Light-absorbing impurities in Arctic snow

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Volumn 10, Issue 23, 2010, Pages 11647-11680

  Doherty, S J ^a   Warren, S G ^b   Grenfell, T C ^b   Clarke, A D ^c   Brandt, R E ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ABSORPTION; ALBEDO; ARCTIC ENVIRONMENT; BLACK CARBON; SEA ICE; SNOW; SOLAR RADIATION;

ALASKA; ARCTIC; ARCTIC OCEAN; CANADA; GREENLAND; NORWAY; RUSSIAN FEDERATION; SVALBARD; SVALBARD AND JAN MAYEN; UNITED STATES;

EID: 78650018369     PISSN: 16807316     EISSN: 16807324     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/acp-10-11647-2010     Document Type: Article

References (107)

1. Aleksandrov, Ye. I., Bryazgin, N. N., Førland, E. J., Radionov, V. F., and Svyashchennikov, P. N.: Seasonal, interannual and long-term variability of precipitation and snow depth in the region of the Barents and Kara seas, Polar Res., 24, 69-85, 2005.
2. Alfaro, S. C., Lafon, S., Rajot, L., Formenti, P., Gaudichet, A., and Maille, M.: Iron oxides and light absorption by pure desert dust: An experimental study, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D08208, doi:10.1029/2003JD004374, 2004. (Pubitemid 38893010)
3. Bergstrom, R. W., Russell, P. B., and Hignett, P. Wavelength dependence of the absorption of black carbon particles: Predictions and results from the TARFOX experiment and implications for the aerosol single scattering albedo, J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 567-577, 2002.
4. Bergstrom, R. W., Pilewskie, P., Russell, P. B., Redemann, J., Bond, T. C., Quinn, P. K., and Sierau, B. Spectral absorption properties of atmospheric aerosols, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 5937-5943, doi:10.5194/acp-7-5937-2007, 2007. (Pubitemid 350212724)
5. Bøggild, C. E., Brandt, R. E., Brown, K. J., and Warren, S. G.: The ablation zone in northeast Greenland: Ice types, albedos, and impurities, J. Glaciol., 56, 101-113, 2010.
6. Bond, T.: Spectral dependence of visible light absorption by carbonaceous particles emitted from coal combustion, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 4075-4078, 2001.
7. Bond, T. C. and Bergstrom, R. W.: Light absorption by carbonaceous particles: an investigative review, Aerosol Sci. Tech., 40, 27-67, 2006.
8. Bond, T. C., Bussemer, M., Wehner, B., Keller, S., Charlson, R. J., and Heintzenberg, J.: Light absorption by primary particle emissions from a lignite burning plant, Environ. Sci. Technol., 33, 3887-3891, 1999.
9. Bond, T. C., Streets, D. G., Yarber, K. F., Nelson, S. M., Woo, J. H., and Klimont, Z. A technology-based global inventory of black and organic carbon emissions from combustion, J. Geo-phys. Res., 109, D14203, doi:10.1029/ 2003JD003697, 2004. (Pubitemid 39366556)
10. Boparai, P., Lee, J., and Bond, T. C.: Revisiting thermal-optical analyses of carbonaceous aerosol using a physical model, Aerosol Sci. Tech., 42, 930-948, 2008.
11. Brandt, R. E., Warren, S. G., and Clarke, A. D.: A controlled snow-making experiment relating black-carbon content to reduction of snow albedo, J. Geophys. Res., submitted, 2010.
12. Cachier, H. and Pertuisot, M. H.: Particulate carbon in Arctic ice, Analusis Magazine, 22, 34-37, 1994.
13. Cess, R. D.: Arctic aerosols: Model estimates of interactive influences upon the surface-atmosphere clear-sky radiation budget, Atmos. Environ., 17, 2555-2564, 1983.
14. Chen, Y. and Bond, T. C.: Light absorption by organic carbon from wood combustion, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 1773-1787, doi:10.5194/acp-10-1773-2010, 2010.
