Disasters and youth: A meta-analytic examination of posttraumatic stress

Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology

Volumn 78, Issue 6, 2010, Pages 765-780

  Furr, Jami M ^a   Comer, Jonathan S ^a   Edmunds, Julie M ^b   Kendall, Philip C ^b  

^a BOSTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b TEMPLE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

child; disasters; posttraumatic stress; PTSD; trauma

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CLINICAL TRIAL; DEATH; DISASTER; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; HUMAN; JUVENILE; META ANALYSIS; PERCEPTION; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS; SEX DIFFERENCE; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW;

ADOLESCENT; CHILD; DISASTERS; FEMALE; HUMANS; LIFE CHANGE EVENTS; MALE; SEX FACTORS; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC;

EID: 78650138727     PISSN: 0022006X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0021482     Document Type: Article

References (167)

1. T.M. Achenbach, S.H. McConaughy, C.T. Howell Child/adolescent behavioral and emotional problems: Implication of cross-informant correlations for situational specificity Psychological Bulletin 101 1987 213 232
2. A. Angold, C. Worthman, E.J. Costello Puberty and depression C. Hayward Gender differences at puberty 2003 Cambridge University Press New York, NY 137 164
3. J. Asarnow, S. Glynn, R.S. Pynoos, J. Nahum, D. Guthrie, D. Cantwell, B. Franklin When the earth stops shaking: Earthquake sequelae among children diagnosed for pre-earthquake psychopathology Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38 1999 1016 1023
4. A. Bal Post-traumatic stress disorder in Turkish child and adolescent survivors three years after the Marmara earthquake Child and Adolescent Mental Health 13 2008 134 139
5. A. Bal, B. Jensen Post-traumatic stress disorder symptom clusters in Turkish child and adolescent trauma survivors European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 16 2007 449 457
6. V.A. Barnes, F.A. Treiber, D.A. Ludwig African-American adolescents' stress responses after the 9/11/01 terrorist attacks Journal of Adolescent Health 36 2005 201 207
7. B. Bhushan, J.S. Kumar Emotional distress and posttraumatic stress in children surviving the 2004 tsunami Journal of Loss & Trauma 12 2007 245 257
8. A. Bokszczanin The role of coping strategies and social support in adolescent's well-being after a flood Polish Psychological Bulletin 34 2003 67 72
9. A. Bokszczanin PTSD symptoms in children and adolescents 28 months after a flood: Age and gender differences Journal of Traumatic Stress 20 2007 347 351
10. D. Bolton, D. O'Ryan, O. Udwin, S. Boyle, W. Yule The long-term psychological effects of a disaster experienced in adolescence: II. General psychopathology Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 41 2000 513 523 (Pubitemid 30311529)
11. J. Breton, J. Valla, J. Lambert Industrial disaster and mental health of children and their parents Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 32 1993 438 445
12. E.J. Bromet, D. Goldgaber, G. Carlson, N. Panina, E. Golovakha, S.F. Gluzman, J.E. Schwartz Children's well-being 11 years after the Chernobyl catastrophe Archives of General Psychiatry 57 2000 563 571
13. U. Bronfenbrenner The ecology of human development 1979 Harvard University Press Cambridge, MA
14. E.J. Brown, R.F. Goodman Childhood traumatic grief: An exploration of the construct in children bereaved on September 11 Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 34 2005 248 259
15. S. Bulut, S. Bulut, A. Tayli The dose of exposure and prevalence rates of posttraumatic stress disorder in a sample of Turkish children eleven months after the 1999 Marmara earthquakes School Psychology International 26 2005 55 70
16. C. Catani, N. Jacob, E. Schauer, M. Kohila, F. Neuner Family violence, war, and natural disasters: A study of the effect of extreme stress on children's mental health in Sri Lanka BMC Psychiatry 8 2008 1 10
17. Children and War Foundation The Children's Impact of Events Scale-13 (CRIES-13) 1998 Author Bergen, Norway
18. D. Cicchetti, D.J. Cohen Perspectives on developmental psychopathology D. Cicchetti D.J. Cohen Developmental psychopathology, Vol. 1: Theory and methods 1995 Wiley Oxford, England 3 20
