Physical activity, immunity and infection

Proceedings of the Nutrition Society

Volumn 69, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 390-399

  Romeo, J ^a   Warnberg J ^b,c   Pozo, T ^a   Marcos, A ^a  

^a CSIC   (Spain)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NAVARRA   (Spain)

^c KAROLINSKA INSTITUTE   (Sweden)

Author keywords

Immune function; Infection; Nutrition; Physical activity

Indexed keywords

ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ASCORBIC ACID; BETA CAROTENE; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CYANOCOBALAMIN; FOLIC ACID; GAMMA INTERFERON; INTERLEUKIN 10; INTERLEUKIN 1BETA; INTERLEUKIN 2; INTERLEUKIN 4; INTERLEUKIN 6; IRON; PYRIDOXINE; RETINOL; RIBOFLAVIN; SELENIUM; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; ZINC;

AGING; ATHLETE; B LYMPHOCYTE; CARBOHYDRATE INTAKE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONFERENCE PAPER; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; ENDURANCE TRAINING; EXERCISE INTENSITY; FAT INTAKE; HUMAN; IMMUNE DEFICIENCY; IMMUNITY; INFECTION; INFECTION RISK; NONHUMAN; NUTRITIONAL SUPPORT; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; RESISTANCE TRAINING; SENESCENCE;

DIET; EXERCISE; HUMANS; INFECTION; MOTOR ACTIVITY; PHYSICAL EXERTION; PHYSICAL FITNESS; RISK FACTORS; SEDENTARY LIFESTYLE;

EID: 77957354081     PISSN: 00296651     EISSN: 14752719     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0029665110001795     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (159)