15. Chýlek, P., Johnson, B., and Wu, H.: Black carbon concentration in a Greenland Dye-3 ice core, Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 1951-1953, 1992.
16. Chýlek, P., Johnson, B., Damiano, P. A., Taylor, K. C., and Clement, P.: Biomass burning record and black carbon in the GISP2 ice core, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 89-92, 1995.
17. Clarke, A. D.: Integrating sandwich: a new method of measurement of the light absorption coefficient for atmospheric particles, Appl. Optics, 21, 3011-3020, 1982.
18. Clarke, A. D. and Noone, K. J.: Soot in the Arctic snowpack: A cause for perturbations in radiative transfer, Atmos. Environ., 19, 2045-2053, 1985.
19. Clarke, A. D., Noone, K. J., Heintzenberg, J., Warren, S. G., and Covert, D. S.: Aerosol light absorption measurement techniques: analysis and intercomparisons, Atmos. Environ., 21, 1455-1465, 1987.
20. Clarke, A. D., Shinozuka, Y., Kapustin, V. N., Howell, S., Hue-bert, B., Doherty, S., Anderson, T., Covert, D., Anderson, J., Hua, X., Moore II, K. G., McNaughton, C., Carmichael, G., and Weber, R.: Size distributions and mixtures of dust and black carbon aerosol in Asian outflow: Physiochem-istry and optical properties, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D15S09, doi:10.1029/2003JD004378, 2004. (Pubitemid 39408322)
21. Clarke, A., McNaughton, C., Kapustin, V., Shinozuka, Y., Howell, S., Dibb, J., Zhou, J., Anderson, B., Brekhovskikh, V., Turner, H., and Pinkerton, M.: Biomass burning and pollution aerosol over North America: Organic components and their influence on spectral optical properties and humidification response, J. Geo-phys. Res., 112, D12S18, doi:10.1029/2006JD007777, 2007. (Pubitemid 47241672)
22. Cross, E. S., Onasch, T. B., Ahern, A., Wrobel, W., Slowik, J. G., Olfert, J., Lack, D. A., Massoli, P., Cappa, C. D., Schwartz, J., Spackman, R., Fahey, D. W., Sedlacek, A., Trimborn, A., Jayne, J. T., Freedman, A., Williams, L. R., Ng, N. L., Mazzoleni, C., Dubey, M., Brem, B., Kok, G., Subramanian, R., Freitag, S. Clarke, A., Thornhill, D., Marr, L., Kolb, C. E., Worsnop, D. R., and Davidovits P.: Soot particle studies - instrument intercom-parison - project overview, Aerosol Sci. Technol., 44(8), 592- 611, 2010.
23. Eicken, H.: The role of Arctic sea ice in transporting and cycling terrestrial organic matter, in: The Organic Carbon Cycle in the Arctic Ocean: Present and Past, edited by: Stein, R. and Mac-donald, R. W., Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 45-53, 2003.
24. Eicken, H., Gradinger, R., Graves, A., Mahoney, A., and Rigor, I.: Sediment transport by sea ice in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas: Increasing importance due to changing ice conditions?, Deep-Sea Res. II, 52, 3281-3302, 2005.
25. Eleftheriadis, K., Vratolis, S., and Nyeki, S.: Aerosol black carbon in the European Arctic: measurements at Zeppelin station, Ny-A? lesund, Svalbard from 1998-2007, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L02809, doi:10.1029/2008GL035741, 2009.
26. Fialho, P., Hansen, A. D. A., and Honrath, R. E.: Absorption coefficients by aerosols in remote areas: A new approach to decouple dust and black carbon absorption coefficients using seven wavelength Aethalometer data, J. Aerosol Sci., 36(2), 267-282, 2005.
27. Fialho, P., Freitas, M. C., Barata, F., Vieira, B., Hansen, A. D. A., and Honrath, R. E.: The Aethalometer calibration and determination of iron concentration in dust aerosols, J. Aerosol Sci., 37(11), 1497-1506, 2006.
