Therapeutics of narcolepsy

Sleep Medicine Clinics

Volumn 5, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 659-673

  Majid, Hashir ^a   Hirshkowitz, Max ^b  

^a BAYLOR COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b MICHAEL E DEBAKEY VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Excessive sleepiness; Narcolepsy; Pharmacological treatment

Indexed keywords

4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID; 4 HYDROXYBUTYRIC ACID; AMPHETAMINE; ARMODAFINIL; ATOMOXETINE; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; CLOMIPRAMINE; DESIPRAMINE; DEXAMPHETAMINE; DOPAMINE; FLUOXETINE; FLUVOXAMINE; HISTAMINE; IMIPRAMINE; METHAMPHETAMINE; METHYLPHENIDATE; MILNACIPRAN; MODAFINIL; NORADRENALIN; OREXIN; OXYBATE SODIUM; PHENELZINE; PROTRIPTYLINE; REBOXETINE; SELEGILINE; SEROTONIN; TRANYLCYPROMINE; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; UNINDEXED DRUG; VENLAFAXINE;

BEHAVIOR DISORDER; BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION; CATAPLEXY; CHOLINERGIC SYSTEM; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONSTIPATION; DAYTIME SOMNOLENCE; DEPRESSION; DIARRHEA; DIZZINESS; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG ABUSE; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG TOLERABILITY; DRUG TOLERANCE; EJACULATION DISORDER; ENURESIS; EPILEPTIC STATE; GABAERGIC SYSTEM; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; HALLUCINATION; HEADACHE; HEART PALPITATION; HUMAN; HYPERACTIVITY; HYPERSOMNIA; HYPERTENSION; HYPERTENSIVE CRISIS; HYPNAGOGIC HALLUCINATION; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; IMPOTENCE; INSOMNIA; LATERAL HYPOTHALAMUS; LIVER FUNCTION TEST; LOCUS CERULEUS; MONOAMINERGIC SYSTEM; MOTOR DYSFUNCTION; NARCOLEPSY; NAUSEA; NERVOUSNESS; NOCTURNAL ENURESIS; NORADRENERGIC NERVE; PARASOMNIA; PERIODIC LIMB MOVEMENT DISORDER; POSITIVE END EXPIRATORY PRESSURE; PREGNANT WOMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REBOUND; REM SLEEP; REVIEW; RHINITIS; SEROTONINERGIC SYSTEM; SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION; SIDE EFFECT; SKIN TEMPERATURE; SLEEP APNEA SYNDROME; SLEEP AROUSAL DISORDER; SLEEP WAKING CYCLE; SLEEP WALKING; SOMNOLENCE; SWEATING; TACHYCARDIA; THERMOREGULATION; TREMOR; URINE RETENTION; WAKEFULNESS; XEROSTOMIA;

EID: 78649356977     PISSN: 1556407X     EISSN: 15564088     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jsmc.2010.08.007     Document Type: Review

References (173)

1. NINDS National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke [Internet]. Available at: http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/narcolepsy/detail-narcolepsy. htm Accessed March 31, 2010
2. W.T. Longstreth Jr., T.G. Ton, and T. Koepsell Prevalence of narcolepsy in King County, Washington, USA Sleep Med 10 2009 422 426
3. M.H. Silber, L.E. Krahn, and E.J. Olson The epidemiology of narcolepsy in Olmsted County, Minnesota: a population-based study Sleep 25 2002 197 202
4. W.C. Dement, V. Zarcone, and V. Varner The prevalence of narcolepsy [abstract] Sleep Res 1 1972 148
5. W.C. Dement, M.A. Carskadon, and R. Ley The prevalence of narcolepsy II [abstract] Sleep Res 2 1973 147
6. Y. Dauvilliers, J. Montplaisir, and N. Molinari Age at onset of narcolepsy in two large populations of patients in France and Quebec Neurology 57 2001 2029 2033
7. D. Hayes Jr. Narcolepsy with cataplexy in early childhood Clin Pediatr (Phila) 45 2006 361 363
8. P.C. Baier, S.L. Weinhold, and V. Huth Olfactory dysfunction in patients with narcolepsy with cataplexy is restored by intranasal Orexin A (Hypocretin-1) Brain 131 2008 2734 2741
9. M.S. Wise, D.L. Arand, and R.R. Auger Treatment of narcolepsy and other hypersomnias of central origin Sleep 30 2007 1712 1727
10. L. Vignatelli, R. D'Alessandro, and L. Candelise Antidepressant drugs for narcolepsy Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1 2008 CD003724
