The psychology of ongoing threat: Relative risk appraisal, the September 11 attacks, and terrorism-related fears.

American Psychologist

Volumn 62, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 304-316

  Marshall, Randall D ^a   Bryant, Richard A ^b   Amsel, Lawrence ^a   Suh, Eun Jung ^a   Cook, Joan M ^a   Neria, Yuval ^a  

^a NEW YORK STATE PSYCHIATRIC INSTITUTE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

Author keywords

Fear; PTSD; Resilience; Risk appraisal; September 11, 2001; Terrorism

Indexed keywords

ANXIETY DISORDER; FEAR; HUMAN; METHODOLOGY; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL; PSYCHOLOGY; REVIEW; RISK; TERRORISM;

ANXIETY DISORDERS; FEAR; HUMANS; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; PSYCHOLOGY; RISK; SEPTEMBER 11 TERRORIST ATTACKS; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC; TERRORISM;

EID: 34249095374     PISSN: 0003066X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.304     Document Type: Review

References (76)

1. Ahern, J., Galea, S., Resnick, H., Kilpatrick, D., Bucuvalas, M., Gold, J., & Vlahov, D. (2002). Television images and psychological symptoms after the September 11 terrorist attacks. Psychiatry, 65, 289-300.
2. American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
3. Andrew, B., Brewin, C. R., Rose, S., & Kirk, M. (2000). Predicting PTSD symptoms in victims of violent crime: The role of shame, anger, and childhood abuse. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 69-73.
4. Barsky, A. J., & Ahern, D. K. (2004). Cognitive behavior therapy for hypochondriasis: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 291, 1464-1470.
5. Blanchard, E. B., Jones-Alexander, J., Buckley, T. C., & Forneris, C. A. (1996). Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist (PCL). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 669-673.
6. Bleich, A., Gelkopf, M., & Solomon, Z. (2003). Exposure to terrorism, stress-related mental health symptoms, and coping behaviors among a nationally representative sample in Israel. JAMA, 290, 612-620.
7. Bonanno, G. A. (2005). Resilience in the face of potential trauma. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 135-138.
8. Borkovec, T. D., & Ruscio, A. M. (2001). Psychotherapy for generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62, 37-42.
9. Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Rose, S. (2000). Fear, helplessness, and horror in posttraumatic stress disorder: Investigating DSM-IV Criterion A2 in victims of violent crime. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 499-509.
10. Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Office of Airline Information, (n.d.). Annual. Retrieved March 7, 2007, from http://www.bts.gov/ programs/ airline_information/air_canier_traffic_statistics/airtraffic/annual/ 1981-2001.html
11. Cannon, W. B. (1929). Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear and rage: An account of recent researches into the function of emotional excitement (2nd ed.). New York: Appleton.
12. Carlier, I. V. E., Lamberts, R. D., & Gersons, B. P. (2000). The dimensionality of trauma: A multidimensional scaling comparison of police officers with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Research, 97, 29-39.
13. Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a Stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54, 805-816.
14. Comas-Diaz, L. (2000). An ethnopolitical approach to working with people of color. American Psychologist, 55, 1319-1325.
15. Creamer, M., McFarlane, A. C., & Burgess, P. (2005). Psychopathology following trauma: The role of subjective experience. Journal of Affective Disorders, 86, 175-182.
16. Delahanty, D. L., Herberman, H. B., Craig, K. J., Hayward, M. C., Fullerton, C. S., Ursano, R. J., & Baum, A. (1997). Acute and chronic distress and posttraumatic stress disorder as a function of responsibility for serious motor vehicle accidents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 560-567.
17. Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 319-345.
18. Ehlers, A., Mayou, R. A., & Bryant, B. (1998). Psychological predictors of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 508-519.
19. Engelhard, I. M., Van den Hout, M. A., Arntz, A., & McNally, R. J. (2002). A longitudinal study of "intrusion-based reasoning" and posttraumatic stress disorder after exposure to a train disaster. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 1415-1424.
20. Fischhoff, B., de Brin, W. B., Perrin, W., & Downs, J. (2004). Travel risks in a time of terror: Judgments and choices. Risk Analysis, 24, 1301- 1309.
21. Foa, E. B., Franklin, M. E., Perry, K. J., & Herbert, J. D. (1996). Cognitive biases in generalized social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 433-439.
22. Foa, E. B., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1998). Treating the trauma of rape. New York: Guilford Press.
23. Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Gruen, R. J., & DeLongis, A. (1986). Appraisal, coping, health status, and psychological symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 571-579.
24. Galea, S., Ahern, J., Resnick, H., Kilpatrick, D., Bucuvalas, M., Gold, J., & Vlahov, D. (2002, March 28). Psychological sequelae of the Sep-tember 11 terrorist attacks in New York City. New England Journal of Medicine, 346, 982-987.
25. Galea, S., & Resnick, H. (2005). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the general population after mass terrorist incidents: Considerations about the nature of exposure. CNN Spectrums, 10, 107-115.
26. Ginsburg, K. R., Alexander, P. M., Hunt, M., Sullivan, M., Zhao, H., & Cnaan, A. (2002). Enhancing their likelihood for a positive future: The perspective of inner-city youth. Pediatrics, 109, 1136-1142.
27. Harvey, A. G., Bryant, R. A., & Tarrier, N. (2003). Cognitive behaviour therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 23, 501-522.
28. Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., Nelson, C. B., & Breslau, N. (1999). Epidemiological risk factors for trauma and PTSD. In R. Yehuda (Ed.), Risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder (pp. 23-60). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
29. Kolb, L. C. (1987). A neuropsychological hypothesis explaining posttraumatic stress disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 989-995.
30. Lerner, J. S., & Keltner, D. (2000). Beyond valence: Toward a model of emotion-specific influences on judgment and choice. Cognition & Emo-tion, 14, 473-493.
31. Lerner, J. S., & Keltner, D. (2001). Fear, anger, and risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 146-159.
32. Lester, W. (2004, September 9). Fears, searing memories of 9/11 linger. Retrieved March 7, 2007, from the Associated Press Archive: nl. newsbank.com/sites/apab
33. Lichtenstein, S., Slovic, P., Fischhoff, B., Layman, M., & Combs, B. (1978). Judged frequency of lethal events. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 4, 551-578.
34. Lindy, J. D., & Lindy, D. C. (2004). Counter-transference and disaster psychiatry: From Buffalo Creek to 9/11. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 27, 571-587.
35. Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 267-286.
36. March, J. S. (2003). Acute stress disorder in youth: A multivariate prediction model. Biological Psychiatry, 53, 809-816.
37. Marshall, R. D., Amsel, L., Neria, Y., & Suh, E. J. (2006). Strategies for dissemination of evidence-based treatments: Training clinicians after large-scale disasters. In F. H. Norris, S. Galea, M. J. Friedman, & P. J. Watson (Eds.), Methods for disaster mental health research (pp. 226- 242). New York: Guilford Press.
38. Marshall, R. D., & Klein, D. F. (1999). Diagnostic classification of anxiety disorders: Historical context and implications for neurobiology. In D. S. Charney, E. J. Nestler, & B. S. Bunney (Eds.), Neurobiology of mental illness (pp. 437-450). New York: Oxford University Press.
39. Marshall, R. D., Posner, K., & Greenhill, L. (2006). Risk perception research and the black box warning for SSRIs in children [Letter to the editor]. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 765.
40. Marshall, R. D., & Suh, E. J. (2003). Contextualizing trauma: Using evidence-based treatments in a multicultural community after 9/11. Psychiatric Quarterly, 74, 401-420.
41. McNally, R. J., Hornig, C. D., Otto, M. W., & Pollack, M. H. (1997). Selective encoding of threat in panic disorder: Application of a dual priming paradigm. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 543-549.
42. Neria, Y., Gross, R., Litz, B., Insel, B., Maguen, S., Seirmarco, G., et al. (in press). Prevalence and psychological correlates of complicated grief among bereaved adults 2.5-3.5 years after the 9/11 attacks. Journal of Traumatic Stress,
43. Neria, Y., Gross, R., Olfson, M., Gameroff, M., Wickramaratne, P., Das, A., et al. (2006). Posttraumatic stress disorder in primary care one year after the 9/11 attacks. General Hospital Psychiatry, 28, 213-222.
44. Neria, Y., Roe, D., Beit-Hallahmi, B., Mneimneh, H., Balaban, A., & Marshall, R. (2005). The Al Qaeda 9/11 instructions: A study in the construction of religious martyrdom. Religion, 35, 1-11.
45. Nixon, R. D., & Bryant, R. A. (2005). Induced arousal and reexperiencing in acute stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 19, 587-594.
46. North, C. S., & Pfefferbaum, B. (2002). Research on the mental health effects of terrorism. JAMA, 288, 633-636.
47. Pfefferbaum, B., Pfefferbaum, R. L., North, C. S., & Neas, B. R. (2002). Does television viewing satisfy criteria for exposure in posttraumatic stress disorder? Psychiatry, 65, 306-309.