28. Flanner, M. G. and Zender, C. S.: Linking snowpack micro-physics and albedo evolution, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D12208, doi:10.1029/2005JD006834, 2006. (Pubitemid 44687632)
29. Flanner, M. G., Zender, C. S., Randerson, J. T., and Rasch, P. J.: Present-day climate forcing and response from black carbon in snow, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D11202, doi:10.1029/2006JD008003, 2007. (Pubitemid 47288010)
30. Flanner, M. G., Zender, C. S., Hess, P. G., Mahowald, N. M., Painter, T. H., Ramanathan, V., and Rasch, P. J.: Springtime warming and reduced snow cover from carbonaceous particles, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 2481-2497, doi:10.5194/acp-9-2481-2009, 2009.
31. Forsström, S., Ström, J., Pedersen, C. A., Isaksson, E., and Gerland, S.: Elemental carbon distribution in Svalbard snow, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D19112, doi:10.1029/2008JD011480, 2009.
32. Frey, K., Eicken, H., Perovich, D. K., Grenfell, T. C., Light, B., Shapiro, L. H., and Stierle, A. P.: Heat budget and decay of clean and sediment-laden sea ice off the northern coast of Alaska, POAC'01 Conference, Ottawa, August, 2001.
33. Gong, S. L., Zhao, T. L., Sharma, S., Toom-Sauntry, D., Lavoue, D., Zhang, X. B., Leaitch, R., and Barrie, L. A.: Identification of trends and inter-annual variability of sulphate and black carbon in the Canadian High Arctic: 1981 to 2007, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D07305, doi:10.1029/2009JD012943, 2010.
34. Grenfell, T. C. and Maykut, G. A.: The optical properties of ice and snow in the Arctic Basin, J. Glaciol., 18, 445-463, 1977.
35. Grenfell, T. C. and Perovich, D. K.: The seasonal and spatial evolution of albedo in a snow-ice-land-ocean environment, J. Geophys. Res., 109(C1), C01001,doi: 10.1029/2003JC001866, 2004.
36. Grenfell, T. C. and Warren, S. G.: Representation of a nonspherical ice particle by a collection of independent spheres for scattering and absorption of radiation, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 31697-31709, 1999.
37. Grenfell, T. C., Warren, S. G., and Mullen, P. C.: Reflection of solar radiation by the Antarctic snow surface at ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared wavelengths, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 18669-18684, 1994.
38. Grenfell, T. C., Light, B., and Sturm, M.: Spatial distribution and radiative effects of soot in the snow and sea ice during the SHEBA experiment, J. Geophys. Res., 107(C10), 8032, doi:10.1029/2000JC000414, 2002.
39. Grenfell, T. C., Warren, S. G., Radionov, V. F., Makarov, V. N., and Zimov, S. A.: IPY expeditions to the Russian Arctic to survey light-absorbing carbon in snow, EOS, 90, 386-387, 2009.
40. ∼sgw/ PAPERS/ 2010 ISSW Appl Opt submitted.pdf, 2010.
41. Gyawali, M., Arnott, W. P., Lewis, K., and Moosmüller, H.: In situ aerosol optics in Reno, NV, USA during and after the summer 2008 California wildfires and the influence of absorbing and non-absorbing organic coatings on spectral light absorption, At-mos. Chem. Phys., 9, 8007-8015, doi:10.5194/acp-9-8007-2009, 2009.
42. Hagler, G. S. W., Bergin, M. H., Smith, E. A., and Dibb, J. E.: A summer time series of particulate carbon in the air and snow at Summit, Greenland, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D21309, doi:10.1029/2007JD008993, 2007a.
43. Hagler, G. S. W., Bergin, M. H., Smith, E. A., Dibb, J. E., Anderson, C., and Steig, E. J.: Particulate and water-soluble carbon measured in recent snow at Summit, Greenland, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L16505, doi:10.1029/2007GL030110, 2007b. (Pubitemid 350065337)
44. Hansen, J. and Nazarenko, L.: Soot climate forcing via snow and ice albedos, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 101, 423-428, 2004.
