11. Blasberg R.G.; Tjuvajev, J.G. Molecular-genetic imaging: Current and future perspectives. J. Clin. Invest. 2003, 111. 1620-1629.
12. Pither, R. PET and the role of in vivo molecular imaging in personalized medicine. Expert Rev. Mol. Diagnost. 2003, 3(6), 703-713.
13. Shah, K.; Jacobs, A.; Breakefield, X.O.; Weissleder, R. Molecular imaging of gene therapy for cancer. Gene Ther. 2004, 11(15), 1175-1187.
14. Luker, G.D. Special conference of the american association for cancer research on molecular imaging in cancer: Linking biology, function, and clinical applications in vivo. Cancer Res. 2002, 62. 2195-2198.
15. Hnatowich, D.J. Observations on the role of nuclear medicine in molecular imaging. J. Cell. Biochem. 2002, 87(S39), 18-24.
16. Strother, S.C.; Casey, M.E.; Hoffman, E.J. Measuring PET scanner sensitivity: Relating count rates to image signal-to-noise ratios using noise equivalent counts. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 1990, 37. 783-788.
17. Phelps, M.E.; Huang, S.C.; Hoffman, E.J. An analysis of signal amplification using small detectors in positron emission tomography. J. Comput. Assist. Tomogr. 1982, 6. 551-565.
18. Levin, C.S. New imaging technologies to enhance the molecular sensitivity of positron emission tomography. Proc. IEEE. 2008, 96. 439-467.
19. Habte, F.; Foudray, A.M.; Olcott, P.D.; Levin, C.S. Effects of system geometry and other physical factors on photon sensitivity of high-resolution positron emission tomography. Phys. Med. Biol., 2007, 52. 3753-72
20. Alessio, A.; Kinahan, P.; Cheng, P.; Vesselle, H.; Karp, J. PET/CT scanner instrumentation, challenges, and solutions. Radiol. Clin. North Am., 2004, 42. 1017-1032.
21. Bao, Q.; Newport, D.; Chen, M.; Stout, D.B.; Chatziioannou, A.F. Performance evaluation of the inveon dedicated PET preclinical tomograph based on the NEMA NU-4 standards. J. Nucl. Med., 2009, 50. 401-8.
22. Huisman, M.C.; Reder, S.; Weber, A. W; Ziegler, S.I.; Schwaiger, M. Performance evaluation of the Philips MOSAIC small animal PET scanner. Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging, 2007, 34. 532-540.
23. Townsend, D.W.; Jakoby, B.; Long, M.J. Performance and clinical workflow of a new combined PET/CT scanner. J. Nucl. Med., 2007, 48. 437P.
24. rded. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders 2003.
25. Joung, J.; Miyaoka, R.S.; Lewellen, T.K. cMice: a high resolution animal PET using continuous LSO with a statistics based positioning scheme. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A., 2002, 489, 584-598.
26. Maas, M.C.; Schaart, D.R.; van der Laan, D.J.; Bruyndonckx, P.; Lemaître, C.; Beekman, F.J.; van Eijk, C.W. Monolithic scintillator PET detectors with intrinsic depth-of-interaction correction. Phys. Med. Biol. 2009, 54, 1893-1908.
27. Ling, T.; Lee K.; Miyaoka, R.S. Performance comparisons of continuous miniature crystal element (cMiCE) detectors. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 2006, 53. 2513-2518.
28. Levin, C.S.; Habte, F.; Foudray, A.M.K.; Zhang, J.; Chinn, G. Impact of high energy resolution detectors on the performance of a PET system dedicated to breast cancer imaging. Phys. Med. 2006, 21. 28-34.
29. Levin, C.S. Primer on molecular imaging technology. Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging. 2005, 32(2), S325-S345.
30. Gu, Y.; Matteson, J.; Skelton, R.T.; Deal, A.A.; Stephan, E.A.; Duttweiler, F.; Gasaway, T.M.; Levin C.S. 3-D positioning crossstrip cadmium zinc telluride detector for PET. IEEE Nucl. Sci. Symp. Conf. Rec., 2008, pp. 3596-3603.