11. M. Tatsumi, K. Groshan, and R.D. Blakely Pharmacological profile of antidepressants and related compounds at human monoamine transporters Eur J Pharmacol 340 1997 249 258
12. P.K. Gillman Tricyclic antidepressant pharmacology and therapeutic drug interactions updated Br J Pharmacol 151 2007 737 748
13. M. Schachter, and J.D. Parkes Fluvoxamine and clomipramine in the treatment of cataplexy J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 43 1980 171 174
14. S.Y. Chen, S.J. Clift, and M.J. Dahlitz Treatment in the narcoleptic syndrome: self assessment of the action of dexamphetamine and clomipramine J Sleep Res 4 1995 113 118
15. T.I. Morgenthaler, V.K. Kapur, and T. Brown Standards of Practice Committee of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine. Practice parameters for the treatment of narcolepsy and other hypersomnias of central origin Sleep 30 2007 1705 1711
16. W.E. Clemons, E. Makela, and J. Young Concomitant use of modafinil and tranylcypromine in a patient with narcolepsy: a case report Sleep Med 5 2004 509 511
17. H.B. Gernaat, P.M. Haffmans, and H. Knegtering Tranylcypromine in narcolepsy Pharmacopsychiatry 28 1995 98 100
18. G. Mayer, K. Ewert Meier, and K. Hephata Selegeline hydrochloride treatment in narcolepsy. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study Clin Neuropharmacol 18 1995 306 319
19. S.E. Roselaar, N. Langdon, and C.B. Lock Selegiline in narcolepsy Sleep 10 1987 491 495
20. G. Aston-Jones, and F.E. Bloom Activity of norepinephrine-containing locus coeruleus neurons in behaving rats anticipates fluctuations in the sleep-waking cycle J Neurosci 1 1981 876 886
21. M.M. González, and G. Aston-Jones Circadian regulation of arousal: role of the noradrenergic locus coeruleus system and light exposure Sleep 29 2006 1327 1336
22. A. Renaud, S. Nishino, and W.C. Dement Effects of SDZ NVI-085, a putative subtype-selective alpha 1-agonist, on canine cataplexy, a disorder of rapid eye movement sleep Eur J Pharmacol 205 1991 11 16
23. E. Mignot, C. Guilleminault, and S. Bowersox Central alpha 1 adrenoceptor subtypes in narcolepsy-cataplexy: a disorder of REM sleep Brain Res 490 1989 186 191
24. M.F. Wu, S.A. Gulyani, and E. Yau Locus coeruleus neurons: cessation of activity during cataplexy Neuroscience 91 1999 1389 1399
25. M.S. Aldrich, and A.E. Rogers Exacerbation of human cataplexy by prazosin Sleep 12 3 1989 254 256
26. M.D. Cortés, J.A. Arias-Montaño, and J.R. Eguibar Prazosin increases immobility episodes in taiep rats without changes in the properties of alpha1 receptors Neurosci Lett 412 2007 159 162
27. E. Mignot, C. Guilleminault, and S. Bowersox Effect of alpha 1-adrenoceptors blockade with prazosin in canine narcolepsy Brain Res 444 1988 184 188
28. C. Guilleminault, E. Mignot, and M. Aldrich Prazosin contraindicated in patients with narcolepsy Lancet 2 1988 511
29. S. Nishino, L. Haak, and H. Shepherd Effects of central alpha-2 adrenergic compounds on canine narcolepsy, a disorder of rapid eye movement sleep J Pharmacol Exp Ther 253 1990 1145 1152
30. M.S. Aldrich, G. Prokopowicz, and K. Ockert Neurochemical studies of human narcolepsy: alpha-adrenergic receptor autoradiography of human narcoleptic brain and brainstem Sleep 17 1994 598 608
31. J.D. Miller, J. Farber, and P. Gatz Activity of mesencephalic dopamine and non-dopamine neurons across stages of sleep and walking in the rat Brain Res 273 1983 133 141
32. G.F. Steinfels, J. Heym, and R.E. Strecker Behavioral correlates of dopaminergic unit activity in freely moving cats Brain Res 258 1983 217 228
33. M.G. Feenstra, M.H. Botterblom, and S. Mastenbroek Dopamine and noradrenaline efflux in the prefrontal cortex in the light and dark period: effects of novelty and handling and comparison to the nucleus accumbens Neuroscience 100 2000 741 748
34. J.M. Monti, and D. Monti The involvement of dopamine in the modulation of sleep and waking Sleep Med Rev 11 2007 113 133