1. Caspersen CJ, Powell KE & Christenson GM (1985) Physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness: definitions and distinctions for health-related research. Public Health Rep 100, 126-131.
2. Ainsworth BE, Haskell WL, Leon AS et al. (1993) Compendium of physical activities, classification of energy costs of human physical activities. Med Sci Sports Exerc 25, 71-80.
3. Hambrecht R, Wolf A, Gielen S et al. (2000) Effect of exercise on coronary endothelial function in patients with coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 342, 454-460.
4. Blair SN, Cheng Y & Holder JS (2001) Is physical activity or physical fitness more important in defining health benefits? Med Sci Sports Exerc 33, Suppl. 6, S379-S399 discussion S419-S420.
5. Thompson PD, Buchner D & Pina IL et al. (2003) Exercise and physical activity in the prevention and treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: a statement from the Council on Clinical Cardiology (Subcommittee on Exercise, Rehabilitation, and Prevention) and the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism (Subcommittee on Physical Activity). Circulation 107, 3109-3116.
6. Melzer K, Kayser B & Pichard C (2004) Physical activity: the health benefits outweigh the risks. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 7, 641-647.
7. Braith RW & Stewart KJ (2006) Resistance exercise training: its role in the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Circulation 113, 2642-2650.
8. Manini TM, Everhart JE, Patel KV et al. (2006) Daily activity energy expenditure and mortality among older adults. JAMA 296, 171-179.
9. Booth FW, Gordon SE, Carlson CJ et al. (2000) Waging war on modern chronic diseases: primary prevention through exercise biology. J Appl Physiol 88, 774-787.
10. Senchina DS & Kohut ML (2007) Immunological outcomes of exercise in older adults. Clin Interv Aging 2, 3-16.
11. Timmons BW & Cieslak T (2008) Human natural killer cell subsets and acute exercise: a brief review. Exerc Immunol Rev 14, 8-23.
12. Brolinson PG & Elliott D (2007) Exercise and the immune system. Clin Sports Med 26, 311-319.
13. Klentrou P, Cieslak T, McNeil M et al. (2002) Effect of moderate exercise on salivary IgA and infection risk in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 87, 153-158.
14. Matthews CE, Ockene IS, Freedson PS et al. (2002) Moderate to vigorous physical activity and risk of upperrespiratory tract infection. Med Sci Sports Exerc 34, 1242-1248.
15. Nieman DC (1998) Influence of carbohydrate on the immune responses to intensive, prolonged exercise. Exerc Immunol Rev 4, 64-76.
16. Chubak J, McTiernan A, Sorensen B et al. (2006) Moderate-intensity exercise reduces the incidence of colds among postmenopausal women. Am J Med 119, 937-942.
17. Moreira A, Kekkonen RA, Delgado L et al. (2007) Nutritional modulation of exercise-induced immunodepression in athletes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Clin Nutr 61, 443-460.
18. Woods JA, Davis JM, Smith JA et al. (1999) Exercise and cellular innate immune function. Med Sci Sports Exerc 31, 57-66.
19. MacKinnon LT (1999) Advances in Exercise Immunology. p. 159. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
20. Mooren FC, Bloming D, Lechtermann A et al. (2002) Lymphocyte apoptosis after exhaustive and moderate exercise. J Appl Physiol 93, 147-153.
21. MacKinnon LT (1994) Current challenges and future expectations in exercise immunology: back to the future. Med Sci Sports Exerc 26, 191-194.
22. Pedersen BK & Nieman DC (1998) Exercise and immunology: integration and regulation. Immunol Today 19, 204-206.
23. Lim CL, Byrne C, Chew SA et al. (2005) Leukocyte subset response during exercise under heat stress with carbohydrate or water intake. Aviat Space Environ Med 76, 726-732.
24. Walsh NP & Whitham M (2006) Exercising in environmental extremes a greater threat to immune function? Sports Med 36, 941-976.
25. Romeo J, Jiménez-Pavón D, Cervantes-Borunda M et al. (2008) Immunological changes after a single bout of moderate-intensity exercise in a hot environment. J Physiol Biochem 64, 197-204.
26. Pyne DB (1994) Regulation of neutrophil function during exercise. Sports Med 17, 245-258.
27. Nieman DC & Pedersen BK (1999) Exercise and immune function. Recent developments. Rev Sports Med 27, 73-80.
28. Pedersen BK & Ullum H (1994) NK cell response to physical activity: possible mechanisms of action. Med Sci Sports Exerc 26, 140-146.
