A review of the day-night task: The Stroop paradigm and interference control in young children

Developmental Review

Volumn 30, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 308-330

  Montgomery, Derek E ^a   Koeltzow, Timothy E ^a  

^a BRADLEY UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Cognitive development; Day night task; Executive function; Prefrontal Cortex; Stroop task

Indexed keywords

EID: 77956169896     PISSN: 02732297     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2010.07.001     Document Type: Review

References (114)

1. Achenbach T.M. Child behavior checklist. Encyclopedia of psychology 2000, Vol. 2:69-70. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
2. Alexander K.W., Goodman G.S., Schaaf J.M., Edelstein R.S., Quas J.A., Shaver P. The role of attachment and cognitive inhibition in children's memory and suggestibility for a stressful event. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 2002, 83:262-290.
3. Alloway T.P., Gathercole S.E., Pickering S.J. Verbal and visuospatial short-term and working memory in children: Are they separable?. Child Development 2006, 77:1698-1716.
4. Baddeley A.D., Logie R.H. Working memory: The multiple component model. Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control 1999, 28-61. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. A. Miyake, P. Shah (Eds.).
5. Barch D.M., Braver T.S., Sabb F.W., Noll D.C. Anterior cingulate and the monitoring of response conflict: Evidence from an fMRI study of overt verb generation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2000, 12:298-309.
6. Barkley R.A. Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin 1997, 121:65-94.
7. Berlin L., Bohlin G. Response inhibition, hyperactivity, and conduct problems among preschool children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 2002, 31:242-251.
8. Bernstein D.M., Atance C., Meltzoff A.N., Loftus G.R. Hindsight bias and developing theories of mind. Child Development 2007, 78:1374-1394.
9. Berwid O.G., Curko Kera E.C., Marks D.J., Santra A., Bender H.A., Halperin J.M. Sustained attention and response inhibition in young children at risk for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2005, 46:1219-1229.
10. Best J.R., Miller P.H., Jones L.L. Executive functions after age 5: Changes and correlates. Developmental Review 2009, 29:180-200.
11. Beveridge M., Jarrold C., Pettit E. An experimental approach to executive fingerprinting in young children. Special issue: Executive functions and development: Studies of typical and atypical children. Infant and Child Development 2002, 11:107-123.
12. Bialystok E., Luk G. The university of symbolic representation for reading in Asian and alphabetic languages. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 2007, 10:121-129.
13. Bialystok E., Martin M.M. Notation to symbol: Development in children's understanding of print. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 2003, 86:223-243.
14. Bialystok E., Martin M.M. Attention and inhibition in bilingual children: Evidence from the dimensional change card sort task. Developmental Science 2004, 7:325-339.
15. Bialystok E., Senman L. Executive processes in appearance-reality tasks: The role of inhibition of attention and symbolic representation. Child Development 2004, 75:562-579.
16. Bialystok E., Shapero D. Ambiguous benefits: The effect of bilingualism on reversing ambiguous figures. Developmental Science 2005, 8:595-604.
17. Blair C. Behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation in young children: Relations with self-regulation and adaptation to preschool in children attending head start. Developmental Psychobiology 2003, 42:301-311.
18. Blair C., Razza R.P. Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development 2007, 78:647-663.
19. Booth J.R., Burman D.D., Meyer J.R., Lei Z., Trommer B.L., Davenport N.D., et al. Neural development of selective attention and response inhibition. Neuroimage 2003, 20:737-751.
20. Botvinick M.M. Conflict monitoring and decision making: Reconciling two perspectives on anterior cingulate function. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience 2007, 7:356-366.
21. Brocki K.C., Nyberg L., Thorell L.B., Bohlin G. Early concurrent and longitudinal symptoms of ADHD and ODD: Relations to different types of inhibitory control and working memory. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2007, 48:1033-1041.
22. Bunge S.A., Dudukovic N.M., Thomason M.E., Vaidya C.J., Gabrieli J.D. Immature frontal lobe contributions to cognitive control in children: Evidence from fMRI. Neuron 2002, 33:301-311.