35. J.M. Monti, M. Fernandez, and H. Jantos Sleep during acute dopamine D1 agonist SKF 38393 or D1 antagonist SCH 23390 administration in rats Neuropsychopharmacology 3 1990 153 162
36. M. Trampus, N. Ferri, and A. Monopoli The dopamine D1 receptor is involved in the regulation of REM sleep in the rat Eur J Pharmacol 194 1991 189 194
37. M. Trampus, N. Ferri, and M. Adami The dopamine D1 receptor agonists, A68930 and SKF 38393, induce arousal and suppress REM sleep in the rat Eur J Pharmacol 235 1993 83 87
38. E. Ongini, E. Bonizzoni, and N. Ferri Differential effects of dopamine D-1 and D-2 receptor antagonist antipsychotics on sleep-wake patterns in the rat J Pharmacol Exp Ther 266 1993 726 731
39. T.C. Neylan, D.P. van Kammen, and M.E. Kelley Sleep in schizophrenic patients on and off haloperidol therapy. Clinically stable vs relapsed patients Arch Gen Psychiatry 49 1992 643 649
40. T. Roth, D.B. Rye, and L.D. Borchert Assessment of sleepiness and unintended sleep in Parkinson's disease patients taking dopamine agonists Sleep Med 4 2003 275 280
41. C.Y. Lu, P.L. Yi, and C.H. Tsai TNF-NF-kappaB signaling mediates excessive somnolence in hemiparkinsonian rats Behav Brain Res 208 2010 484 496
42. P. Desarkar, N. Goyal, and C.R. Khess Clozapine-induced cataplexy J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 19 2007 87 88
43. J.A. Chiles, S. Cohn, and A. McNaughton Dropping objects: possible mild cataplexy associated with clozapine J Nerv Ment Dis 178 1990 663 664
44. G.F. Koob, P.P. Sanna, and F.E. Bloom Neuroscience of addiction Neuron 21 1998 467 476
45. G.F. Koob Drugs of abuse: anatomy, pharmacology and function of reward pathways Trends Pharmacol Sci 13 1992 177 184
46. J.M. Davis, I.J. Kopin, and L. Lemberger Effects of urinary pH on amphetamine metabolism Ann N Y Acad Sci 179 1971 493 501
47. B.A. Faraj, Z.H. Israili, and J.M. Perel Metabolism and disposition of methylphenidate-14C: studies in man and animals J Pharmacol Exp Ther 191 1974 535 547
48. M.M. Mitler, R. Hajdukovic, and M.K. Erman Treatment of narcolepsy with methamphetamine Sleep 16 1993 306 317
49. M.M. Mitler, R. Hajdukovic, and M. Erman Narcolepsy J Clin Neurophysiol 7 1990 93 118
50. J. Shindler, M. Schachter, and S. Brincat Amphetamine, mazindol, and fencamfamin in narcolepsy BMJ 290 1985 1167 1170
51. D.D. Daly, and R.E. Yoss The treatment of narcolepsy with methylphenylpiperidylacetate: a preliminary report Mayo Clin Proc 31 1956 620 626
52. R.E. Yoss, and D. Daly Treatment of narcolepsy with Ritalin Neurology 9 1959 171 173
53. M.M. Mitler, R. Shafor, and R. Hajdukovich Treatment of narcolepsy: objective studies on methylphenidate, pemoline, and protriptyline Sleep 9 1986 260 264
54. A.N. Nicholson, and B.M. Stone Heterocyclic amphetamine derivatives and caffeine on sleep in man Br J Clin Pharmacol 9 1980 195 203
55. B. Saletu, R. Frey, and M. Krupka Differential effects of a new central adrenergic agonist - modafinil - and D-amphetamine on sleep and early morning behavior in young healthy volunteers Int J Clin Pharmacol Res 9 1989 183 195
56. M.M. Mitler, M.S. Aldrich, and G.F. Koob Narcolepsy and its treatment with stimulants. ASDA standards of practice Sleep 17 1994 352 371
57. C. Guilleminault Amphetamines and narcolepsy: use of the Stanford database Sleep 16 1993 199 201
58. O. Larrosa, Y. de la Llave, and S. Bario Stimulant and anticataplectic effects of reboxetine in patients with narcolepsy: a pilot study Sleep 24 2001 282 285
59. E. Mignot, and S. Nishino Emerging therapies in narcolepsy-cataplexy Sleep 28 2005 754 763
60. C. Guilleminault, J. Mancuso, and M.A. Salva Viloxazine hydrochloride in narcolepsy: a preliminary report Sleep 9 1986 275 279
61. R. Parmentier, H. Ohtsu, and Z. Djebbara-Hannas Anatomical, physiological, and pharmacological characteristics of histidine decarboxylase knock-out mice: evidence for the role of brain histamine in behavioral and sleep-wake control J Neurosci 22 2002 7695 7711