29. Nieman DC, Henson DA, Gusewitch G et al. (1993) Physical activity and immune function in elderly women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 25, 823-831.
30. Starkie RL, Hargreaves M, Rolland J et al. (2005) Heat stress, cytokines, and the immune response to exercise. Brain Behav Immun 19, 404-412.
31. Kusaka Y, Kondou H & Morimoto K (1992) Healthy lifestyles are associated with higher natural killer cell activity. Prev Med 21, 602-615.
32. Fehrenbach E & Schneider ME (2006) Trauma-induced systemic inflammatory response versus exercise-induced immunomodulatory effects. Sports Med 36, 373-384.
33. Pedersen B (1996) Immune Responses to Acute Exercise. pp. 79-92. New York: CRC Press.
34. Pedersen BK & Hoffman-Goetz L (2000) Exercise and the immune system: regulation, integration, and adaptation. Physiol Rev 80, 1055-1081.
35. Gleeson M (2007) Immune function in sport and exercise. J Appl Physiol 103, 693-699.
36. Castell LM, Poortmans JR, Leclercq R et al. (1997) Some aspects of the acute phase response after a marathon race, and the effects of glutamine supplementation. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 75, 47-53.
37. Nieman DC, Henson DA, Smith LL et al. (2001) Cytokine changes after a marathon race. J Appl Physiol 91, 109-114.
38. Suzuki K, Nakaji S, Yamada M et al. (2002) Systemic inflammatory response to exhaustive exercise. Cytokine kinetics. Exerc Immunol Rev 8, 6-48.
39. Malaguarnera L, Cristaldi E, Vinci M et al. (2008) The role of exercise on the innate immunity of the elderly. Eur Rev Aging Phys Act 5, 43-49.
40. Moraska A & Fleshner M (2001) Voluntary physical activity prevents stressinduced behavioral depression and anti-KLH antibody suppression. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 281, R484-R489.
41. Elphick GF, Greenwood BN, Campisi J et al. (2003) Increased serum nIgM in voluntarily physically active rats: a potential role for B-1 cells. J Appl Physiol 94, 660-667.
42. Elphick GF, Wieseler-Frank J, Greenwood BN et al. (2003) B-1 cell (CD5+/CD11b+) numbers and nIgM levels are elevated in physically active vs. sedentary rats. J Appl Physiol 95, 199-206.
43. MacNeil B & Hoffman-Goetz L (1993) Chronic exercise enhances in vivo and in vitro cytotoxic mechanisms of natural immunity in mice. J Appl Physiol 74, 388-395.
44. MacNeil B & Hoffman-Goetz L (1993) Effect of exercise on natural cytotoxicity and pulmonary tumor metastases in mice. Med Sci Sports Exerc 25, 922-928.
45. Rogers CJ, Zaharoff DA, Hance KW et al. (2008) Exercise enhances vaccine-induced antigen-specific T-cell responses. Vaccine 26, 5407-5415.
46. Shimizu K, Kimura F, Akimoto T et al. (2008) Effect of moderate exercise training on T-helper cell subpopulations in elderly people. Exerc Immunol Rev 14, 24-37.
47. Nasrullah I & Mazzeo RS (1992) Age-related immunosenescence in Fischer 344 rats: Influence of exercise training. J Appl Physiol 73, 1932-1938.
48. Chen P, Li H, Xu F et al. (2003) Heavy load exercise induced dysfunction of immunity and neuroendocrine responses in rats. Life Sci 72, 2255-2262.
49. Giraldo E, Garcia JJ, Hinchado MD et al. (2009) Exercise intensity-dependent changes in the inflammatory response in sedentary women: role of neuroendocrine parameters in the neutrophil phagocytic process and the pro-/antiinflammatory cytokine balance. Neuroimmunomodulation 16, 237-244.
50. Kasapis C & Thompson PD (2005) The effects of physical activity on serum C-reactive protein and inflammatory markers: a systematic review. J Am Coll Cardiol 45, 1563-1569.
51. Brenner IKM, Shek PN & Shephard RJ (1994) Infection in athletes. Sports Med 17, 86-107.
52. Pyne DB & Gleeson M (1998) Effects of intensive exercise training on immunity in athletes. Int J Sports Med 19, 183-191.
53. Shephard RJ & Shek PN (1999) Exercise, immunity and susceptibility to infection. A J-shaped relationship? Phys Sportsmed 27, 47-71.
54. Reid VL, Gleeson M, Williams N et al. (2004) Clinical investigation of athletes with persistent fatigue and/or recurrent infections. Br J Sports Med 38, 42-45.
55. Castle SC (2000) Clinical relevance of age-related immune dysfunction. Clin Infect Dis 31, 578-585.
56. Bauer ME, Jeckel CM, & Luz C (2009) The role of stress factors during aging of the immune system. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1153, 139-152.
57. Bender BS (2003) Infectious disease risk in the elderly. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 23, 57-64.