19. J. Cohen Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences 2nd ed. 1988 Erlbaum Hillsdale, NJ
20. J.S. Comer, B. Fan, C. Duarte, P. Wu, G. Musa, D. Mandell, C. Hoven Attack-related life disruption and child psychopathology in New York City public schoolchildren 6-months post-9/11 Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 39 2010 460 469
21. J.S. Comer, J.M. Furr, R.S. Beidas, C.L. Weiner, P.C. Kendall Children and terrorism-related news: Training parents in coping and media literacy Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 76 2008 568 578
22. J.S. Comer, P.C. Kendall A symptom-level examination of parent-child agreement in the diagnosis of anxious youths Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 43 2004 878 886
23. J.S. Comer, P.C. Kendall Terrorism: The psychological impact on youth Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 14 2007 179 212
24. D.J. Cook, G.H. Guyatt, G. Ryan, J. Clifton, L. Buckingham, A. Willan, A.D. Oxman Should unpublished data be included in meta-analyses? Current convictions and controversies Journal of the American Medical Association 269 1993 2749 2753
25. H.M. Cooper, R. Rosenthal Statistical versus traditional procedures for summarizing research findings Psychological Bulletin 87 1980 442 449
26. W.E. Copeland, G. Keeler, A. Angold, E.J. Costello Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress in childhood Archives of General Psychiatry 64 2007 577 584
27. A. De Los Reyes, A.E. Kazdin Measuring informant discrepancies in clinical child research Psychological Assessment 16 2004 330 334
28. S.S. Drury, M.S. Scheeringa, C.H. Zeanah The traumatic impact of Hurricane Katrina on children in New Orleans Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 17 2008 685 702
29. C.S. Duarte, C.W. Hoven, P. Wu, F. Bin, S. Cotel, D.J. Mandell, D. Markenson Posttraumatic stress in children with first responders in their families Journal of Traumatic Stress 19 2006 301 306
30. S. Duval, R. Tweedie Trim and fill: A simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis Biometrics 56 2000 455 463
31. A. Eksi, K. Braun, H. Ertem-Vehid, G. Peykerli, R. Saydam, D. Toparlak, B. Alyanak Risk factors for the development of PTSD and depression among child and adolescent victims following of a 7.4 magnitude earthquake International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice 11 2007 190 199
32. J. Endicott, R.L. Spitzer A diagnostic interview: The Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia Archives of General Psychiatry 35 1978 837 844
33. T. Endo, T. Shioiri, S. Toyabe, K. Akazawa, T. Someya Parental mental health affects behavioral changes in children following a devastating disaster: A community survey after the 2004 Niigata-Chuetsu earthquake General Hospital Psychiatry 27 2007 175 176
34. L.G. Evans, J. Oehler-Stinnett Structure and prevalence of PTSD symptomology in children who have experienced a severe tornado Psychology in the Schools 43 2006 283 295
35. A.P. Field Meta-analysis of correlation coefficients: A Monte-Carlo comparison of fixed- and random-effects methods Psychological Methods 6 2001 161 180
36. A.P. Field Is the meta-analysis of correlation coefficients accurate when population effect sizes vary? Psychological Methods 10 2005 444 467
37. E.B. Foa, K.M. Johnson, N.C. Feeny, K.R.H. Treadwell The Child PTSD Symptom Scale: A preliminary examination of its psychometric properties Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 30 2001 376 384
38. C.Z. Garrison, E.S. Bryant, C.L. Addy, P.G. Spurrier, J.R. Freedy, D.G. Kilpatrick Posttraumatic stress disorder in adolescents after Hurricane Andrew Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 34 1995 1193 1201
39. R.M. Giaconia, H.Z. Reinherz, A.B. Silverman, B. Pakiz, A.K. Frost, E. Cohen Traumas and posttraumatic stress disorder in a community population of older adolescents Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 34 1995 1369 1380
40. I. Giannopoulou, M. Strouthos, P. Smith, A. Dikaiakou, V. Galanopoulou, W. Yule Post-traumatic stress reactions of children and adolescents exposed to the Athens 1999 earthquake European Psychiatry 21 2006 160 166
41. G.V. Glass, B. McGaw, M.L. Smith Meta-analysis in social research 1981 Sage Beverly Hills, CA