62. T.L. Steininger, M.N. Alam, and H. Gong Sleep-waking discharge of neurons in the posterior lateral hypothalamus of the albino rat Brain Res 840 1999 138 147
63. E.M. Ko, I.V. Estabrooke, and M. McCarthy Wake-related activity of tuberomammillary neurons in rats Brain Res 992 2003 220 226
64. T.A. Roehrs, E.I. Tietz, and F.J. Zorick Daytime sleepiness and antihistamines Sleep 7 1984 137 141
65. K. Tasaka, Y.H. Chung, and K. Sawada Excitatory effect of histamine on the arousal system and its inhibition by H1 blockers Brain Res Bull 22 1989 271 275
66. J.M. Monti, T. Pellejero, and H. Jantos Effects of H1- and H2-histamine receptor agonists and antagonists on sleep and wakefulness in the rat J Neural Transm 66 1986 1 11
67. J.M. Monti, H. Jantos, and A. Ponzoni Sleep and waking during acute histamine H3 agonist BP 2.94 or H3 antagonist carboperamide (MR 16155) administration in rats Neuropsychopharmacology 15 1996 31 35
68. J.S. Lin, Y. Dauvilliers, and I. Arnulf An inverse agonist of the histamine H(3) receptor improves wakefulness in narcolepsy: studies in orexin-/- mice and patients Neurobiol Dis 30 2008 74 83
69. R.X. Guo, C. Anaclet, and J.C. Roberts Differential effects of acute and repeat dosing with the H3 antagonist GSK189254 on the sleep-wake cycle and narcoleptic episodes in Ox-/- mice Br J Pharmacol 157 2009 104 117
70. R. Ursin The effects of 5-hydroxytryptophan and L-tryptophan on wakefulness and sleep patterns in the cat Brain Res 106 1976 105 115
71. W.J. Wojcik, C. Fornal, and M. Radulovacki Effect of tryptophan on sleep in the rat Neuropharmacology 19 1980 163 167
72. B. Bjorvatn, and R. Ursin Effects of zimeldine, a selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitor, combined with ritanserin, a selective 5-HT2 antagonist, on waking and sleep stages in rats Behav Brain Res 40 1990 239 246
73. M.E. Trulson, and B.L. Jacobs Raphe unit activity in freely moving cats: correlation with level of behavioral arousal Brain Res 163 1979 135 150
74. J.J. Puizillout, G. Gaudin-Chazal, and A. Daszuta Release of endogenous serotonin from "encephale isole" cats. II - Correlations with raphe neuronal activity and sleep and wakefulness J Physiol 75 1979 531 537
75. C.M. Portas, B. Bjorvatn, and S. Fagerland On-line detection of extracellular levels of serotonin in dorsal raphe nucleus and frontal cortex over the sleep/wake cycle in the freely moving rat Neuroscience 83 1998 807 814
76. H. Takahashi, S. Nakashima, and E. Ohama Distribution of serotonin-containing cell bodies in the brainstem of the human fetus determined with immunohistochemistry using antiserotonin serum Brain Dev 8 1986 355 365
77. M.F. Wu, J. John, and L.N. Boehmer Activity of dorsal raphe cells across the sleep-waking cycle and during cataplexy in narcoleptic dogs J Physiol 554 2004 202 215
78. I. Törk Anatomy of the serotonergic system Ann N Y Acad Sci 600 1990 9 34
79. H. Schrader, K. Kayed, and A.C. Bendixen Markset The treatment of accessory symptoms in narcolepsy: a double-blind cross-over study of a selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor (femoxetine) versus placebo Acta Neurol Scand 74 1986 297 303
80. N. Langdon, J. Shindler, and J.D. Parkes Fluoxetine in the treatment of cataplexy Sleep 9 1986 371 373
81. Y. Malamed, Y. Daliahu, and D. Paleacu Narcolepsy and psychotic states - a case report Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci 46 2009 70 73
82. J. Frey, and C. Darbonne Fluoxetine suppresses human cataplexy: a pilot study Neurology 44 1994 707 709
83. S.S. Thirumalai, and R.A. Shubin The use of citalopram in resistant cataplexy Sleep Med 1 2000 313 316
84. S. Nishino, and E. Mignot Pharmacological aspects of human and canine narcolepsy Prog Neurobiol 52 1997 27 78
85. L.R. Møller, and J.R. Østergaard Treatment with venlafaxine in six cases of children with narcolepsy and with cataplexy and hypnagogic hallucinations J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 19 2009 197 201
