Sickle cell disease and the eye: Old and new concepts

Survey of Ophthalmology

Volumn 55, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 359-377

  Elagouz, Mohammed ^a,b   Jyothi, Sreedhar ^a   Gupta, Bhaskar ^a   Sivaprasad, Sobha ^a  

^a KING S COLLEGE HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b Sohag University   (Egypt)

Author keywords

Animal studies; Genetic modifiers; Ocular manifestations; Proliferative sickle retinopathy; Sickle cell disease; Sickle cell retinopathy

Indexed keywords

5 AZA 2' DEOXYCYTIDINE; ARGININE; BETA GLOBIN; CLOTRIMAZOLE; DEFERIPRONE; ERYTHROPOIETIN; GLUTAMINE; HEPARIN; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; HYDROXYUREA; NIFEDIPINE; NITRIC OXIDE; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; PROCOAGULANT; PYROGLUTAMATE MAGNESIUM; SALAZOSULFAPYRIDINE; TICLOPIDINE; VASCULOTROPIN INHIBITOR; WARFARIN;

ANGIOGENESIS; BETA THALASSEMIA; BLOOD CELL; BLOOD TRANSFUSION; CELL ACTIVATION; CELL ADHESION; CLINICAL FEATURE; DISEASE MODEL; DRUG EFFICACY; ENDOTHELIUM CELL; ERYTHROCYTE; EYE DISEASE; GENE THERAPY; GENETIC ANALYSIS; HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; INFLAMMATION; LASER COAGULATION; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; NONHUMAN; ORBIT DISEASE; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROLIFERATIVE SICKLE RETINOPATHY; RETINA DETACHMENT; RETINA MACULA AGE RELATED DEGENERATION; RETINA SURGERY; RETINOPATHY; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SICKLE CELL ANEMIA; SICKLE CELL RETINOPATHY; VITRECTOMY; ANEMIA, SICKLE CELL; ANIMAL; GENETICS;

ANEMIA, SICKLE CELL; ANIMALS; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; EYE DISEASES; HUMANS;

EID: 77953619520     PISSN: 00396257     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2009.11.004     Document Type: Review

References (234)