42. A.K. Goenjian, L. Molina, A.M. Steinberg, L.A. Fairbanks, M.L. Alvarez, H.A. Goenjian, R.S. Pynoos Posttraumatic stress and depressive reactions among Nicaraguan adolescents after Hurricane Mitch American Journal of Psychiatry 158 2001 788 794
43. A.K. Goenjian, R.S. Pynoos, A.M. Steinberg, D. Endres, K. Abraham, M.E. Geffner, L.A. Fairbanks Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal activity among Armenian adolescents with PTSD symptoms Journal of Traumatic Stress 16 2003 319 323
44. A.K. Goenjian, R.S. Pynoos, A.M. Steinberg, L.M. Najarian, J.R. Asarnow, I. Karayan, L.A. Fairbanks Psychiatric comorbidity in children after the 1988 earthquake in Armenia Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 34 1995 1174 1184
45. A.K. Goenjian, D. Walling, A.M. Steinberg, I. Karayan, L.M. Najarian, R. Pynoos A prospective study of posttraumatic stress and depressive reactions among treated and untreated adolescents 5 years after a catastrophic disaster American Journal of Psychiatry 162 2005 2302 2308
46. B.L. Green, M.C. Grace, M.G. Vary, T.L. Kramer, G.C. Gleser, A.C. Leonard Children of disaster in the second decade: A 17-year follow-up of Buffalo Creek survivors Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 33 1994 71 79
47. B.L. Green, M.S. Korol, M.C. Grace, M.G. Vary, A.C. Leonard, G.C. Gleser, S. Smitson-Cohen Children and disaster: Age, gender, and parental effects of PTSD symptoms Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 30 1991 945 951
48. A.E. Grills, T.H. Ollendick Multiple informant agreement and the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Parents and Children Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 42 2003 30 40
49. D. Groome, A. Soureti Post-traumatic stress disorder and anxiety symptoms in children exposed to the 1999 Greek earthquake British Journal of Psychology 95 2004 387 397
50. R.S. Hamada, V. Kameoka, E. Yanagida, C.M. Chemtob Assessment of elementary school children for disaster-related posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: The Kauai Recovery Index Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 191 2003 268 272
51. H.A. Handford, S. Dickerson, R.E. Mattison, F.J. Humphrey II, S. Bagnato, E.O. Bixler, J.D. Kales Child and parent reaction to the Three Mile Island nuclear accident Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry 25 1986 346 356
52. L.V. Hedges Meta-analysis Journal of Educational Statistics 17 1992 279 296
53. L.V. Hedges, I. Olkin Statistical methods for meta-analysis 1985 Academic Press San Diego, CA
54. L.V. Hedges, J.L. Vevea Fixed- and random-effects models in meta-analysis Psychological Methods 3 1998 486 504
55. L. Hensley, R.E. Varela PTSD symptoms and somatic complaints following Hurricane Katrina: The roles of trait anxiety and anxiety sensitivity Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 37 2008 542 552
56. M. Horowitz, N. Wilner, W. Alvarez Impact of Event Scale: A measure of subjective stress Psychosomatic Medicine 41 1979 209 218
57. C.W. Hoven, C.S. Duarte, C.P. Lucas, P. Wu, D.J. Mandell, R.D. Goodwin, E. Susser Psychopathology among New York City public school children 6 months after September 11 Archives of General Psychiatry 62 2005 545 552
58. C. Hsu, M. Chong, P. Yang, C. Yen Posttraumatic stress disorder among adolescent earthquake victims in Taiwan Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 41 2002 875 881
59. J.E. Hunter, F.L. Schmidt Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings 2nd ed. 2004 Sage Thousand Oaks, CA
60. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies World disasters report 1998 Oxford University Press New York, NY
61. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies World disasters report 2004 Oxford University Press New York, NY
62. S.A. Joseph, C.R. Brewin, W. Yule, R. Williams Causal attributions and post-traumatic stress in adolescents Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 34 1993 247 253
63. N. Kar, B.K. Bastia Post-traumatic stress disorder, depression and generalized anxiety disorder in adolescents after a natural disaster: A study of comorbidity Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health 2 2006 17 24