86. M. Smith, J.D. Parkes, and M. Dahlitz Venlafaxine in the treatment of the narcoleptic syndrome J Sleep Res 5 Suppl 1996 217
87. M. Billiard, C. Bassetti, and Y. Dauvilliers EFNS Task Force. EFNS guidelines on management of narcolepsy Eur J Neurol 13 2006 1035 1048
88. J.S. Lin, B. Roussel, and H. Akaoka Role of catecholamines in modafinil and amphetamine induced wakefulness, a comparative pharmacological study Brain Res 591 1992 319 326 9
89. E. Mignot, S. Nishino, and C. Guilleminault Modafinil binds to the dopamine uptake carrier site with low affinity Sleep 17 1994 436 437
90. L. Ferraro, S. Tanganelli, and W.T. O'Connor The vigilance promoting drug modafinil increases dopamine release in the rat nucleus accumbens via the involvement of a local GABAergic mechanism Eur J Pharmacol 306 1996 33 39
91. J.P. Wisor, S. Nishino, and I. Sora Dopaminergic role in stimulant-induced wakefulness J Neurosci 21 2001 1787 1794
92. L. Ferraro, T. Antonelli, and S. Tanganelli The vigilance promoting drug modafinil increases extracellular glutamate levels in the medial preoptic area and the posterior hypothalamus of the conscious rat: prevention by local GABAA receptor blockade Neuropsychopharmacology 20 1999 346 356
93. L. Ferraro, T. Antonelli, and W.T. O'Connor The effects of modafinil on striatal, pallidal and nigral GABA and glutamate release in the conscious rat: evidence for a preferential inhibition of striato-pallidal GABA transmission Neurosci Lett 253 1998 135 138
94. T. Ishizuka, M. Murakami, and A. Yamatodani Involvement of central histaminergic systems in modafinil-induced but not methylphenidate-induced increases in locomotor activity in rats Eur J Pharmacol 578 2008 209 215
95. T. Ishizuka, Y. Sakamoto, and T. Sakurai Modafinil increases histamine release in the anterior hypothalamus of rats Neurosci Lett 339 2003 143 146
96. L. Ferraro, T. Antonelli, and W.T. O'Connor The antinarcoleptic drug modafinil increases glutamate release in thalamic areas and hippocampus Neuroreport 8 1997 2883 2887
97. M. Billiard, A. Besset, and J. Montplaisir Modafinil: a double-blind multicenter study Sleep 17 Suppl 1994 107 112
98. R.J. Broughton, J.A.E. Fleming, and C.F.P. George Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial of modafinil in the treatment of excessive daytime sleepiness in narcolepsy Neurology 49 1997 444 451
99. US Modafinil in Narcolepsy Multicenter Study Group. Randomized trial of modafinil for the treatment of pathological somnolence in narcolepsy Ann Neurol 43 1998 88 97
100. US Modafinil in Narcolepsy Multicenter Study Group. Randomized trial of modafinil as a treatment for the excessive daytime somnolence of narcolepsy Neurology 54 2000 1166 1175
101. J.R. Harsh, R. Hayduk, and R. Rosenberg The efficacy and safety of armodafinil as treatment for adults with excessive sleepiness associated with narcolepsy Curr Med Res Opin 22 2006 761 774
102. T. Roth, D. White, and W. Schmidt-Nowara Effects of armodafinil in the treatment of residual excessive sleepiness associated with obstructive sleep apnea/hypopnea syndrome: a 12-week, multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study in nCPAP-adherent adults Clin Ther 28 2006 689 706
103. M. Steriade, S. Datta, and D. Pare Neuronal activities in brain-stem cholinergic nuclei related to tonic activation processes in thalamocortical systems J Neurosci 10 1990 2541 2559
104. J.A. Williams, J. Comisarow, and J. Day State dependent release of acetylcholine in rat thalamus measured by in vivo microdialysis J Neurosci 14 1994 5236 5242
105. F. Marrosu, C. Portas, and M.S. Mascia Microdialysis measurement of cortical and hippocampal acetylcholine release during sleep-wake cycle in freely moving cats Brain Res 671 1995 329 332
106. M.S. Reid, M. Tafti, and S. Nishino Cholinergic regulation of cataplexy in canine narcolepsy in the pontine reticular formationis mediated by M2 muscarinic receptors Sleep 17 1994 424 435