45. Hansen, J., Sato, M., Ruedy, R., Nazarenko, L., Lacis, A., Schmidt, G. A., Russell, G., Aleinov, I., Bauer, M., Bauer, S., Bell, N., Cairns, B., Canuto, V., Chandler, M., Cheng, Y., Del Genio, A., Faluvegi, G., Fleming, E., Friend, A., Hall, T., Jackman, C., Kel-ley, M., Kiang, N., Koch, D., Lean, J., Lerner, J., Lo, K., Menon, S., Miller, R., Minnis, P., Novakov, T., Oinas, V., Perlwitz, Ja., Perlwitz, Ju., Rind, D., Romanou, A., Shindell, D., Stone, P., Sun, S., Tausnev, N., Thresher, D., Wielicki, B., Wong, T., Yao, M., and Zhang, S.: Efficacy of climate forcings, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D18104, doi:10.1029/2005JD005776, 2005. (Pubitemid 41594440)
46. Harder, S. L., Warren, S. G., Charlson, R. J., and Covert, D. S.: Filtering of air through snow as a mechanism for aerosol deposition to the Antarctic ice sheet, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 18729-18743, 1996.
47. Hegg, D. A., Warren, S. G., Grenfell, T. C., Doherty, S. J., Larson, T. V., and Clarke, A. D.: Source attribution of black carbon in arctic snow, Environ. Sci. Technol., 43, 4016-4021, 2009.
48. Hegg, Dean, A., Warren, Stephen G., Grenfell, Thomas C., Doherty, S. J., and Clarke, A. D.: Sources of light-absorbing aerosol in arctic snow and their seasonal variation, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 10923-10938, doi:10.5194/acp-10- 10923-2010, 2010.
49. Hoffer, A., Gelencsér, A., Guyon, P., Kiss, G., Schmid, O., Frank, G. P., Artaxo, P., and Andreae, M. O.: Optical properties of humic-like substances (HULIS) in biomass-burning aerosols, At-mos. Chem. Phys., 6, 3563-3570, doi:10.5194/acp-6-3563-2006, 2006.
50. Huang, J., Fu, Q., Zhang, W., Wang, X., Zhang, R., Ye, H., and Warren, S.: Dust and black carbon in seasonal snow across northern China, B. Am. Meteor. Soc., in press, 2011.
51. Ivanov, B.: Contamination of sea ice and related albedo estimates, Ice and Climate News (CliC International Project Office), 6, 11-13, 2005.
52. Jacobson, M. Z.: Climate response of fossil fuel and bio-fuel soot, accounting for soot's feedback to snow and sea ice albedo and emissivity, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D21201, doi:10.1029/2004JD004945, 2004. (Pubitemid 40191160)
53. Kirchstetter, T. W., Novakov, T., and Hobbs, P. V.: Evidence that the spectral dependence of light absorption by aerosols is affected by organic carbon, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D21208, doi:10.1029/2004JD004999, 2004. (Pubitemid 40191167)
54. Koch, D. and Hansen, J.: Distant origins of Arctic black carbon: A Goddard Institute for Space Studies ModelE experiment, J. Geo-phys. Res., 110, D042404, doi:10.1029/2004JD005296, 2005. (Pubitemid 40599447)
55. Koch, D., Menon, S., DelGenio, A., Ruedy, R., Alienov, I., and Schmidt, G. A.: Distinguishing aerosol impacts on climate over the past century, J. Climate, 22, 2659-2677, doi:10.1175/2008JCLI2573.1, 2009.
56. Kopanev, I. D. and Lipovskaya, V. I.: Distribution of snow depth in the USSR, CRREL Draft Translation 687, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, NH, 15 pp., 1978.
57. LaChapelle, E. R.: Field Guide to Snow Crystals, University of Washington Press, Seattle, 1969.
58. Lack, D. A. and Cappa, C. D.: Impact of brown and clear carbon on light absorption enhancement, single scatter albedo and absorption wavelength dependence of black carbon, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 4207-4220, doi:10.5194/acp-10-4207-2010, 2010.