58. Falsey AR & Walsh EE (2005) Respiratory syncytial virus infection in elderly adults. Drugs Aging 22, 577-587.
59. High KP, Bradley S, Loeb M et al. (2005) A new paradigm for clinical investigation of infectious syndromes in older adults: Assessment of functional status as a risk factor and outcome measure. Clin Infect Dis 40, 114-122. (Pubitemid 40053468)
60. Meunier N, Feillet-Coudray C, Rambeau M et al. (2005) Impact of micronutrient dietary intake and status on intestinal zinc absorption in late middle-aged men: the ZENITH study. Eur J Clin Nutr 59, S48-S52.
61. Oldewage-Theron WH, Samuel FO & Venter CS (2008) Zinc deficiency among the elderly attending a care centre in Sharpeville, South Africa. J Hum Nutr Diet 21, 566-574.
62. Unkiewicz-Winiarczyk A, Bagniuk A, Gromysz-Kalkowska K et al. (2009) Calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc and copper concentration in the hair of tobacco smokers. Biol Trace Elem Res 128, 152-160.
63. Solana R & Pawelec G (1998) Molecular and cellular basis of immunosenescence. Mech Aging Dev 102, 115-129.
64. Franceschi C, Bonafe M & Valensin S (2000a) Human immunosenescence: The prevailing of innate immunity, the failing of clonotypic immunity, and the filling of the immunological space. Vaccine 18, 1717-1720.
65. Linton P & Thoman ML (2001) T-cell senescence. Front Biosci 6, D248-D261.
66. Tannahill GM, Elliott J, Barry AC et al. (2005) 'SOCS2 can enhance interleukin-2 (IL-2) and IL-3 signaling by accelerating SOCS3 degradation'. Mol Cell Biol 25, 9115-9126.
67. Hong MS, Dan JM, Choi J-Y et al. (2004) Age-associated changes in the frequency of naive, memory, and effector CD8+ T cells. Mech Aging Dev 1251, 615-618.
68. Naylor K, Li G, Vallejo AN et al. (2005) The influence of age on T cell generation and TCR diversity. J Immunol 174, 7446-7452.
69. Schwab R, Russo C & Weksler ME (1992) Altered major histocompatibility complex-restricted antigen recognition by T cells from elderly humans. Eur J Immunol 22, 2989-2993.
70. Xu X, Beckman I, Dimopoulos K et al. (1992) Age-related changes in the expression of T cell activation antigens following phytohaemagglutinin stimulation. Exp Clin Immunogenet 9, 203-211.
71. Miller RA, Jacobson B, Weil G et al. (1987) Diminished calcium influx in lectin-stimulated T cells from old mice. J Cell Physiol 132, 337-342.
72. Ohkusu K, Du J, Isobe K-I et al. (1997) Protein kinase Camediated chronic signal transduction for immunosenescence. J Immunol 159, 2082-2084.
73. Gupta S (2000) Molecular steps of cell suicide: an insight into immune senescence. J Clin Immunol 20, 229-239.
74. McLeod JD (2000) Apoptotic capability in aging T cells. Mech Aging Dev 121, 151-159.
75. Froelich CJ, Burkett JS, Guiffaut S et al. (1988) Phytohemagglutinin induced proliferation by aged lymphocytes: Reduced expression of high affinity interleukin-2 receptors and interleukin-2 secretion. Life Sci 43, 1583-1590.
76. Castle SC, Uyemara K, Crawford W et al. (1999) Agerelated impaired proliferation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells is associated with an increase in IL-10 and IL-12. Exp Gerontol 34, 243-252.
77. Castle S, Uyemara K, Wong W et al. (1997) Evidence of enhanced type 2 immune response and impaired upregulation of a type 1 response in frail elderly nursing home residents. Mech Aging Dev 94, 7-16.
78. Rink L, Cakman I & Kirchner H (1998) Altered cytokine production in the elderly. Mech Aging Dev 102, 199-209.
79. Fagiolo U, Cossarizza A, Scala E et al. (1993) Increased cytokine production in mononuclear cells of healthy elderly people. Eur J Immunol 23, 2375-2378.
80. Riancho JA, Zarrabeitia MT, Amado JA et al. (1994) Agerelated differences in cytokine secretion. Gerontology 40, 8-12.
81. Gardner EM & Murasko DM (2002) Age-related changes in Type 1 and Type 2 cytokine production in humans. Biogerontol 3, 271-289.
82. Whisler RL & Newhouse YG (1985) Immunosenescence of the human B cell system: Impaired activation/proliferation in response to autologous monocytes pulsed with Staph protein A and the effects of interleukins 1 and 2 compared to interferon. Lymphokine Res 4, 331-337.
83. Zheng B, Han S, Takahashi Y et al. (1997) Immunosenescence and germinal center reaction. Immunol Rev 160, 63-77.
84. Frasca D, Riley RL, & Blomberg BB (2005) Humoral immune response and B cell functions including immunoglobulin class switch are downregulated in aged mice and humans. Semin Immunol 17, 378-384.