107. N. Sitaram, A.M. Moore, and J.C. Gillin The effect of physostigmine on normal human sleep and dreaming Arch Gen Psychiatry 35 1978 1239 1243
108. J.C. Gillin, N. Sitaram, and W.B. Mendelson Physostigmine alters onset but not duration of REM sleep in man Psychopharmacology (Berl) 58 1978 111 114
109. E. Holsboer-Trachsler, M. Hatzinger, and R. Stohler Effects of the novel acetylcholinesterase inhibitor SDZ ENA 713 on sleep in man Neuropsychopharmacology 8 1993 87 92
110. C. Nissen, E.A. Nofzinger, and B. Feige Differential effects of the muscarinic M1 receptor agonist RS-86 and the acetylcholine-esterase inhibitor donepezil on REM sleep regulation in healthy volunteers Neuropsychopharmacology 31 2006 1294 1300
111. C. Nissen, A.E. Power, and E.A. Nofzinger M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor agonism alters sleep without affecting memory consolidation J Cogn Neurosci 18 2006 1799 1807
112. S. Nishino, M. Tafti, and M.S. Reid Muscle atonia is triggered by cholinergic stimulation of the basal forebrain: implication for the pathophysiology of canine narcolepsy J Neurosci 15 1995 4806 4814
113. M.S. Reid, M. Tafti, and J.N. Geary Cholinergic mechanisms in canine narcolepsy-I. Modulation of cataplexy via local drug administration into the pontine reticular formation Neuroscience 59 1994 511 522
114. K. Diefenbach, G. Arold, and A. Wollny Effects on sleep of anticholinergics used for overactive bladder treatment in healthy volunteers aged > or = 50 years BJU Int 95 2005 346 349
115. F. Hohagen, S. Lis, and D. Riemann Influence of biperiden and bornaprine on sleep in healthy subjects Neuropsychopharmacology 11 1994 29 32
116. R.J. Salin-Pascual, D. Granados-Fuentes, and L. Galicia-Polo Biperiden administration in normal sleep and after rapid eye movement sleep deprivation in healthy volunteers Neuropsychopharmacology 5 1991 97 102
117. J.C. Gillin, L. Sutton, and C. Ruiz Dose dependent inhibition of REM sleep in normal volunteers by biperiden, a muscarinic antagonist Biol Psychiatry 30 1991 151 156
118. G.P. Rauniar, B. Gitanjali, and C. Shashindran Comparative effects of hyoscine butylbromide and atropine sulphate on sleep architecture in healthy human volunteers Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 42 1998 395 400
119. T. Gallopin, P. Fort, and E. Eggermann Identification of sleep-promoting neurons in vitro Nature 404 2000 992 995
120. S.E. Gaus, R.E. Strecker, and B.A. Tate Ventrolateral preoptic nucleus contains sleep-active, galaninergic neurons in multiple mammalian species Neuroscience 115 2002 285 294
121. J.E. Sherin, J.K. Elmquist, and F. Torrealba Innervation of histaminergic tuberomammillary neurons by GABAergic and galaninergic neurons in the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus of the rat J Neurosci 18 1998 4705 4721
122. T.L. Steininger, H. Gong, and D. McGinty Subregional organization of preoptic area/anterior hypothalamic projections to arousal-related monoaminergic cell groups J Comp Neurol 429 2001 638 653
123. Y. Koyama, and O. Hayaishi Firing of neurons in the preoptic/anterior hypothalamic areas in rat: its possible involvement in slow wave sleep and paradoxical sleep Neurosci Res 19 1994 31 38
124. A. Rechtschaffen, E.A. Wolpert, and W.C. Dement Nocturnal sleep of narcoleptics Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 15 1963 599 609
125. J. Montplaisir, M. Billiard, and S. Takahashi Twenty-four-hour recording in REM-narcoleptics with special reference to nocturnal sleep disruption Biol Psychiatry 13 1978 73 89
126. T.L. Baker, C. Guilleminault, and G. Nino-Murcia Comparative polysomnographic study of narcolepsy and idiopathic central nervous system hypersomnia Sleep 9 1986 232 242
127. M. Folkerts, L. Rosenthal, and T. Roehrs The reliability of the diagnostic features in patients with narcolepsy Biol Psychiatry 40 1996 208 214