31. Pratx, G.; Levin, C.S. Bayesian reconstruction of photon interaction sequences for high-resolution PET detectors. Phys. Med. Biol., 2009, 54, 5073-5094.
32. James, S.S.; Cherry, S.R. Simulation study of spatial resolution and sensitivity for the tapered depth of interaction PET detectors for small animal imaging. Phys. Med. Biol., 2010, 55, N63-N74.
33. Peng, H.; Olcott, P.D.; Pratx, G.; Foudray, A.M.K.; Chinn, G.; Levin, C.S. Design study of a high-resolution breast-dedicated PET system built from cadium zinc telluride detcetors. IEEE Nucl. Sci. Symp. Conf. Rec., 2007, pp. 3700-3704.
34. Moses, W.W.; Derenzo, S.E. Empirical observation of resolution degradation in positron emission tomographs utilizing block detectors. J. Nucl. Med., 1993, 34, 101P.
35. Levin, C.S.; Hoffman, E.J. Calculation of positron range and its effect on the fundamental limit of positron emission tomography system spatial resolution. Phys. Med. Biol., 1999, 44. 781-799.
36. Stickel, J.R.; Cherry, S.R. High-resolution PET detector design: modelling components of intrinsic spatial resolution. Phys. Med. Biol., 2005, 50. 179-195.
37. James, S.S.; Yang, Y.; Wu, Y.; Farrell, R.; Dokhale, P.; Shah, K.S.; Cherry, S.R. Experimental characterization and system simulations of depth of interaction PET detectors using 0.5 mm and 0.7 mm LSO arrays. Phys. Med. Biol., 2009, 54, 4605-4615.
38. Cherry, S.R.; Shao, Y.; Tornai, M.P.; Siegel, S.; Ricci, A.R.; Phelps M.E. Collection of scintillation light from small BGO crystals. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 1995, 42. 1058-1063.
39. Levin, C.S. Design of a high resolution and high sensitivity scintillation crystal array for PET with nearly complete light collection. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., 2002, 45. 2236-2243.
40. Cherry, S.R.; Shao, Y., Siegel, S.; Silvermad, R.W.; Meadorsl, K.; Young, J.; Jones, W.F.; Newport, D.; Moyers, C.; Mumcuoglu, E.U.; Chatziioannoul, A.; Farquhar, T.; Andreaco, M.; Paulus, M.; Binkley, D.; Nutt, R.; Phelpsl, M.E. Micro-PET: a high resolution PET scanner for imaging small animals. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 1997, 44. 1161-1166.
41. Surti, S.; Karp, J.S.; Perkins A.E.; Freifelder, R.; Muehllehner, G. Design evaluation of A-PET: A high sensitivity animal PET camera. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 2003, 50. 1357-1363.
42. Uribe, J.; Li, H.; Xing, T.; Liu, Y.; Baghaei, H.; Wang, Y.; Aykac, M.; Ramirez, R.; Wong, W.H. Signal characteristics of individual crystals in high resolution BGO detector designs using PMTquadrant sharing. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 2003, 50. 355-361.
43. Fontaine, R.; Belanger, F.; Cadorette, J. Architecture of a dualmodality, high-resolution, fully digital positron emission tomography/ computed tomography (PET/CT) scanner for small animal imaging. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., 2005, 52. 691-696.
44. Ziemons, K.; Auffray, E.; Barbier, R. The ClearPETTM project: Development of a 2nd generation high-performance small animal PET scanner. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A., 2005, 537, 307-311.
45. Stickel, J.R.; Qi, J.; Cherry, S.R. Fabrication and characterization of a 0.5-mm lutetium oxyorthosilicate detector array for highresolution PET applications. J. Nucl. Med., 2007, 48, 115-121.
46. Catana, C.; Wu, Y.; Judenhofer, M.S.; Qi, J.; Pichler, B.J.; Cherry, S.R. Simultaneous acquisition of multislice PET and MR images: Initial Results with a MR-compatible PET scanner. J. Nucl. Med. 2006, 47. 1968-1976.