64. N. Kar, P.K. Mohapatra, K.C. Nayak, P. Pattanaik, S.P. Swain, H.C. Kar Post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents one year after a super-cyclone in Orissa, India: Exploring cross-cultural validity and vulnerability factors BMC Psychiatry 7 2007 1 9
65. J. Kaufman, B. Birmaher, D. Brent, U. Rao, C. Flynn, P. Moreci, N. Ryan Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL): Initial reliability and validity data Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 36 1997 980 988
66. A.E. Kazdin Child reactions to terrorism: Cautions and next steps for research Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 14 2007 213 218
67. E.Z. Kili, H.D. Özgüven, I. Sayil The psychological effects of parental mental health on children experiencing disaster: The experience of Bolu earthquake in Turkey Family Process 42 2003 485 495
68. G. Kolaitis, J. Kotsopoulos, J. Tsiantis, S. Haritaki, F. Rigizou, L. Zacharaki, P. Katerelos Posttraumatic stress reactions among children following the Athens earthquake of September 1999 European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 12 2003 273 280
69. H.S. Koplewicz, J.M. Vogel, M.V. Solanto, R.F. Morrissey, C.M. Alonso, H. Abikoff, R.M. Novick Child and parent response to the 1993 World Trade Center bombing Journal of Traumatic Stress 15 2002 77 85
70. M. Korol, B.L. Green, G.C. Gleser Children's responses to a nuclear waste disaster: PTSD symptoms and outcome prediction Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38 1999 368 375
71. C.W. Lack, M.A. Sullivan Attributions, coping, and exposure as predictors of long-term posttraumatic distress in tornado-exposed children Journal of Loss & Trauma 13 2008 72 84
72. A.M. La Greca Understanding the psychological impact of terrorism on youth: Moving beyond posttraumatic stress disorder Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 14 2007 219 223
73. A.M. La Greca, W.K. Silverman Children and adolescents, disasters and terrorism P.C. Kendall Child and adolescent therapy: Cognitive-behavioral procedures 3rd ed. 2006 Guilford Press New York, NY
74. A.M. La Greca, W.K. Silverman Treatment and prevention of posttraumatic stress reactions in children and adolescents exposed to disasters and terrorism: What is the evidence? Child Development Perspectives 3 2009 4 10
75. A.M. La Greca, W.K. Silverman, E.M. Vernberg, M.J. Prinstein Symptoms of posttraumatic stress in children after Hurricane Andrew: A prospective study Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 64 1996 712 723
76. A.M. La Greca, W.K. Silverman, E.M. Vernberg, M.C. Roberts Helping children cope with disasters and terrorism 2002 American Psychological Association Washington, DC
77. A.M. La Greca, W.K. Silverman, S.B. Wasserstein Children's predisaster functioning as a predictor of posttraumatic stress following Hurricane Andrew Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 66 1998 883 892
78. N. Laor, L. Wolmer, M. Kora, D. Yucel, S. Spirman, Y. Yazgan Posttraumatic, dissociative and grief symptoms in Turkish children exposed to the 1999 earthquakes Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 190 2002 824 832
79. L.J. Lengua, A.C. Long, A.N. Meltzoff Pre-attack stress-load, appraisals, and coping in children's responses to the 9/11 terrorist attacks Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 47 2006 1219 1227
80. L.J. Lengua, A.C. Long, K.I. Smith, A.N. Meltzoff Pre-attack symptomatology and temperament as predictors of children's responses to the September 11 terrorist attacks Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 46 2005 631 645
81. L.J. Levine, C.K. Whalen, B. Henker, L.D. Jamner Looking back on September 11, 2001: Appraised impact and memory for emotions in adolescent and adults Journal of Adolescent Research 20 2005 497 523
82. M.W. Lipsey, D.B. Wilson Practical meta-analysis L. Bickman D.J. Rog Applied Social Research Methods Series 49 2000 Sage Thousand Oaks, CA 1 240
83. A. Liu, H. Tan, J. Zhou, S. Li, T. Yang, Z. Sun, S.W. Wen Brief screening instrument of posttraumatic stress disorder for children and adolescents 7-15 years of age Child Psychiatry and Human Development 38 2007 195 202
84. C.J. Lonigan, J.L. Anthony, M.P. Shannon Diagnostic efficacy of posttraumatic symptoms in children exposed to disaster Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 27 1998 255 267