128. M.J. Thorpy, M. Snyder, and F.S. Aloe Short-term triazolam use improves nocturnal sleep of narcoleptics Sleep 15 1992 212 216
129. R. Broughton, and M. Mamelak The treatment of narcolepsy-cataplexy with nocturnal gamma-hydroxybutyrate Can J Neurol Sci 6 1979 1 6
130. M. Maitre The gamma-hydroxybutyrate signalling system in brain: organization and functional implications Prog Neurobiol 51 1997 337 361
131. D. Pardi, and J. Black gamma-Hydroxybutyrate/sodium oxybate: neurobiology, and impact on sleep and wakefulness CNS Drugs 20 2006 993 1018
132. US Xyrem Multicenter Study Group. A randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled multicenter trial comparing the effects of three doses of orally administered sodium oxybate with placebo for the treatment of narcolepsy Sleep 25 2002 42 49
133. US Xyrem Multicenter Study Group. A 12-month, open-label, multicenter extension trial of orally administered sodium oxybate for the treatment of narcolepsy Sleep 26 2003 31 35
134. US Xyrem Multicenter Study Group Sodium oxybate demonstrates long-term efficacy for the treatment of cataplexy in patients with narcolepsy Sleep Med 5 2004 119 123
135. Xyrem International Study Group Further evidence supporting the use of sodium oxybate for the treatment of cataplexy: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study in 228 patients Sleep Med 6 2005 415 421
136. J. Black, and W.C. Houghton Sodium oxybate improves excessive daytime sleepiness in narcolepsy Sleep 29 2006 939 946
137. T. Sakurai, A. Amemiya, and M. Ishii Orexins and orexin receptors: a family of hypothalamic neuropeptides and G protein-coupled receptors that regulate feeding behavior Cell 92 1998 573 585
138. L. de Lecea, T.S. Kilduff, and C. Peyron The hypocretins: hypothalamus-specific peptides with neuroexcitatory activity Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95 1998 322 327
139. L. Lin, J. Faraco, and R. Li The sleep disorder canine narcolepsy is caused by a mutation in the hypocretin (orexin) receptor 2 gene Cell 98 1999 365 376
140. R.M. Chemelli, J.T. Willie, and C.M. Sinton Narcolepsy in orexin knockout mice: molecular genetics of sleep regulation Cell 98 1999 437 451
141. E. Mignot, M. Tafti, and W.C. Dement Narcolepsy and immunity Adv Neuroimmunol 5 1995 23 37
142. C. Peyron, D.K. Tighe, and A.N. van Den Pol Neurons containing hypocretin (orexin) project to multiple neuronal systems J Neurosci 18 1998 9996 10015
143. T. Nambu, T. Sakurai, and K. Mizukami Distribution of orexin neurons in the adult rat brain Brain Res 827 1999 243 260
144. J.J. Hagan, R.A. Leslie, and S. Patel Orexin A activates locus coeruleus cell firing and increases arousal in the rat Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96 1999 10911 10916
145. M.M. Methippara, M.N. Alam, and R. Szymusiak Effects of lateral preoptic area application of orexin-A on sleep- wakefulness Neuroreport 11 2000 3423 3426
146. P. Bourgin, S. Huitron-Resendiz, and A.D. Spier Hypocretin-1 modulates rapid eye movement sleep through activation of locus coeruleus neurons J Neurosci 20 2000 7760 7765
147. R.A. España, B.A. Baldo, and A.E. Kelley Wake-promoting and sleep-suppressing actions of hypocretin (orexin): basal forebrain sites of action Neuroscience 106 2001 699 715
148. I.V. Estabrooke, M.T. McCarthy, and E. Ko Fos expression in orexin neurons varies with behavioral state J Neurosci 21 2001 1656 1662
149. R.A. Espana, R.J. Valentino, and C.W. Berridge Fos immunoreactivity in hypocretin-synthesizing and hypocretin-1 receptor-expressing neurons: effects of diurnal and nocturnal spontaneous waking, stress and hypocretin-1 administration Neuroscience 121 2003 201 217
150. M.F. Wu, J. John, and N. Maidment Hypocretin release in normal and narcoleptic dogs after food and sleep deprivation, eating, and movement Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 283 2002 R1079 R1086