85. Ennist DL, Jones KH, St Pierre RL et al. (1986) Functional analysis of the immunosenescence of the human B cell system: Dissociation of normal activation and proliferation from impaired terminal differentiation into IgM immunoglobulin-secreting cells. J Immunol 136, 99-105.
86. Spencer NFL & Daynes RA (1997) IL-12 directly stimulates expression of IL-10 by CD5+ B cells and IL-6 by both CD5+ and CD5-B cells: Possible involvement in age-associated cytokine dysregulation. Int Immunol 9, 745-754.
87. Whisler RL & Grants IS (1993) Age-related alterations in the activation and expression of phosphotyrosine kinases and protein kinase C (PKC) among human B cells. Mech Aging Dev 71, 31-46.
88. Leveille SG, Gray S, LaCroix AZ et al. (2000) Physical inactivity and smoking increase risk for serious infections in older women. J Am Geriatr Soc 48, 1582-1588.
89. Bruunsgaard H & Pedersen BK (2000) Effects of exercise on the immune system in the elderly population. Immunol Cell Biol 78, 523-531.
90. Drela N, Kozdron E & Szczypiorski P (2004) Moderate exercise may attenuate some aspects of immunosenescence. BMC Geriatr 29, 4-8.
91. Kohut ML & Senchina DS (2004) Reversing age-associated immunosenescence via exercise. Exerc Immunol Rev 10, 6-41.
92. McFarlin BK, Flynn MG, Campbell WW et al. (2006) Physical activity status, but not age, influences inflammatory biomarkers and toll-like receptor 4. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 61, 388-393.
93. Kostka T, Berthouze SE, Lacour J-R et al. (2000) The symptomatology of upper respiratory tract infections and exercise in elderly people. Med Sci Sports Exerc 32, 46-51.
94. Fahlman M, Boardley D, Flynn MG et al. (2000) Effects of endurance training on selected parameters of immune function in elderly women. Gerontology 46, 97-104.
95. Raso V, Benard G, Da Silva Duarte AJ et al. (2007) Effect of resistance training on immunological parameters of healthy elderly women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 39, 2152-2159.
96. Smith JK, Dykes R, Douglas JE et al. (1999) Long-term exercise and atherogenic activity of blood mononuclear cells in persons at risk of developing ischemic heart disease. JAMA 281, 1722-1727.
97. Esposito K, Pontillo A, Di Palo C et al. (2003) Effect of weight loss and lifestyle changes on vascular inflammatory markers in obese women: a randomized trial. JAMA 289, 1799-1804.
98. Goldhammer E, Tanchilevitch A, Maor I et al. (2005) Exercise training modulates cytokines activity in coronary heart disease patients. Int J Cardiol 10, 93-99.
99. Vuori IM (2001) Health benefits of physical activity with special reference to interaction with diet. Public Health Nutr 4, 517-528.
100. Romeo J, Wärnberg J, Gómez-Martínez S et al. (2008) Neuroimmunomodulation by nutrition in stress situations. Neuroimmunomodulation 15, 165-169.
101. Wärnberg J, Gomez-Martinez S, Romeo J et al. (2009) Nutrition, inflammation, and cognitive function. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1153, 164-175.
102. Moreira A, Delgado L, Moreira P et al. (2009) Does exercise increase the risk of upper respiratory tract infections? Br Med Bull 90, 111-131.
103. Grimble RF (2001) Nutritional modulation of immune function. Proc Nutr Soc 60, 389-397.
104. Marcos A, Nova E & Montero A (2003) Changes in the immune system are conditioned by nutrition. Eur J Clin Nutr 57, Suppl. 1, S66-S69.
105. Grimble RF (1997) Effect of antioxidative vitamins on immune function with clinical applications. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 67, 312-320.
106. Victor VM & De la Fuente M (2002) N-acetylcysteine improves in vitro the function of macrophages from mice with endotoxin-induced oxidative stress. Free Radic Res 36, 33-45.
107. Chandra RK (2002) Nutrition and the immune system from birth to old age. Eur J Clin Nutr 56, S73-S76.
108. Gleeson M (2000) The scientific basis of practical strategies to maintain immunocompetence in elite athletes. Exerc Immunol Rev 6, 75-101.
109. Gleeson M, Nieman DC & Pedersen BK (2004) Exercise, nutrition and immune function. J Sports Sci 22, 115-125.
110. Bishop NC, Blannin AK, Robson PJ et al. (1999) The effects of carbohydrate supplementation on immune responses to a soccer-specific exercise protocol. J Sports Sci 17, 787-796.
111. 2max. Int J Sports Med 22, 226-231.
112. Bishop NC, Walsh NP, Haines DL et al. (2001) Preexercise carbohydrate status and immune responses to prolonged cycling: I. Effect on neutrophil degranulation. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 11, 490-502.