47. Levin, C.S.; Foudray, A.M.K.; Olcott, P.D.; Habte, F. Investigation of position sensitive avalanche photodiodes for a new highresolution PET detector design. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 2004, 51, 805-810.
48. Zhang, J.; Foudray, A.M.K.; Olcott, P.D.; Farrell, R.; Shah, K.; Levin, C.S. Performance characterization of a novel thin positionsensitive avalanche photodiode for 1 mm resolution positron emission tomography IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 2007, 54. 415-421.
49. Lau, F.W.Y.; Olcott, P.D.; Horowitz, M.A.; Peng, H.; Levin, C.S. Noise analysis of LSO-PSAPD PET detector front-end multiplexing circuits. IEEE Nucl. Sci. Symp. Conf. Rec., 2007, pp. 3212-3219.
50. Shah, K.S.; Farrell, R.; Grazioso, R.; Harmon, E.S.; Karplus, E. Positron sensitive avalanche photodiodes for gamma-ray imaging. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 2002, 49(4), 1687-1692.
51. Peng, H.; Olcott, P.D.; Spanoudaki, V.; Levin, C.S. Can large-area avalanche photodiodes be used for a clinical PET/MRI block detector? IEEE Nucl. Sci. Symp. Conf. Rec., 2008, pp. 4675-4680.
52. Anger, H. Scintillation camera. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 1958, 29 27-33.
53. Levin, C.S.; Tornai, M.P.; Cherry, S.R.; MacDonald, L.R.; Hoffman, E.J. Compton scatter and x-ray crosstalk and the use of very thin intercrystal septa in high resolution PET detectors. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., 1997, 44, 18-24.
54. Lecomte, R.; Schmitt, D.; Lamoureux, G. Geometry study of a high resolution PET detection system Using Small Detectors. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., 1984, 31. 556-561.
55. Olcott, P.D.; Levin, C.S.; Tumer, T.; Clajus, M.; Cajipe, V.; Hayakawa, S. Preliminary results from a front-end readout ASIC for 1 mm resolution PET systems based upon position sensitive avalanche photodiodes. J. Nucl. Med. 2006, 47(Suppl), 1507,
56. Olcott, P.D.; Levin, C.S.; Cajipe, V.; Clajus, M.; Tumer, T.; Volkovskii, A. Evaluation of a new readout ASIC for a 1 mm resolution PET system based upon position sensitive avalanche photodiodes. J. Nucl. Med. 2007, 48(Suppl), 135,
57. Tumer, T.O.; Cajipe, V.B.; Clajus, M.; Hayakawa, S.; Vokovskii, A. Multi-channel front-end readout IC for position sensitive solidstate detectors. IEEE Nucl. Sci. Symp. Conf. Rec., 2006, 384-388.
58. Moses, M.M.; Virador, P.R.G.; Derenzo, S.E. Design of a highresolution, high-sensitivity PET camera for human brains and small animals. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 1997, 44(4), 1487-91.
59. Soret, M.; Bacharach, S.L.;Buvat, I. Partial-volume effect in PET tumor imaging. J. Nucl. Med., 2007, 48, 932-945.
60. Phelps, M.E. PET molecular imaging and its biological applications. New York: Springer 2004.
61. Rafecas, M.; Boning, G.; Pichler, B.J.; Lorenz, E.; Schwaiger, M.; Ziegler, S.I. A monte carlo study of high resolution PET with granulated dual layer detectors. IEEE Trans Nucl. Sci., 2001, 48, 1490-1495.
62. Rafecas, M.; Boning, G.; Pichler, B.J.; Lorenz, E.; Schwaiger, M.; Ziegler, S.I. Inter crystal scatter in a dual layer, high resolution LSO-APD positron emission tomography. Phys. Med. Biol., 2003, 48. 821-848.