23. Carlson S.M. Developmentally sensitive measures of executive function in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsychology 2005, 28:595-616.
24. Carlson S.M., Moses L.J. Individual differences in inhibitory control and children's theory of mind. Child Development 2001, 72:1032-1054.
25. Casey B.J., Castellanos F.X., Giedd J.N., Marsh W.L., Hamburger S.D., Schubert A., et al. Implication of right frontostriatal circuitry in response inhibition and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 1997, 36:374-383.
26. Cepeda N.J., Munakata Y. Why do children perseverate when they seem to know better: Graded working memory, or directed inhibition?. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 2007, 14:1058-1065.
27. Chasiotis A., Kiessling F., Hofer J., Campos D. Theory of mind and inhibitory control in three cultures: Conflict inhibition predicts false belief understanding in Germany, Costa Rica and Cameroon. International Journal of Behavioral Development 2006, 30:249-260.
28. Chasiotis A., Kiessling F., Winter V., Hofer J. Sensory motor inhibition as a prerequisite for theory-of-mind: A comparison of clinical and normal preschoolers differing in sensory motor abilities. International Journal of Behavioral Development 2006, 30:178-190.
29. Cohen J.D., Dunbar K., McClelland J.L. On the control of automatic processes: A parallel distributed processing account of the Stroop effect. Psychological Review 1990, 97:332-361.
30. Deák G.O., Narasimham G. Is perseveration caused by inhibition failure? Evidence from preschool children's inferences about word meanings. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 2003, 86:194-222.
31. Diamond A. Normal development of prefrontal cortex from birth to young adulthood: Cognitive functions, anatomy, and biochemistry. Principles of frontal lobe function 2002, 466-503. Oxford University Press, London, UK. D.T. Stuss, R.T. Knight (Eds.).
32. Diamond A., Barnett S.W., Thomas J., Munro S. Preschool program improves cognitive control. Science 2007, 318:1387-1388.
33. Diamond A., Kirkham N., Amso D. Conditions under which young children can hold two rules in mind and inhibit a prepotent response. Developmental Psychology 2002, 38:352-362.
34. Diamond A., Prevor M., Callender G., Druin D.P. Prefrontal cortex cognitive deficits in children treated early and continuously for PKU. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development (Monograph #252) 1997, 62(4):1-207.
35. Diamond A., Taylor C. Development of an aspect of executive control: Development of the abilities to remember what I said and to 'Do as I say, not as I do'. Developmental Psychobiology 1996, 29:315-334.
36. Dumontheil I., Burgess P.W., Blakemore S.J. Development of rostral prefrontal cortex and cognitive and behavioural disorders. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 2008, 50:168-181.
37. Durston S., Davidson M.C., Tottenham N., Galvan A., Spicer J., Fossella J.A., et al. A shift from diffuse to focal cortical activity with development. Developmental Science 2006, 9:1-8.
38. Durston S., Thomas K.M., Yang Y., Ulug A.M., Zimmerman R.D., Casey B.J. A neural basis for the development of inhibitory control. Developmental Science 2002, 5:F9-F16.
39. Espy K.A., Bull R. Inhibitory processes in young children and individual variation in short-term memory. Developmental Neuropsychology 2005, 28:669-688.
40. Fellows L.K. The role of orbitofrontal cortex in decision making: A component process account. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 2007, 1121:421-430.
41. Flavell J.H., Flavell E.R., Green F.L. Development of the appearance-reality distinction. Cognitive Psychology 1983, 15:95-120.
42. Flynn E. The role of inhibitory control in false belief understanding. Infant and Child Development 2007, 16:53-69.
43. Friedman N.P., Miyake A. The relations among inhibition and interference control functions: A latent-variable analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 2004, 133:101-135.