113. Bishop NC, Walsh NP, Haines DL et al. (2001c) Pre-exercise carbohydrate status and immune responses to prolonged cycling: II. Effect on plasma cytokine concentration. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 11, 503-512.
114. Bishop NC, Blannin AK, Armstrong E et al. (2000) Carbohydrate and fluid intake affect the saliva flow rate and IgA response to cycling. Med Sci Sports Exerc 32, 2046-2051.
115. Henson DA, Nieman DC, Parker JC et al. (1998) Carbohydrate supplementation and the lymphocyte proliferative response to long endurance running. Int J Sports Med 19, 574-580.
116. Nieman DC, Henson DA, Garner EB et al. (1997c) Carbohydrate affects natural killer cell redistribution but not activity after running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 29, 1318-1324.
117. Nieman DC, Davis JM, Henson DA et al. (2003) Carbohydrate ingestion influences skeletal muscle cytokine mRNA and plasma cytokine levels after a 3-h run. J Appl Physiol 94, 1917-1925.
118. Nieman DC, Davis JM, Brown VA et al. (2004) Influence of carbohydrate ingestion on immune changes after 2h of intensive resistance training. J Appl Physiol 96, 1292-1298.
119. Starkie RL, Angus DJ, Rolland J et al. (2000) Effect of prolonged, submaximal exercise and carbohydrate ingestion on monocyte intracellular cytokine production in humans. J Physiol 528, 647-655.
120. Starkie RL, Arkinstall MJ, Koukoulas I et al. (2001) Carbohydrate ingestion attenuates the increase in plasma interleukin-6, but not skeletal muscle interleukin-6 mRNA, Turing exercise in humans. J Physiol 533, 585-591.
121. Mitchell JB, Pizza FX, Paquet A et al. (1998) Influence of carbohydrate status on immune responses before and after endurance exercise. J Appl Physiol 84, 1917-1925.
122. Chen YJ, Wong SH, Wong CK et al. (2008) The effect of a pre-exercise carbohydrate meal on immune responses to an endurance performance run. Br J Nutr 100, 1260-1268.
123. Koch AJ, Potteiger JA, Chan MA et al. (2001) Minimal influence of carbohydrate ingestion on the immune Minimal influence of carbohydrate ingestion on the immune response following acute resistance exercise. J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 11, 149-161.
124. Bacurau RF, Bassit RA, Sawada L et al. (2002) Carbohydrate supplementation during intense exercise and the immune response of cyclists. Clin Nutr 21, 423-429.
125. McAnulty SR, McAnulty LS, Nieman DC et al. (2003) Influence of carbohydrate ingestion on oxidative stress and plasma antioxidant potential following a 3 h run. Free Radic Res 37, 835-840.
126. Chan MA, Koch AJ, Benedict SH et al. (2003) Influence of carbohydrate ingestion on cytokine responses following acute resistance exercise. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 13, 454-465.
127. Packer L, Cadenas E, Davies KJ (2008) Free radicals and exercise: an introduction. Free Radic Biol Med 44, 123-125.
128. Mena P, Maynar M, Gutierrez JM et al. (1991) Erythrocyte free radical scavenger enzymes in bicycle professional racers. Adaptation to training. Int J Sports Med 12, 563-566.
129. Tauler P, Aguilo A, Fuentespina E et al. (2002) Diet supplementation with vitamin E, vitamin C and beta-carotene cocktail enhances basal neutrophil antioxidant enzymes in athletes. Pflugers Arch 443, 791-797.
130. Radak Z, Pucsuk J, Boros S et al. (2000) Changes in urine 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine levels of super-marathon runners during a four-day race period. Life Sci 66, 1763-1767.
131. Nieman DC, Henson DA, Butterworth DE et al. (1997b) Vitamin C supplementation does not alter the immune. response to 2 5 hours of running. Int J Sport Nutr 7, 173-184.
132. Nieman DC, Peters EM, Henson DA et al. (2000b) Influence of vitamin C supplementation on cytokine changes following an ultramarathon. J Interferon Cytokine Res 20, 1029-1035.
133. Nieman DC, Henson DA, McAnulty SR et al. (2002b) Influence of vitamin C supplementation on oxidative and immune changes after an ultramarathon. J Appl Physiol 92, 1970-1977.
134. Peters EM, Anderson R, Nieman DC et al. (2001a) Vitamin C supplementation attenuates the increases in circulating cortisol, adrenaline and anti-inflammatory polypeptides following ultramarathon running. Int J Sports Med 22, 537-543.
135. Peters EM, Anderson R, & Theron AJ (2001b) Attenuation of increase in circulating cortisol and enhancement of the acute phase protein response in vitamin C-supplemented ultramarathoners. Int J Sports Med 22, 120-126.