85. C.J. Lonigan, M.P. Shannon, C.M. Taylor, A.J. Finch, F.R. Sallee Children exposed to disaster: II. Risk factors for the development of post-traumatic symptomatology Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 33 1994 94 105
86. S.S. Luthar Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities 2003 Cambridge University Press New York, NY
87. J.S. March, L. Amaya-Jackson, R. Terry, P. Costanzo Posttraumatic symptomatology in children and adolescents after an industrial fire Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 36 1997 1080 1088
88. M.A. Marsee Reactive aggression and posttraumatic stress in adolescents affected by Hurricane Katrina Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 37 2008 519 529
89. R.D. Marshall, R.A. Bryant, L. Amsel, E.J. Suh, J.M. Cook, Y. Neria The psychology of ongoing threat: Relative risk appraisal, the September 11 attacks, and terrorism-related fears American Psychologist 62 2007 304 316
90. B.M. McDermott, E.M. Lee, M. Judd, P. Gibbon Posttraumatic stress disorder and general psychopathology in children and adolescents following a wildfire disaster The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 50 2005 137 143
91. B.M. McDermott, L.J. Palmer Post-disaster emotional distress, depression and event-related variables: Findings across child and adolescent developmental stages Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 36 2002 754 761
92. A.C. McFarlane Posttraumatic phenomena in a longitudinal study of children following a natural disaster Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 26 1987 764 769
93. R.J. McNally, R.A. Bryant, A. Ehlers Does early psychological intervention promote recovery from posttraumatic stress? Psychological Science in the Public Interest 4 2003 45 79
94. M. Mirzamani, M.R. Mohammadi, M. Ali Besharat Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms of children following the occurrence of Tehran City Park Disaster Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied 140 2006 181 186
95. D. Moher, D.J. Cook, S. Eastwood, I. Olkin, D. Rennie, D.F. Stroup Improving the quality of reports of meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials: The QUOROM statement Lancet 354 1999, November 27 1896 1900
96. W. Mohr Understanding children in crisis: The developmental ecological framework W.N. Zubenko J.A. Capozzoli Children and disasters: A practical guide to healing and recovery 2002 Oxford University Press New York, NY 72 84
97. E. Mullett-Hume, D. Anshel, V. Guevara, M. Cloitre Cumulative trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder among children exposed to the 9/11 World Trade Center attack American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 78 2008 103 108
98. K. Nader, R. Pynoos, L. Fairbanks, C. Frederick Children's PTSD reactions one year after a sniper attack at their school American Journal of Psychiatry 147 1990 1526 1530
99. L.M. Najarian, A.K. Goenjian, D. Pelcovitz, F. Mandel, B. Najarian Relocation after a disaster: Posttraumatic stress disorder in Armenia after the earthquake Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 35 1996 374 383
100. National Research Council Combining information: Statistical issues and opportunities for research 1992 National Academy of Sciences Press Washington, DC
101. F. Neuner, E. Schauer, C. Catani, M. Ruf, T. Elbert Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka Journal of Traumatic Stress 19 2006 339 347
102. F.H. Norris Disaster research methods: Past progress and future directions Journal of Traumatic Stress 19 2006 173 184
103. F.H. Norris, M.J. Friedman, P.J. Watson, C.M. Byrne, E. Diaz, K. Kaniasty 60,000 disaster victims speak: Part I. An empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981-2001 Psychiatry 65 2002 207 239
104. C.S. North, B. Pfefferbaum Research on the mental health effects of terrorism Journal of the American Medical Association 288 2002 633 636
105. R.G. Orwin A fail-safe N for effect size in meta-analysis Journal of Educational Statistics 8 1983 157 159
106. H.J. Osofsky, J.D. Osofsky, M. Kronenberg, A. Brennan, T.C. Hansel Posttraumatic stress symptoms in children after Hurricane Katrina: Predicting the need for mental health services American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 79 2009 212 220