59. Lafon, S., Sokolik, I. N., Rajot, J. L., Caquineau, S., and Gaudichet, A.: Characterization of iron oxides in mineral dust aerosols: Implications for light absorption, J. Geophys. Res., 111(D21), doi:10.1029/2005JD007016, 2006. (Pubitemid 46978601)
60. Linke, C., Möhler, O., Veres, A., Mohácsi, Á, Bozóki, Z., Szabó, G., and Schnaiter, M.: Optical properties and mineralogical composition of different Saharan mineral dust samples: a laboratory study, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 3315-3323, doi:10.5194/acp-6-3315-2006, 2006. (Pubitemid 44221574)
61. Liston, G. E.: Representing subgrid snow cover heterogeneities in regional and global models, J. Climate, 17, 1381-1397, 2004.
62. Liston, G. E. and Sturm, M.: The role of winter sublimation in the Arctic moisture budget, Nord. Hydrol., 35, 325-334, 2004.
63. Lyapustin, A., Gatebe, C. K., Kahn, R., Brandt, R., Redemann, J., Russell, P., King, M. D., Pedersen, C. A., Gerland, S., Poudyal, R., Marshak, A., Wang, Y., Schaaf, C., Hall, D., and Kokhanovsky, A.: Analysis of snow bidirectional reflectance from ARCTAS Spring-2008 Campaign, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 4359-4375, doi:10.5194/acp-10-4359-2010, 2010.
64. McConnell, J. R., Edwards, R., Kok, G. L., Flanner, M. G., Zender, C. S. Saltzman, E. S., Banta, J. R., Pasteris, D. R., Carter, M. M., and Kahl, J. D. W.: 20th century industrial black carbon emissions altered Arctic climate forcing, Science, 317, 1381-1384, doi:10.1126/science.1144856, 2007. (Pubitemid 47417476)
65. Meloni, D., di Sarra, A., Pace, G., and Monteleone, F.: Aerosol optical properties at Lampedusa (Central Mediterranean). 2. Determination of single scattering albedo at two wavelengths for different aerosol types, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 715-727, doi:10.5194/acp-6-715-2006, 2006.
66. Millikan, R. C.: Optical properties of soot, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 51, 698-699, 1961.
67. Mollicone, D., Eva, H. D., and Achard F.: Human role in Russian wildfires, Nature, 440, 436-437, 2006.
68. Morison, J. H., Aagaard, K., Falkner, K. K., Hatakeyama, K., Moritz, R., Overland, J. E., Perovich, D., Shimada, K., Steele, M., Takizawa, T., and Woodgate, R.: North Pole Environmental Observatory delivers early results, EOS, 83, 360-361, 2002.
69. Müller, T., Schladitz, A., Massling, A., Kaaden, N., Kandler, K., and Wiedensohler, A.: Spectral absorption coefficients and imaginary parts of refractive indices of Saharan dust during SAMUM-1, Tellus B, 61, 79-95, 2009.
70. Noone, K. J. and Clarke, A. D.: Soot scavenging measurement in Arctic snowfall, Atmos. Environ., 22, 2773-2778, 1988.
71. Ogren, J. A., Charlson, R. J., and Groblicki, P. J.: Determination of elemental carbon in rainwater, Anal. Chem., 55, 1569-1572, 1983.
72. Painter, T. H., Barrett, A. P., Landry, C. C., Neff, J. C., Cassidy, M. P., Lawrence, C. R., McBride, K. E., and Farmer, G. L.: Impact of disturbed desert soils on duration of mountain snow cover, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L12502, doi:10.1029/2007GL030284, 2007. (Pubitemid 351193190)
73. Perovich, D. K., Grenfell, T. C., Light, B., and Hobbs, P. V.: The seasonal evolution of Arctic sea-ice albedo, J. Geophys. Res., 107(C10), 8044, doi:10.1029/2000JC000438, 2002.