63. Yang, Y.; Dokhale, P.A.; Silverman, R.W.; Shah, K.S.; McClish, M.A.; Farrell, R.; Entine, G.; Cherry, S.R. Depth of interaction resolution measurements for a high resolution PET detector using position sensitive avalanche photodiodes Phys. Med. Biol., 2006, 51, 2131-2142.
64. Yang, Y.; Wu, Y.; Qi, J.; James, S.S.; Du, H.; Dokhale, P.A.; Shah, K.S.; Farrell, R.; Cherry, S.R. A prototype PET scanner with DOIencoding detectors. J. Nucl. Med., 2008, 49, 1132-40.
65. Moses, W.W.; Derenzo, S.E.; Melchert, C.L.; Manentet, R.A. A room temperature LSO/PIN photodiode PET detector module that measures depth of interaction. IEEE. Trans. Nucl. Sci., 1995, 42-44. 1085-1089.
66. Mosset, J.B.; Devroede, O.; Krieguer, M.; Rey, M.; Vieira, J.M.; Jung, J.H. Development of an optimized LSO/LuYAP phoswich detector head for the lausanne clearPET demonstrator. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., 2006, 53, 25-29.
67. Seidel, J.; Vaquero, J.J.; Green, M.V. () Resolution uniformity and sensitivity of the NIH ATLAS small animal PET scanner: Comparison to simulated LSO scanners without depth-of-interaction capability. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., 2003, 50, 1347-1350.
68. Levin, C.S.; Zaidi, H. PET Clinics: PET Instrumentation and Quantification. 2007, 2. pp. 125-160.
69. Ling, T.; Burnett, T.H.; Lewellen, T.K.; Miyaoka, R.S. Parametric positioning of a continuous crystal PET detector with depth of interaction decoding. Phys. Med. Biol., 2008, 53, 1843-1863.
70. Maas, M.C.; Van Der Laan, D.J.; Schaart, D.R.; Huizenga, J.; Brouwer, J.C.; Bruyndonckx, P.; Ĺeonard, S.; Lemâi{dotless}tre, C.; van Eijk, C.W. Experimental characterization of monolithic-crystal small animal PET detectors read out by APD arrays. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., 2006, 53. 1071-1077.
71. Schaart, D.R.; van Dam, H.T.; Seifert, S.; Vinke, R.; Dendooven, P.; L̈ohner, H.; Beekman, F.J. A novel, SiPM-array-based, monolithic scintillator detector for PET. Phys. Med. Biol., 2009, 54, 3501-3512.
72. Zhang, N; Thompson, C.J.; Togane, D.; Cayouette, F.; Nguyen, K.Q. Zhang N, Thompson C J, Togane D, Cayouette F.; Nguyen K Q2002 Anode position and last dynode timing circuits for duallayer BGO scintillator with PS-PMT based modular PET detectors IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., 2002,49. 2203-2207.
73. Ter-Pogossian, M.M.; Ficke, D.C.; Yamamoto, M.; Hood, J.T. Super PETTI: a positron emission tomograph utilizing photon timeof-flight information. IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging, 1982, 1, 179-87.
74. Wong, W.H.; Mullani, N.A.; Wardworth, G.; Hartz, R.K.; Bristow, D. Characteristics of small barium fluoride (BaF2) scintillator for high intrinsic resolution time-of-flight positron emission tomography. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., 1984, 31, 381-386.
75. Mullani, N.A.; Gaeta, J.; Yerian, K.; Wong, W.H.; Hartz, R.K.; Philippe, E.A.; Bristow, D.; Gould, K.L. Dynamic imaging with high resolution time-of-flight PET camera TOFPET-I. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci.,1984, 31, 609-13.
76. Mazoyer, B.; Trebossen, R.; Schoukroun, C.; Verrey, B.; Syrota, A.; Vacher, J.; Lemasson, P.; Monnet, O.; Bouvier, A.; Lecomte, J.L. Physical characteristics of TTV03, a new high spatial resolution time-of-flight positron tomograph. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., 1990, 37. 778-782.