1. Acheson R.W., Ford S.M., Maude G.H., et al. Iris atrophy in sickle cell disease. Br J Ophthalmol 1986, 70:516-521.
2. Acheson R.W., Fox P.D., Chuang E.L., et al. Treatment of iatrogenic choroidal neovascularization in sickle cell disease. Br J Ophthalmol 1991, 75:729-730.
3. Adewoye A.H., Ramsey J., McMahon L., et al. Lacrimal gland enlargement in sickle cell disease. Am J Hematol 2006, 81(11):888-889.
4. Aessopos A., Farmakis D., Loukopoulos D. Elastic tissue abnormalities resembling pseudoxanthoma elasticum in beta thalassemia and the sickling syndromes. Blood 2002, 99(1):30-35.
5. Ashley-Koch A., Yang Q., Olney R.S. Sickle hemoglobin (HbS) allele and sickle cell disease: a HuGE review. Am J Epidemiol 2000, 151(9):839-845.
6. Aiello L.P., Northrup J.M., Keyt B.A., et al. Hypoxic regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor in retinal cells. Arch Ophthalmol 1995, 113:1538-1544.
7. Akinsola F.B., Kehinde M.O. Ocular findings in sickle cell disease patients in Lagos. Niger Postgrad Med J 2004, 11:203-206.
8. Aluoch J.R. Higher resistance to Plasmodiumfalciparum infection in patients with homozygous sickle cell disease in western Kenya. Trap Med Int Health 1997, 2:568-571.
9. Asdourian G.K., Nagpal K.C., Busse B., et al. Macular and perimacular vascular remodelling in sickling hemoglobinopathies. Br J Ophthalmol 1976, 60:431-453.
10. Babalola O.E., Wambebe C.O. When should children and young adults with sickle cell disease be referred for eye assessment?. Afr J Med Med Sci 2001, 30(4):261-263.
11. Babalola O.E., Wambebe C.O. Ocular morbidity from sickle cell disease in a Nigerian cohort. Niger Postgrad Med J 2005, 12(4):241-244.
12. Ballas S.K., Lewis C.N., Noone A.M., et al. Clinical, hematological, and biochemical features of Hb SC disease. Am J Hematol 1982, 13:37-51.
13. Benner J.D. Transcorneal oxygen therapy for glaucoma associated with sickle cell hyphema. Am J Ophthalmol 2000, 130(4):514-515.
14. Bergren R.L., Brown G.C. Neovascular glaucoma secondary to sickle cell retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol 1992, 113:718-719.
15. Beuzard Y. Mouse models of sickle cell disease. Transfus Clin Biol 2008, 15(1-2):7-11.
16. Blei F., Fancher T., Guarini L. Elevated levels of circulating molecule of potential endothelial cell origins in sickle cell disease. Blood 1994, 84(Suppl):409.
17. Bove J.R. Transfusion-transmitted diseases: current problems and challenges. Prog Hematol 1986, 14:123-147.
18. Brittain H.A., Eckman J.R., Swerlick R.A., et al. Thrombospondin from activated platelets promotes sickle erythrocyte adherence to human microvascular endothelium under physiologic flow: a potential role for platelet activation in sickle cell vasoocclusion. Blood 1993, 81:2137-2143.
19. Browne P.V., Mosher D.F., Steinberg M.H., et al. Disturbance of plasma and platelet thrombospondin levels in sickle cell disease. Am J Hematol 1996, 51(4):296-301.
20. Brun M., Bourdoulous S., Couraud P.O., et al. Hydroxyurea downregulates endothelin-1 gene expression and upregulates ICAM-1 gene expression in cultured human endothelial cells. Pharmacogenomics J 2003, 3(4):215-226.
21. Bunn H.F. Disorders of hemoglobin. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 1987, 1518-1523. McGraw-Hill, New York. ed 11. E. Braunwald, K.J. Isselbacher, R.G. Petersdorf (Eds.).
22. Cao J., Mathews M.K., Mcleod D.S., et al. Angiogenic factors in human proliferative sickle cell retinopathy. Br J Ophthalmol 1999, 83:838-846.
23. Carney M.D., Jampol L.M. Epiretinal membranes in sickle cell retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1987, 105:214-217.
24. Carney M.D., Paylor R.R., Cunha-Vaz J.G., et al. Iatrogenic choroidal neovascularization in sickle cell retinopathy. Ophthalmology 1986, 93:1163-1168.
25. Chambers J., Puglisi J., Kernitsky R., et al. Iris atrophy in hemoglobin SC disease. Am J Ophthalmol 1974, 77:247-249.
26. Chang Y.P., Maier-Redelsperger M., Smith K.D., et al. The relative importance of the X-linked FCP locus and beta-globin haplotypes in determining haemoglobin F levels: a study of SS patients homozygous for beta 5 haplotypes. Br J Haematol 1997, 96:806-814.