44. Fuster J.M. The prefrontal cortex - An update: Time is of the essence. Neuron 2001, 30:319-333.
45. Garon N., Bryson S.E., Smith I.M. Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin 2008, 134:31-60.
46. Gerstadt C.L., Hong Y.J., Diamond A. The relationship between cognition and action: Performance of children 31/2-7years old on a Stroop-like day-night test. Cognition 1994, 53:129-153.
47. Hala S., Hug S., Henderson A. Executive function and false belief understanding in preschool children: Two tasks are harder than one. Journal of Cognition and Development 2003, 4:275-298.
48. Hinnant J.B., O'Brien M. Cognitive and emotional control and perspective taking and their relations to empathy in 5-year-old children. Journal of Genetic Psychology 2007, 168:301-322.
49. Hollerman J.R., Tremblay L., Schultz W. Involvement of basal ganglia and orbitofrontal cortex in goal-directed behavior. Progress in Brain Research 2000, 126:193-215.
50. Huang-Pollock C.L., Mikami A.Y., Pfiffner L., McBurnett K. ADHD subtype differences in motivational responsivity but not inhibitory control: Evidence from a reward-based variation of the stop signal paradigm. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 2007, 36:127-136.
51. Hughes C. Executive functions and development: Emerging themes. Infant and Child Development 2002, 11:201-209.
52. Hughes C., Ensor R. Executive function and theory of mind: Predictive relations from ages 2-4. Developmental Psychology 2007, 43:1447-1459.
53. Hughes C., Ensor R. Does executive function matter for preschoolers' problem behaviors?. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 2008, 36:1-14.
54. Huizinga M., Dolan C.V., van der Molen M.W. Age-related change in executive function. Developmental trends and a latent variable analysis. Neuropsychologia 2006, 44:2017-2036.
55. Jahromi L.B., Stifter C.A. Individual differences in preschoolers' self-regulation and theory of mind. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 2008, 54:125-150.
56. Kane M.J., Engle R.W. Working-memory capacity and the control of attention: The contributions of goal neglect, response competition, and task set to Stroop interference. Journal of Experimental Psychology 2003, 132:47-70.
57. Kerns J.G., Cohen J.D., MacDonald A.W., Cho R.Y., Stenger V.A., Carter C.S. Anterior cingulate conflict monitoring and adjustments in control. Science 2004, 303:1023-1026.
58. Kipp K. A developmental perspective on the measurement of cognitive deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry 2005, 57:1256-1260.
59. Kloo D., Perner J., Giritzer T. Object-based set-shifting in preschoolers: Relations to theory of mind. Self- and social-regulation: Exploring the relations between social interaction, social cognition, and the development of executive functions 2010, 193-217. Oxford University Press, Oxford. B.W. Sokol, U. Muller, J. Carpendale, A.R. Young, G. Iarocci (Eds.).
60. Kochanska G., Murray K., Coy K.C. Inhibitory control as a contributor to conscience in childhood: From toddler to early school age. Child Development 1997, 68:263-277.
61. Konrad K., Neufang S., Thiel C.M., Specht K., Hanisch C., Fan J., et al. Development of attentional networks: An fMRI study with children and adults. Neuroimage 2005, 28:429-439.
62. Lang B., Perner J. Understanding of intention and false belief and the development of self-control. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 2002, 20:67-76.
63. Leerkes E.M., Paradise M., O'Brien M., Calkins S.D., Lange G. Emotion and cognition processes in preschool children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 2008, 54:102-124.
64. Lewis E.E., Dozier M., Ackerman J., Sepulveda-Kozakowski S. The effect of placement instability on adopted children's inhibitory control abilities and oppositional behavior. Developmental Psychology 2007, 43:1415-1427.
65. Livesey D., Keen J., Rouse J., White F. The relationship between measures of executive function, motor performance and externalising behaviour in 5- and 6-year-old children. Human Movement Science 2006, 25:50-64.
66. MacLeod C. Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: An integrative review. Psychological Bulletin 1991, 109:163-203.
67. Marsh R., Zhu H., Schultz R.T., Quackenbush G., Royal J., Skudlarski P., et al. A developmental fMRI study of self-regulatory control. Human Brain Mapping 2006, 27:848-863.