107. B. Pfefferbaum, J.B. Houston, G. Reyes, A.M. Steinberg, R.S. Pynoos, J.A. Fairbank, C.A. Maida Building national capacity for child and family disaster mental health research Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 41 2010 26 33
108. B. Pfefferbaum, S. Nixon, R. Krug, R. Tivis, V. Moore, J. Brown, R.H. Gurwitch Clinical needs assessment of middle and high school students following the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing American Journal of Psychiatry 156 1999 1069 1074
109. B. Pfefferbaum, S.J. Nixon, R.D. Tivis, D.E. Dougherty, R.S. Pynoos, R. Gurwitch, D.W. Foy Television exposure in children after a terrorist incident Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes 64 2001 202 211
110. B. Pfefferbaum, S. Nixon, P. Tucker, R. Tivis, V. Moore, R.H. Gurwitch, H.K. Geis Posttraumatic stress responses in bereaved children after the Oklahoma City bombing Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38 1999 1372 1379
111. B. Pfefferbaum, C.S. North Research with children exposed to disasters International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 17 2008 S49 S56
112. B. Pfefferbaum, C.S. North, D.E. Doughty, R.H. Gurwitch, C.S. Fullerton, J. Kyula Posttraumatic stress and functional impairment in Kenyan children following the 1998 American Embassy bombing American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 73 2003 133 140
113. B. Pfefferbaum, C.S. North, D.E. Doughty, R.L. Pfefferbaum, C.E. Dumont, R.S. Pynoos, D. Ndetei Trauma, grief, and depression in Nairobi children after the 1998 bombing of the American Embassy Death Studies 30 2006 561 577
114. B. Pfefferbaum, G.M. Sconzo, B.W. Flynn, L.J. Kearns, D.E. Doughty, R.H. Gurwitch, S. Nawaz Case finding and mental health services for children in the aftermath of the Oklahoma City bombing Journal of Behavioral Health Services and Research 30 2003 215 227
115. B. Pfefferbaum, T.W. Seale, N.B. McDonald, E.N. Brandt Jr., S.M. Rainwater, B.T. Maynard, P.D. Miller Posttraumatic stress two years after the Oklahoma City bombing in youths geographically distant from the explosion Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes 63 2000 358 370
116. B. Pfefferbaum, J. Stuber, S. Galea, G. Fairbrother Panic reactions to terrorist attacks and probable posttraumatic stress disorder in adolescents Journal of Traumatic Stress 19 2006 217 228
117. A.A. Pina, I.K. Villalta, C.D. Ortiz, A.C. Gottschall, N.M. Costa, C.F. Weems Social support, discrimination, and coping as predictors of posttraumatic stress reactions in youth survivors of Hurricane Katrina Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 37 2008 564 574
118. M.J. Prinstein, A.M. La Greca, E.M. Vernberg, W.K. Silverman Children's coping assistance: How parents, teachers, and friends help children cope after a natural disaster Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 25 1996 463 475
119. L. Proctor, A. Fauchier, P.H. Oliver, M.C. Ramos, M.A. Rios, G. Margolin Family context and young children's responses to earthquakes Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 48 2007 941 949
120. L.G. Pullins, S.L. McCammon, A.S. Lamson, K.L. Wuensch, L. Mega School-based post-flood screening and evaluation: Findings and challenges in one community Stress, Trauma and Crisis: An International Journal 8 2005 229 249
121. R. Pynoos, C. Frederick, K. Nader, W. Arroyo, A. Steinberg, S. Eth, L. Fairbanks Life threat and posttraumatic stress in school-age children Archives of General Psychiatry 44 1987 1057 1063
122. R. Pynoos, A. Goenjian, M. Tashjian, M. Karakashian, R. Manjikian, G. Manoukian, L.A. Fairbanks Post-traumatic stress reactions in children after the 1988 Armenian earthquake British Journal of Psychiatry 163 1993 239 247
123. R.S. Pynoos, K. Nader, C. Frederick, L. Gonda, M. Stuber Grief reactions in school age children following a sniper attack at school Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences 24 1987 53 63
124. R. Rosenthal The "file-drawer problem" and tolerance for null results Psychological Bulletin 86 1979 638 641
125. R. Rosenthal Meta-analytic procedures for social research L. Bickman D.J. Rog Applied Social Research Methods Series 6 1984 Sage Beverly Hills, CA 1 148