74. Perovich, D. K., Grenfell, T. C., Light, B., Elder, B. C., Harbeck, J., Polashenski, C., Tucker III, W. B., and Stelmach, C.: Transpolar observations of the morphological properties of Arctic sea ice, J. Geophys. Res., 114, C00A04, doi:10.1029/2008JC004892, 2009.
75. Potter, J. G.: Snow cover, Climatological Studies Number 3, Canada Department of Transport, Toronto, 69 pp., 1965.
76. Quinn, P. K., Bates, T. S., Baum, E., Doubleday, N., Fiore, A. M., Flanner, M., Fridlind, A., Garrett, T. J., Koch, D., Menon, S., Shindell, D., Stohl, A., and Warren, S. G.: Short-lived pollutants in the Arctic: their climate impact and possible mitigation strategies, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 1723-1735, doi:10.5194/acp-8-1723-2008, 2008.
77. Raatz, W. and Shaw, G. E.: Long-range tropospheric transport of pollution aerosols into the Alaskan Arctic, J. Clim. Appl. Meteor., 23, 1052-1064, 1984.
78. Roden, C. H., Bond, T. C., Conway, S., and Osorto Pinel, A. B.: Emission factors and real-time optical properties of particles emitted from traditional wood burning cookstoves, Environ. Sci. Technol., 40, 6750-6757, 2006.
79. Rosen, H., Hansen, A. D. A., Gundel, L., and Novakov, T.: Identification of the optically absorbing component in urban aerosols, Appl. Optics, 17, 3859-3861, 1978.
80. Schnell, R. C.: Arctic haze and the Arctic Gas and Aerosol Sampling Program (AGASP), Geophys. Res. Lett., 11, 361-364, 1984.
81. Schnaiter, M., Horvath, H., Mohler, O., Naumann, K. H., Saathoff, H., and Schock, O. W.: UV-VIS-NIR spectral optical properties of soot and soot-containing aerosols, J. Aerosol Sci., 34, 1421-1444, 2003.
82. Schnaiter, M., Linke, M., Möhler, O., Naumann, K.-H., Saathoff, H., Wagner, R., Schurath, U., and Wehner, B.: Absorption amplification of black carbon internally mixed with secondary organic aerosol, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D19204, doi:10.1029/2005JD006046, 2005. (Pubitemid 41685039)
83. Schwerdtfeger, P. and Weller, G. E.: Radiative heat transfer processes in snow and ice, in Meteorological Studies at Plateau Station, in: Antarctica, Antarct. Res. Ser., 25, 35-39.edited by: Businger, J. A., American Geophysical Union, 1977.
84. Shapiro, E. L., Szprengiel, J., Sareen, N., Jen, C. N., Giordano, M. R., and McNeill, V. F.: Light-absorbing secondary organic material formed by glyoxal in aqueous aerosol mimics, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 2289-2300, doi:10.5194/acp-9-2289-2009, 2009.
85. Sharma, S., Lavoué, D., Cachier, H., Barrie, L. A., and Gong, S. L.: Long-term trends of the black carbon concentrations in the Canadian Arctic, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D15203, doi:10.1029/2003JD004331, 2004. (Pubitemid 39408302)
86. Sharma, S., Andrews, E., Barrie, L. A., Ogren, J. A., and Lavoué, D.: Variations and sources of the equivalent black carbon in the high Arctic revealed by long-term observations at Alert and Barrow: 1989-2003, J. Geophys. Res., 111(D14), D14208, doi:10.1029/2005JD006581, 2006. (Pubitemid 46055348)
87. Shaw, G. E: The Arctic haze phenomenon, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 76, 2403-2413, 1995.
88. Slowik, J. G., Cross, E. S., Han, J.-H., Davidovits, P., Onasch, T. B., Jayne, J. T., Williams, L. R., Canagaratna, M. R., Worsnop, D. R., Chakrabarty, R. K., Moosmüller, H., Arnott, W. P., Schwartz, J. P., Gao, R.-S., Fahey, D. W., Kok, G. L., and Petzold, A.: An inter-comparison of instruments measuring black carbon content of soot particles, Aerosol Sci. Tech., 41, 295-314, 2007.