68. Martin-Rhee M.M., Bialystok E. The development of two types of inhibitory control in monolingual and bilingual children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 2008, 11:81-93.
69. Melinder A., Endestad T., Magnussen S. Relations between episodic memory, suggestibility, theory of mind, and cognitive inhibition in the preschool child. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 2006, 47:485-495.
70. Monks C.P., Smith P.K., Swettenham J. Psychological correlates of peer victimization in preschool: Social cognitive skills, executive function, and attachment profiles. Aggressive Behavior 2005, 31:571-588.
71. Montgomery D.E., Anderson M., Uhl E. Interference control in preschoolers: Factors influencing performance on the day-night task. Infant and Child Development 2008, 17:457-470.
72. Morton B.J., Munakata Y. Active versus latent representations: A neural network model of perseveration, dissociation, and decalage. Developmental Psychobiology 2002, 40:255-265.
73. Munakata Y. Graded representations in behavioral dissociations. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2001, 5:309-315.
74. Munakata Y., Morton J.B., O'Reilly R.C. Developmental and computational approaches to variation in working memory. Variation in working memory 2007, 162-193. Oxford University Press, New York. A.R. Conway, C. Jarrold, M.J. Kane, A. Miyake, J.N. Towse (Eds.).
75. Namiki C., Yamada M., Yoshida H., Hanakawa T., Fukuyama H., Murai T. Small orbitofrontal traumatic lesions detected by high resolution MRI in a patient with major behavioural changes. Neurocase 2008, 14:474-479.
76. Oh S., Lewis C. Korean preschoolers' advanced inhibitory control and its relation to other executive skills and mental state understanding. Child Development 2008, 79:80-99.
77. Perner J., Lang B. What causes 3-year-olds, difficulty on the dimensional change card sorting task? Special issue: Executive functions and development: Studies of typical and atypical children. Infant and Child Development 2002, 11:93-105.
78. Perner J., Stummer S., Sprung M., Doherty M. Theory of mind finds its Piagetian perspective: Why alternative naming comes with understanding belief. Cognitive Development 2002, 17:1451-1472.
79. Peskin J., Ardino V. Representing the mental world in children's social behavior: Playing hide-and-seek and keeping a secret. Social Development 2003, 12:496-512.
80. Posner M.I., Rothbart M.K., Sheese B.E., Tang Y. The anterior cingulated gyrus and the mechanism of self-regulation. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience 2007, 7:391-395.
81. Prevor M.B., Diamond A. Color-object interference in young children: A Stroop effect in children 31/2-61/2years old. Cognitive Development 2005, 20:256-278.
82. Quinn S.O., Quinn E.P. The Stroop interference effect in young children: A developmentally appropriate approach. Individual Differences Research 2005, 3:183-187.
83. Rasmussen C., Bisanz J. Representation and working memory in early arithmetic. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 2005, 91:137-157.
84. Rasmussen C., Wyper K., Talwar V. The relation between theory of mind and executive functions in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Canadian Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 2009, 16:370-380.
85. Rhoades B.L., Greenberg M.T., Domitrovich C.E. The contribution of inhibitory control to preschoolers' social-emotional competence. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 2009, 30:310-320.
86. Ridderinkhof K.R. Micro- and macro-adjustments of task set: Activation and suppression in conflict tasks. Psychological Research 2002, 66:312-323.
87. Roberts K.P., Powell M.B. The relation between inhibitory control and children's eyewitness memory. Applied Cognitive Psychology 2005, 19:1003-1018.
88. Roebers C.M., Schneider W. Individual differences in young children's suggestibility: Relations to event memory, language abilities, working memory, and executive functioning. Cognitive Development 2005, 20:427-447.
89. Rothbart M.K., Ahadi S.A., Hersey K.L., Fisher P. Investigations of temperament at three to seven years: The children's behavior questionnaire. Child Development 2001, 72:1394-1408.