48. Rogers, J. (2003, May 27-June 2). Downtown favors West St. tunnel, poll says. Downtown Express: The Newspaper of Lower Manhattan. (Available at http://www.downtownexpress.com/DE_05/downtownfavors. html)
49. Ropeik, D. (2004). The consequences of fear. European Molecular Biology Organization Reports, 5, S56-S60.
50. Rubin, G. J., Brewin, C. R., Greenberg, N., Simpson, J., & Wessely, S. (2005). Psychological and behavioural reactions to the bombings in London on 7 July 2005: Cross sectional survey of a representative sample of Londoners. British Medical Journal, 331, 606.
51. Salkovskis, P. M., Warwick, H. M. C., & Deale, A. C. (2003). Cognitive-behavioral treatment for severe and persistent health anxiety. Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 3, 353-367.
52. Schlenger, W. E., Caddell, J. M., Ebert, L., Jordan, B. K., Rourke, K. M., Wilson, D., et al. (2002). Psychological reactions to terrorist attacks: Findings from the national study of Americans' reactions to September 11. JAMA, 288, 581-588.
53. Schuster, M. A., Stein, B. D., Jaycox, L. H., Collins, R. I., Marshall, G. N., Elliot, M. N., et al. (2001, November 15). A national survey of stress reactions after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. New England Journal of Medicine, 345, 1507-1512.
54. Schwarz, J. (2002, September 8). Americans adapt to life after terrorist attacks. Retrieved March 7, 2007, from the Associated Press Archive: nl.newsbank.com/sites/apab
55. Silver, R. C., Holman, E. A., McIntosh, D. M., Poulin, M., & Gil-Rivas, V. (2002). Nationwide longitudinal study of psychological responses to September 11. JAMA, 288, 1235-1244.
56. Sjoberg, L. (2000). Factors in risk perception. Risk Analysis, 20, 1-11.
57. Slovic, P. (1987, April 17). Perception of risk. Science, 236, 280-285.
58. Slovic, P. (1993). Perceived risk, trust and democracy. Risk Analysis, 13, 675-682.
59. Slovic, P., Finucane, M. L., Peters, E., & MacGregor, D. G. (2004). Risks as analysis and risk as feelings: Some thoughts about affect, reason, risk, and rationality. Risk Analysis, 24, 311-321.
60. Slovic, P., MacGregor, D., & Kraus, N. N. (1987). Perception of risk from automobile safety defects. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 19, 359-373.
61. Smith, K., & Bryant, R. A. (2000). The generality of cognitive bias in acute stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 709-715.
62. Sowby, F. D. (1965). Radiation and other risks. Health Physics, 11, 879-887.
63. Starr, C. (1969, September 19). Social benefit versus technological risk. Science, 165, 1232-1238.
64. Susser, E. S., Herman, D. B., & Aaron, B. (2002, August). Combating the terror of terrorism. Scientific American, 70-77.
65. Swahn, M. H., Mahendra, R. R., Paulozzi, L. J., Winston, R. L., Shelley, G. A., Taliano, J., & Frazier, L. (2003). Violent attacks on Middle Easterners in the United States during the month following the September 1, 2001 terrorist attacks. Injury Prevention, 9, 187-189.
66. Torabi, M. R., & Seo, D. C. (2004). National study of behavioral and life changes since September 11. Health Education Behavior, 31, 179-192.
67. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974, September 24). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185, 1124-1131.
68. U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division. (2002). Time series of national population estimates (Table NA-EST2002-01). Retrieved March 5, 2007, from the Vintage 2002 archive: http://www.census.gov/popest/ archives/2000s/vintage_2002/ NA-EST2002-01.html
69. Walitzer, K. S., Dermen, K. H., & Conners, G. J. (1999). Strategies for preparing clients for treatment: A review. Behavior Modification, 23, 129-151.
70. Warda, G., & Bryant, R. A. (1998). Cognitive bias in acute stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 1177-1183.
71. Weathers, F. W., Keane, T. M., & Davidson, J. R. T. (2001). The Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale: A review of the first ten years of research. Depression and Anxiety, 13, 132-156.
72. Weed, J. A. (Ed.). (2003, November 7). National Vital Statistics Reports, 52(9). Retrieved March 5, 2007, from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/ nvsr/nvsr52/nvsr52_09.pdf
73. Weiss, D. S., & Marmar, C. R. (1997). The Impact of Event Scale-Revised. In J. P. Wilson & T. M. Keane (Eds.), Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD (pp. 399-411). New York: Guilford Press.
74. Weissman, M. M., Neria, Y., Das, A., Feder, A., Blanco, C., Lantigua, R., et al. (2005). Gender differences in posttraumatic stress disorder among primary care patients after the World Trade Center attack of September 11, 2001. Gender Medicine, 2, 76-87.
75. Yehuda, R. (2002, January 10). Post-traumatic stress disorder. New England Journal of Medicine, 346, 108-114.
76. Zajonc, R. B. (1980). Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences. American Psychologist, 35, 151-175.