89. Steffen, K. and Box, J. E.: Surface climatology of the Greenland ice sheet: Greenland climate network 1995-1999, J. Geophys. Res., 106(D24), 33951-33964, 2001.
90. Steffen, K., Box, J. E., and Abdalati, W.: Greenland Climate Network: GC-Net, in: Glaciers, Ice Sheets and Volcanoes, edited by: Colbeck, S. C., CRREL Special Report 96-27, 98-103, US Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, NH, USA, 1996.
91. Stroeve, J., Serreze, M., Drobot, S., Gearheard, S., Holland, M., Maslanik, J., Meier, W., and Scambos, T.: Arctic sea ice extent plummets in 2007, EOS, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 89, 13- 14, doi:10.1029/2008EO020001, 2008.
92. Sturm, M., Douglas, T., Racine, C., and Liston, G. E.: Changing snow and shrub conditions affect albedo with global implications, J. Geophys. Res., 110, G01004, doi:10.1029/2005JG000013, 2005.
93. Sturm, M., Derksen, C., Liston, G., Silis, A., Solie, D., Holmgren, J., and Huntington, H.: A Reconnaissance Snow Survey Across Northwest Territories and Nunavut, Canada, April 2007, ERDC/CRREL Technical Report TR-08-3, US Army Corps of Engineers Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, 80 pp., 2008.
94. Sun, H., Biedermann, L., and Bond, T. C.: Color of brown carbon: A model for ultraviolet and visible light absorption by organic carbon aerosol, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L17813, doi:10.1029/2007GL029797, 2007. (Pubitemid 350065294)
95. Tollefson, J.: Climate's smoky spectre, Nature, 460, 29-32, 2009.
96. Warren, S. G.: Optical properties of snow, Rev. Geophys. Space Phys., 20, 67-89, 1982.
97. Warren, S. G.: Impurities in snow: effects on albedo and snowmelt, Ann. Glaciol., 5, 177-179, 1984.
98. Warren, S. G. and Brandt, R. E.: Optical constants of ice from the ultraviolet to the microwave: A revised compilation, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D14220, doi:10.1029/2007JD009744, 2008.
99. Warren, S. G. and Clarke, A. D.: Soot from arctic haze: radiative effects on the Arctic snowpack, Glaciological Data, 18, 73-77, 1986.
100. Warren, S. G. and Clarke, A. D.: Soot in the atmosphere and snow surface of Antarctica, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 1811-1816, 1990.
101. Warren, S. G. and Wiscombe, W. J.: A model for the spectral albedo of snow, II: Snow containing atmospheric aerosols, J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 2734-2745, 1980.
102. Warren, S. G. and Wiscombe, W. J.: Dirty snow after nuclear war, Nature, 313, 467-470, 1985.
103. Warren, S. G., Rigor, I. G., Untersteiner, N., Radionov, V. F., Bryaz-gin, N. N., Aleksandrov, Ye. I., and Colony, R.: Snow depth on Arctic sea ice, J. Climate, 12, 1814-1829, 1999.
104. Warren, S. G., Brandt, R. E., and Grenfell, T. C.: Visible and near-ultraviolet absorption spectrum of ice from transmission of solar radiation into snow, Appl. Optics, 45, 5320-5334, 2006.
105. Watson, J. G., Chow, J. C., and Chen, L.-W. A.: Summary of organic and elemental carbon/black carbon analysis methods and intercomparisons, Aerosol Air Qual. Res., 5, 65-102, 2005.
106. Wiscombe, W. J. and Warren, S. G.: A model for the spectral albedo of snow, I: Pure snow, J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 2712-2733, 1980.
107. Yang, M., Howell, S. G., Zhuang, J., and Huebert, B. J.: Attribution of aerosol light absorption to black carbon, brown carbon, and dust in China - interpretations of atmospheric measurements during EAST-AIRE, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 2035-2050, doi:10.5194/acp-9-2035-2009, 2009.