77. Budinger, T.F. Time-of-flight positron emission tomography: status relative to conventional PET. J. Nucl. Med., 1983, 24. 73-78.
78. Moses, W.W. Recent Advances and Future Advances in Time-of-Flight PET. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A, 2007, 580, 919-924.
79. Lewellen, T.K. Time-of-Flight PET. Semin Nucl. Med., 1998, 28, 268-275.
80. Surti, S.; Karp, J.S.; Muehllehner, G.; Raby, P.S. Investigation of lanthanum scintillators for 3-D PET. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., 2003, 50, 348-354.
81. Surti, S.; Karp, J.S.; Popescu, L.M.; Daube-Witherspoon, M.E.; Werner, M. Investigation of time-of-flight benefit for fully 3-D PET. IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging, 2006, 5, 529-538.
82. Moses, W.W. Current trends in scintillator detectors and materials. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A., 2002, 487. 123-128.
83. Surti, S.; Karp, J.S. Experimental evaluation of a simple lesion detection task with Time-of-Flight PET. J. Nucl. Med., 2007, 48, 471-480.
84. Jakoby, B.W.; Bercier, Y.; Conti, M. Performance investigation of a time-of-flight PET/CT scanner. IEEE Nucl. Sci. Symp. Conf. Rec., 2008, pp. 3738-3743.
85. Kemp, B.; Nathan, M.; Rohren, E.; Peller, P.; Murphy, R.; Lowe, V. Clinical evaluation of a prototype time-of-flight PET/CT system. J. Nucl. Med., 2009, 50, 1513 (abstract).
86. Surti, S.; Karp, J.S.; Muehllehner, G. Image quality assessment of LaBr3-based whole-body 3D PET scanners: a Monte Carlo evaluation. Phys. Med. Biol., 2004, 49, 4593-4610.
87. Daube-Witherspoon, M.E.; Surti, S.; Perkins, A.; Kyba, C.M.; Wiener, R.; Werner, M.E.; Kulp, R.; Karp, J.S. The imaging performance of a LaBr3-based PET scanner. Phys. Med. Biol., 2010, 55, 45-64.
88. Ziegler, S.I.; Ostertag, H.; Kuebler, W.K.; Lorenz, W.J.; Otten, E.W. Effects of scintillation light collection on the time resolution of a time-of-flight detector for annihilation quanta. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 1990, 37, 574-579.
89. Herbert, D.J.; Moehrs, S.; D'Ascenzo, N.; Belcari, N.; Del Guerra, A.; Morsani, F.; Saveliev, V. The silicon photomultiplier for application to high-resolution positron emission tomography. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A, 2007, 573, 84-87.
90. McElroy, D.P.; Saveliev, V.; Reznik, A.; Rowlands, L.A. Evaluation of silicon photomultipliers: a promising new detector for MR compatible PET. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A, 2007, 571. 106-109.
91. Renker, D. New trends in photodetectors. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A, 2007, 71, 1-6.
92. SensL Technical Note. Available from: http://www.sensl.com.
93. Hamamatsu corporation website. Available from: http://www.hamamatsu.com.
94. Schaart, D.R.; Seifert, S.; van Dam, H.T.; de Boer, M.R.; Vinke, R.; Dendooven, P.; Lohner, H.; Beekman, F.J.) First experiments with LaBr3:Ce crystals coupled directly to silicon photomultipliers for PET applications. IEEE Nucl. Sci. Symp. Conf. Record, 2008, pp. 3991-3994.
95. Kim, C.L.; Wang, G.C.; Dolinsky, S. Multi-pixel photon counters for TOF PET detector and its challenges. IEEE Nucl. Sci. Symp. Conf. Record, 2008, pp. 3586-3590.
96. Philips website, Available from: http://www.research.philips.com/ initiatives/ digitalphotoncounting.
97. Karp, J.S.; Surti, S.; Daube-Witherspoon, M.E.; Muehllehner, G. Benefit of time-of-flight in PET: experimental and clinical results. J. Nucl. Med., 2008, 49. 462-470.