126. R. Rosenthal Meta-analytic procedures for social research 1991 Sage London, England
127. R. Rosenthal Writing meta-analytic reviews Psychological Bulletin 118 1995 183 192
128. R. Rosenthal, R.L. Rosnow Essentials of behavioral research: Methods and data analysis 2nd ed. 1991 McGraw Hill New York, NY
129. A. Roussos, A.K. Goenjian, A.M. Steinberg, C. Sotiropoulou, M. Kakaki, C. Kabakos, V. Manouras Posttraumatic stress and depressive reactions among children and adolescents after the 1999 earthquake in Ano Liosia, Greece American Journal of Psychiatry 162 2005 530 537
130. A.V. Rubonis, L. Bickman Psychological impairment in the wake of disaster: The disaster-psychopathology relationship Psychological Bulletin 109 1991 384 399
131. C.V. Russoniello, T.K. Skalko, K. O'Brien, S.A. McGhee, D. Bingham-Alexander, J. Beatley Childhood posttraumatic stress disorder and efforts to cope after Hurricane Floyd Behavioral Medicine 28 2002 61 70
132. N.H. Sahin, A.D. Batigün, B. Yilmaz Psychological symptoms of Turkish children and adolescents after the 1999 earthquake: Exposure, gender, location, and time duration Journal of Traumatic Stress 20 2007 335 345
133. C.F. Saylor, B.L. Cowart, J.A. Lipovsky, C. Jackson, A.J. Finch Media exposure to September 11: Elementary school students' experiences and posttraumatic symptoms American Behavioral Scientist 46 2003 1622 1642
134. M.S. Scheeringa, C.H. Zeanah Reconsideration of harm's way: Onsets and comorbidity patterns of disorders in preschool children and their caregivers following Hurricane Katrina Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 37 2008 508 518
135. F.L. Schmidt, J.E. Hunter Comparison of three meta-analysis methods revisited: An analysis of Johnson, Mullen, and Salas (1995) Journal of Applied Psychology 84 1999 144 148
136. M.A. Schuster, B.D. Stein, L.H. Jaycox, R.L. Collins, G.N. Marshall, M.N. Elliott, S.H. Berry A national survey of stress reactions after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks New England Journal of Medicine 345 2001 1507 1512
137. E.D. Schwarz, J.M. Kowalski Malignant memories: PTSD in children and adults after a school shooting Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 30 1991 936 944
138. W. Scott, J. Dua Development of a scale to assess posttraumatic stress disorder International Journal of Stress Management 6 1999 149 165
139. S. Scrimin, G. Axia, F. Capello, U. Moscardino, A.M. Steinberg, R.S. Pynoos Posttraumatic reactions among injured children and their caregivers 3 months after the terrorist attack in Beslan Psychiatry Research 141 2006 333 336
140. M.P. Shannon, C.J. Lonigan, A.J. Finch, C.M. Taylor Children exposed to disaster: I. Epidemiology of post-traumatic symptoms and symptom profiles Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 33 1994 80 93
141. J.A. Shaw, B. Applegate, C. Schorr Twenty-one-month follow-up study of school-age children exposed to Hurricane Andrew Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 35 1996 359 364
142. J.A. Shaw, B. Applegate, S. Tanner, D. Perez, E. Rothe, A. Campo-Bowen, B.L. Lahey Psychological effects of Hurricane Andrew on an elementary school population Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 34 1995 1185 1192
143. W.K. Silverman, A.M. La Greca Children experiencing disasters: Definitions, reactions, and predictors of outcomes A.M. La Greca W.K. Silverman E.M. Vernberg M.C. Roberts Helping children cope with disasters and terrorism 2002 American Psychological Association Washington, DC 11 33
144. A.W. Spell, M.L. Kelley, J. Wang, S. Self-Brown, K.L. Davidson, A. Pellegrin, A. Baumeister The moderating effects of maternal psychopathology on children's adjustment post-Hurricane Katrina Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 37 2008 553 563
145. J. Stuber, G. Fairbrother, S. Galea, B. Pfefferbaum, M. Wilson-Genderson, D. Vlahov Determinants of counseling for children in Manhattan after the September 11 attacks Psychiatric Services 53 2002 815 822 (Pubitemid 34742762)
146. C.C. Swenson, C.F. Saylor, M.P. Powell, S.J. Stokes, K.Y. Foster, R.W. Belter Impact of a natural disaster on preschool children: Adjustment 14 months after a hurricane American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 66 1996 122 130