151. J.T. Willie, R.M. Chemelli, and C.M. Sinton To eat or to sleep? Orexin in the regulation of feeding and wakefulness Annu Rev Neurosci 24 2001 429 458
152. Y. Yoshida, N. Fujiki, and T. Nakajima Fluctuation of extracellular hypocretin-1 (orexin A) levels in the rat in relation to the light-dark cycle and sleep-wake activities Eur J Neurosci 14 2001 1075 1081
153. S.V. Dhuria, L.R. Hanson, and W.H. Frey 2nd Intranasal drug targeting of hypocretin-1 (orexin-A) to the central nervous system J Pharm Sci 98 2009 2501 2515
154. S.A. Deadwyler, L. Porrino, and J.M. Siegel Systemic and nasal delivery of orexin-A (Hypocretin-1) reduces the effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance in nonhuman primates J Neurosci 27 2007 14239 14247
155. R. Godbout, and J. Montplaisir All-day performance variations in normal and narcoleptic subjects Sleep 9 1986 200 204
156. J. Mullington, and R. Broughton Scheduled naps in the management of daytime sleepiness in narcolepsy- cataplexy Sleep 16 1993 444 456
157. T. Helmus, L. Rosenthal, and C. Bishop The alerting effects of short and long naps in narcoleptic, sleep deprived, and alert individuals Sleep 20 1997 251 257
158. A.E. Rogers, and M.S. Aldrich The effect of regularly scheduled naps on sleep attacks and excessive daytime sleepiness associated with narcolepsy Nurs Res 42 1993 111 117
159. A.E. Rogers, M.S. Aldrich, and X. Lin A comparison of three different sleep schedules for reducing daytime sleepiness in narcolepsy Sleep 24 2001 385 391
160. M. Billiard Narcolepsy: current treatment options and future approaches Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 4 2008 557 566
161. C.H. Schenck, and M.W. Mahowald Motor dyscontrol in narcolepsy: rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep without atonia and REM sleep behavior disorder Ann Neurol 32 1992 3 10
162. S. Nightingale, J.C. Orgill, and I.O. Ebrahim The association between narcolepsy and REM behavior disorder (RBD) Sleep Med 6 2005 253 258
163. M. Billiard REM sleep behavior disorder and narcolepsy CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets 8 2009 264 270
164. L.N. Boehmer, M.F. Wu, and J. John Treatment with immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory agents delays onset of canine genetic narcolepsy and reduces symptom severity Exp Neurol 188 2004 292 299
165. Y. Dauvilliers, B. Abril, and E. Mas Normalization of hypocretin-1 in narcolepsy after intravenous immunoglobulin treatment Neurology 73 2009 1333 1334
166. M. Hecht, L. Lin, and C.A. Kushida Report of a case of immunosuppression with prednisone in an 8-year-old boy with an acute onset of hypocretin- deficiency narcolepsy Sleep 26 2003 809 810
167. W. Chen, J. Black, and P. Call Late-onset narcolepsy presenting as rapidly progressing muscle weakness: response to plasmapheresis Ann Neurol 58 2005 489 490
168. M. Lecendreux, S. Maret, and C. Bassetti Clinical efficacy of high-dose intravenous immunoglobulins near the onset of narcolepsy in a 10-year-old boy J Sleep Res 12 2003 347 348
169. R. Fronczek, J. Verschuuren, and G.J. Lammers Response to intravenous immunoglobulins and placebo in a patient with narcolepsy with cataplexy J Neurol 254 2007 1607 1608
170. J. Riehl, K. Honda, and M. Kwan Chronic oral administration of CG-3703, a thyrotropin releasing hormone analog, increases wake and decreases cataplexy in canine narcolepsy Neuropsychopharmacology 23 2000 34 45
171. R. Fronczek, R.J. Raymann, and S. Overeem Manipulation of skin temperature improves nocturnal sleep in narcolepsy J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 79 2008 1354 1357
172. R. Fronczek, R.J. Raymann, and N. Romeijn Manipulation of core body and skin temperature improves vigilance and maintenance of wakefulness in narcolepsy Sleep 31 2008 233 240
173. R. Fronczek, S. Overeem, and G.J. Lammers Altered skinerature regulation in narcolepsy relates to sleep propensity Sleep 29 2006 1444 1449