27. Clarkson J.G. The ocular manifestations of sickle cell disease: a prevalence and natural history study. Tr Am Ophth Soc 1992, 39:481-504.
28. Clarkson J.G., Altman R.D. Angioid streaks. Surv Ophthalmol 1982, 26:235-246.
29. Coates TD, Fisher TC, Pecsvarady Z, et al. Neutrophil deformability and FcRIII expression are decreased in sickle cell disease patients with clinically severe b globin haplotypes. 18th Annual Meeting -National Sickle Cell Disease Program 93. Philadelphia, PA, 1993, p 63a.
30. Cohen S.B., Fletcher M.E., Goldberg M.F., et al. Diagnosis and management of ocular complications of sickle hemoglobinopathies: Part V. Ophthalmic Surg 1986, 6:369-374.
31. Condon P.I., Whitelocke R.A., Bird A.C., et al. Recurrent visual loss in homozygous sickle cell disease. Br J Ophthalmol 1985, 69(9):700-706.
32. Condon P.I., Jampol L.M., Ford S.M., et al. Choroidal neovascularization induced by photocoagulation in sickle cell disease. Br J Ophthalmol 1981, 65:192-197.
33. Condon P.I., Serjeant G.R. Ocular findings in homozygous sickle cell anemia in Jamaica. Am J Ophthalmol 1972, 73:533-543.
34. Condon P.I., Serjeant G.R. Ocular findings in hemoglobin SC disease in Jamaica. Am J Ophthalmol 1972, 74:921-931.
35. Condon P.I., Serjeant G.R. Photocoagulation and diathermy in the treatment of proliferative sickle retinopathy. Br J Ophthalmol 1974, 58:650-662.
36. Condon P.I., Serjeant G.R. The progression of sickle cell eye disease in Jamaica. Docum Ophthalmol 1975, 39:203-210.
37. Condon P.I., Serjeant G.R. Ocular findings in elderly cases of homozygous sickle cell disease in Jamaica. Br J Ophthalmol 1976, 60:361-364.
38. Condon P.I., Serjeant G.R. Behaviour of untreated proliferative sickle retinopathy. Br J Ophthalmol 1980, 64:404-411.
39. Cruess A.F., Stephens R.F., Margargal L.E., et al. Peripheral circumferential retinal scatter photocoagulation for treatment of proliferative sickle retinopathy. Ophthalmology 1983, 90:272-278.
40. Curran E.L., Fleming J.C., Rice K., et al. Orbital compression syndrome in sickle cell disease. Ophthalmology 1997, 104:1610-1615.
41. Cusick M., Toma H.S., Hwang T.S., et al. Binasal visual field defects from simultaneous bilateral retinal infarctions in sickle cell disease. Am J Ophthalmol 2007, 143(5):893-896.
42. Deutsch T.A., Weinreb R.N., Goldberg M.F. Indications for surgical management of hyphema in patients with sickle cell trait. Arch Ophthalmol 1984, 102:566-569.
43. Dizon-Moore R.V., Jampol L.M., Goldberg M.F. Chorioretinal and choriovitreal neovascularization. Arch Ophthalmol 1981, 99:842-849.
44. Dizon R.V., Jampol L.M., Goldberg M.F., et al. Choroidal occlusive disease in sickle cell hemoglobinopathies. Surv Ophthalmol 1979, 23:297-306.
45. Downes S.M., Hambleton I.R., Chuang E.L., et al. Incidence and natural history of proliferative sickle cell retinopathy: observations from a cohort study. Ophthalmology 2005, 112(11):1869-1875.
46. Duits A.L., Schnog J.B., Lard L.R., et al. Elevated IL-8 levels during sickle cell crisis. Eur J Haematol 1998, 61:302-305.
47. Durant W.J., Jampol L.M., Daily M. Exudative retinal detachment in hemoglobin SC disease. Retina 1982, 2(3):152-154.
48. Elliott L., Ashley-Koch A.E., De Castro L., et al. Genetic polymorphisms associated with priapism in sickle cell disease. Br J Haematol 2007, 137(3):262-267.
49. Emmerson G.G., Lutty G.A. Effects of sickle cell disease on the eye: clinical features and treatment. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 2005, 19(5):957-963.
50. Eruchalu U.V., Pam V.A., Akuse R.M. Ocular findings in children with severe clinical symptoms of homozygous sickle cell anaemia in Kaduna, Nigeria. West Afr J Med 2006, 25(2):88-91.
51. Fany A., Boni S., Adjorlolo C., et al. Retinopathy as a sickle cell trait: myth or reality?. J Fr Ophtalmol 2004, 27(9 Pt 1):1025-1030.
52. Fabry M.E., Kaul D.K. Sickle cell vasoocclusion. Hematol/Oncol Clin N Am 1991, 5:375-398.