147. L.C. Terr, D.A. Bloch, B.A. Michel, H. Shi, J.A. Reinhardt, S. Metayer Children's thinking in the wake of Challenger American Journal of Psychiatry 154 1997 744 751
148. L.C. Terr, D.A. Bloch, B.A. Michel, H. Shi, J.A. Reinhardt, S. Metayer Children's symptoms in the wake of Challenger: A field study of distant-traumatic effects and an outline of related conditions American Journal of Psychiatry 156 1999 1536 1544
149. W. Thienkura, B.L. Cardozo, M.L.S. Chakkraband, T.E. Guadamuz, W. Pengjuntr, P. Tantipiwatanaskul Thailand Post-Tsunami Mental Health Study Group Symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression among children in tsunami-affected areas in southern Thailand Journal of the American Medical Association 296 2006 549 559
150. D.F. Tolin, E.B. Foa Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: A quantitative review of 25 years of research Psychological Bulletin 132 2006 959 992
151. P. Valent Disaster syndrome G. Fink Encyclopedia of stress 1 2000 Academic Press San Diego, CA 706 709
152. E.M. Vernberg, A.M. La Greca, W.K. Silverman, M.J. Prinstein Prediction of posttraumatic stress symptoms in children after Hurricane Andrew Journal of Abnormal Psychology 105 1996 237 248
153. E.M. Vernberg, R.E. Varela Posttraumatic stress disorder: A developmental perspective M.W. Vasey M.R. Dadds The developmental psychopathology of anxiety 2001 Oxford University Press New York, NY 386 406
154. L. Vijayakumar, G.K. Kannan, S.J. Daniel Mental health status in children exposed to Tsunami International Review of Psychiatry 18 2006 507 513
155. G. Vila, L. Porche, M. Mouren-Simeoni An 18-month longitudinal study of posttraumatic disorders in children who were taken hostage in their school Psychosomatic Medicine 61 1999 746 754
156. G. Vila, P. Witowski, M.C. Tondini, F. Perez-Diaz, M.C. Mouren-Simeoni, R. Jouvent A study of posttraumatic disorders in children who experienced an industrial disaster in the Briey region European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 10 2001 10 18
157. J.M. Vogel, E.M. Vernberg Children's psychological responses to disaster Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 22 1993 464 484
158. C.F. Weems Hurricane Katrina and the need for changes in the federal funding of disaster mental health American Journal of Disaster Medicine 5 2010 57 59
159. C.F. Weems, S. Overstreet Child and adolescent mental health research in the context of Hurricane Katrina: An ecological-needs-based perspective and introduction to the special section Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 37 2008 487 494
160. C.F. Weems, A.A. Pina, N.M. Costa, S.E. Watts, L.K. Taylor, M.F. Cannon Predisaster trait anxiety and negative affect predict posttraumatic stress in youths after Hurricane Katrina Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 75 2007 154 159
161. C.F. Weems, L.K. Taylor, M.F. Cannon, R.C. Marino, D.M. Romano, B.G. Scott, V. Triplett Post-traumatic stress, context, and the lingering effects of
162. C.F. Weems, S.E. Watts, M.A. Marsee, L.K. Taylor, N.M. Costa, M.F. Cannon, A.A. Pina The psychological impact of Hurricane Katrina: Contextual differences in psychological symptoms, social support, and discrimination Behaviour Research and Therapy 45 2007 2295 2306
163. C.K. Whalen, B. Henker, P.S. King, L.D. Jamner, L. Levine Adolescents react to the events of September 11, 2001: Focused versus ambient impact Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 32 2004 1 11
164. K.A.S. Wickrama, V. Kaspar Family context of mental health risk in Tsunami-exposed adolescents: Findings from a pilot study in Sri Lanka Social Science & Medicine 64 2007 713 723
165. L. Wolmer, N. Laor, C. Dedeoglu, J. Siev, Y. Yazgan Teacher-mediated intervention after disaster: A controlled three-year follow-up of children's functioning Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 46 2005 1161 1168
166. R. Yehuda Biological factors associated with susceptibility to posttraumatic stress disorder Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 44 1999 34 39
167. W. Yule, D. Bolton, O. Udwin, S. Boyle, D. O'Ryan, J. Nurrish The long-term psychological effects of a disaster experienced in adolescence: I. The incidence and course of PTSD Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 41 2000 503 512