136. Himmelstein S, Robergs R, Koehler K et al. (1998) Vitamin C supplementation and upper respiratory tract infections in marathon runners. J Exerc Physiol (online) 1, 1-17.
137. Fischer CP, Hiscock NJ, Penkowa M et al. (2004) Supplementation with vitamins C and E inhibits the release of interleukin-6 from contracting human skeletal muscle. J Physiol 558, 633-645.
138. Singh A, Papanicolaou DA, Lawrence LL et al. (1999) Neuroendocrine responses to running in women after zinc and vitamin E supplementation. Med Sci Sports Exerc 31, 536-542.
139. Krzywkowski K, Petersen EW, Ostrowski K et al. (2001a) Effect of glutamine supplementation on exercise-induced changes in lymphocyte function. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 281, C1259-C1265.
140. Krzywkowski K, Petersen EW, Ostrowski K et al. (2001b) Effect of glutamine and protein supplementation on exercise-induced decreases insalivary IgA. J Appl Physiol 91, 832-838. (Pubitemid 32681117)
141. Walsh NP, Blannin AK, Bishop NC et al. (2000) Effect of oral glutamine supplementation on human neutrophil lipopolysaccharide-stimulated degranulation following prolonged exercise. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 10, 39-50.
142. Hiscock N, Petersen EW, Krzywkowski K et al. (2003) Glutamine supplementation further enhances exerciseinduced plasma IL-6. J Appl Physiol 95, 145-148.
143. Venkatraman JT, Leddy J & Pendergast D (2000) Dietary fats and immune status in athletes: clinical implications. Med Sci Sports Exerc 32, Suppl. 7, S389-S395.
144. Toft AD, Thorn M, Ostrowski K et al. (2000) N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids do not affect cytokine response to strenuous exercise. J Appl Physiol 89, 2401-2406.
145. Kwon DK, Hwang KH, Kim YK et al. (2008) Effects of swimming exercise and soybean supplementation on the immune functions of rats fed a high-fat diet. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 35, 638-642.
146. Nichols AW (2007) Probiotics and athletic performance: a systematic review. Curr Sports Med Rep 6, 269-273.
147. Erickson KL & Hubbard NE (2000) Probiotics immunomodulation in health and disease. J Nutr 130, Suppl. 2 S, 403S-409S.
148. Kekkonen RA, Vasankari TJ, Vuorimaa T et al. (2007) The effect of probiotics on respiratory infections and gastrointestinal symptoms during training in marathon runners. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 17, 352-363.
149. Crooks CV, Wall CR, Cross ML et al. (2006) The effect of bovine colostrum supplementation on salivary IgA in distance runners. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 16, 47-64.
150. Biondo PD, Robbins SJ, Walsh JD et al. (2008) A randomized controlled crossover trial of the effect of ginseng consumption on the immune response to moderate exercise in healthy sedentary men. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 33, 966-975.
151. Hammett CJ, Oxenham HC, Baldi JC et al. (2004) Effect of six months' exercise training on C-reactive protein levels in healthy elderly subjects. J Am Coll Cardiol 44, 2411-2413.
152. Kohut ML, McCann DA, Russell DW et al. (2006) Aerobic exercise, but not flexibility/resistance exercise, reduces serum IL-18, CRP, and IL-6 independent of beta-blockers, BMI, and psychosocial factors in older adults. Brain Behav Immun 20, 201-209.
153. Chin A, Paw MJ, de Jong N et al. (2000) Immunity in frail elderly: a randomized controlled trial of exercise and enriched foods. Med Sci Sports Exerc 32, 2005-2011.
154. Lancaster GI, Halson SL, Khan Q et al. (2004) Effects of acute exhaustive exercise and chronic exercise trainingon type 1 and type 2T lymphocytes. Exerc Immunol Rev 10, 91-106.
155. Ceddia MA & Woods JA (1999) Exercise suppresses macrophage antigen presentation. JAppl Physiol 87, 2253-2258.
156. Gannon GA, Rhind S, Shek PN et al. (2002) Naive and memory T cell subsets are differentially mobilized during physical stress. Int J Sports Med 23, 223-229.
157. Fischer CP, Plomgaard P, Hansen AK et al. (2004) Endurance training reduces the contraction-induced interleukin-6 mRNA expression in human skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 287, E1189-E1194.
158. Nicklas BJ, Hsu FC, Brinkley TJ et al. (2008) Exercise training and plasma C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 in elderly people. J Am Geriatr Soc 56, 2045-2052.
159. Sari-Sarraf V, Reilly T & Doran DA (2006) Salivary IgA response to intermittent and continuous exercise. Int J Sports Med 27, 849-855.