90. Sabbagh M.A., Xu F., Carlson S.M. The development of executive functioning and theory of mind: A comparison of Chinese and US preschoolers. Psychological Science 2006, 17:74-81.
91. Shilling V.M., Cheywynd A., Rabbitt P.M.A. Individual inconsistency across measures of inhibition: An investigation of the construct validity of inhibition in older adults. Neuropsychologia 2002, 40:605-619.
92. Siegal M., Iozzi L., Surian L. Bilingualism and conversational understanding in young children. Cognition 2009, 110:115-122.
93. Simpson A., Riggs K.J. What makes responses prepotent for young children? Insights from the Grass-Snow task. Infant and Child Development 2009, 18:21-35.
94. Simpson A., Riggs K.J. Factors responsible for performance on the day-night task: Response set or semantics?. Developmental Science 2005, 8:360-371.
95. Simpson A., Riggs K.J. Inhibitory and working memory demands of the day-night task in children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 2005, 23:471-486.
96. Simpson A., Riggs K.J. Conditions under which children experience inhibitory difficulty with a 'button-press' go/no-go task. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 2006, 94:18-26.
97. Simpson A., Riggs K.J. Under what conditions do young children have difficulty inhibiting manual actions?. Developmental Psychology 2007, 43:417-428.
98. Simpson A., Riggs K.J., Simon M. What makes the windows task difficult for young children: Rule inference or rule use?. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 2004, 87:155-170.
99. Stedron J.M., Sahni S.D., Munakata Y. Common mechanisms for working memory and attention: The case of perseveration with visible solutions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2005, 17:623-631.
100. Stroop J.R. Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology 1935, 18:643-662.
101. Talwar V., Lee K. Social and cognitive correlates of children's lying behavior. Child Development 2008, 79:866-881.
102. Tamm L., Menon V., Reiss A.L. Maturation of brain function associated with response inhibition. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2002, 41:1231-1238.
103. Tardif T., So C., Kaciroti N. Language and false belief: Evidence for general, not specific, effects in cantonese-speaking preschoolers. Developmental Psychology 2007, 43:318-340.
104. Thorell L.B. Do delay aversion and executive function deficits make distinct contributions to the functional impact of ADHD symptoms? A study of early academic skill deficits. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2007, 48:1061-1070.
105. Thorell L.B., Wahlstedt C. Executive functioning deficits in relation to symptoms of ADHD and/or ODD in preschool children. Infant and Child Development 2006, 15:503-518.
106. Tillman C.M., Thorell L.B., Brocki K.C., Bohlin G. Motor response inhibition and execution in the stop-signal task: Development and relation to ADHD behaviors. Child Neuropsychology 2008, 14:42-59.
107. van Mourik R., Oosterlaan J., Sergeant J. The Stroop revisited: A meta-analysis of interference control in AD/HD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2005, 46:150-165.
108. von Stauffenberg C., Campbell S.B. Predicting the early developmental course of symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 2007, 28:536-552.
109. Wellman H.M., Cross D., Watson J. Meta-analysis of theory-of-mind development: The truth about false belief. Child Development 2001, 72:655-684.
110. Wolfe C.D., Bell M.A. Working memory and inhibitory control in early childhood: Contributions from physiology, temperament, and language. Developmental Psychobiology 2004, 44:68-83.
111. Wolfe C.D., Bell M.A. Sources of variability in working memory in early childhood: A consideration of age, temperament, language, and brain electrical activity. Cognitive Development 2007, 22:431-455.
112. Wright I., Waterman M., Prescott H., Murdoch-Eaton A new Stroop-like measure of inhibitory function development: Typical developmental trends. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2003, 44:561-575.
113. Yeterian E.H., Pandya D.N. Prefrontostriatal connections in relation to cortical architectonic organization in rhesus monkeys. Journal of Comparative Neurology 1991, 312:43-67.
114. Zelazo P.D. The dimensional change card sort (DCCS): A method of assessing executive function in children. Nature Protocols 2006, 1:297-301.