53. Fabry M.E., Sengupta A., Suzuka S.M., et al. A second generation transgenic mouse model expressing both hemoglobin S (HbS) and HbS-Antilles results in increased phenotypic severity. Blood 1995, 86(6):2419-2428.
54. Fabry M.E., Costantini F., Pachnis A., et al. High expression of human beta S- and alpha-globins in transgenic mice: erythrocyte abnormalities, organ damage, and the effect of hypoxia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992, 89(24):12155-12159.
55. Fabry M.E., Bouhassira E.E., Suzuka S.M., Nagel R.L. Transgenic mice and hemoglobinopathies. Methods Mol Med 2003, 82:213-241.
56. Farber M.D., Jampol L.M., Fox P., et al. A randomized clinical trial of scatter photocoagulation of proliferative sickle cell retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1991, 109:363-367.
57. Faulborn J., Ardjomand N. Tractional retinoschisis in proliferative diabetic retinopathy: a histopathologic study. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2000, 238:40-44.
58. Ferrara N. Molecular and biological properties of vascular endothelial growth factor. J Mol Med 1999, 77:527-543.
59. Fine L.C., Petrovic V., Irvine A.R., et al. Spontaneous central retinal artery occlusion in hemoglobin SC disease. Am J Ophthalmol 2000, 130:680-681.
60. Fink A.I., Funahashi T., Robinson M., et al. Conjunctival blood flow in sickle cell disease. Arch Ophthalmol 1961, 66:824-829.
61. Fox P.D., Acheson R.W., Serjeant G.R. Outcome of iatrogenic choroidal neovascularization in sickle cell disease. Br J Ophthalmol 1990, 74:417-420.
62. Fox P.D., Dunn D.T., Morris J.S., et al. Risk factors for proliferative sickle retinopathy. Br J Ophthalmol 1990, 74:172-176.
63. Francis R., Haywood L.J. Elevated immunoreactive tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-1 in sickle cell disease. J Natl Med Assoc 1992, 84:611-615.
64. Frank R.N., Cronin M.A. Posterior pole neovascularization in a patient with hemoglobin SC disease. Am J Ophthalmol 1979, 88:680-682.
65. Gagliano D.A., Jampol L., Rabb M. Sickle cell disease. Duane's Clinical Ophthalmology 1996, Vol. 3. Lippincott-Raven Press, Philadelphia, pp 1-38. W.S. Tasman, E. Jaeger (Eds.).
66. Gagliano D.A., Goldberg M.F. The evolution of salmon-patch hemorrhages in sickle cell retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1989, 107:1814-1815.
67. Galinos S.O., Asdourian G.K., Woolf M.B., et al. Choroido-vitreal neovascularization after argon laser photocoagulation. Arch Ophthalmol 1975, 93:524-530.
68. Galinos S.O., Asdourian G.K., Woolf M.B., et al. Spontaneous remodelling of the peripheral retinal vasculature in sickling disorders. Am J Ophthalmol 1975, 79:853-870.
69. Galinos S.O., Rabb M.F., Goldberg M.F., et al. Hemoglobin SC disease and iris atrophy. Am J Ophthalmol 1973, 75:421-425.
70. Ganesh A., Al-Zuhaibi S., Pathare A., et al. Orbital infarction in sickle cell disease. Am J Ophthalmol 2008, 146(4):595-601.
71. Geeraets W.J., Guerry D. Angioid streaks and sickle cell disease. Am J Ophthalmol 1960, 49:450-470.
72. Giardini C., Lucarelli G. Bone marrow transplantation for beta-thalassemia. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 1999, 13:1059-1064.
73. Gill F.M., Sleeper L.A., Weiner S.J., et al. Clinical events in the first decade in a cohort of infants with sickle cell disease: Cooperative Study of Sickle Cell Disease. Blood 1995, 86:776-783.
74. Gill H.S., Lam W.C. A screening strategy for the detection of sickle cell retinopathy in pediatric patients. Can J Ophthalmol 2008, 43:188-191.
75. Goldbaum M.H., Fletcher R.C., Jampol L.M., et al. Cryotherapy of proliferative sickle retinopathy. II. Triple freeze-thaw cycle. Br J Ophthalmol 1979, 63:97-101.
76. Goldbaum M.H., Galinos S.O., Apple D., et al. Acute choroidal ischemia as a complication of photocoagulation. Arch Ophthalmol 1976, 94:1025-1035.
77. Goldbaum M.H., Goldberg M.F., Nagpal K., et al. Proliferative sickle retinopathy. Current Diagnosis and Management of Chorioretinal Disease 1976, 132-145. CV Mosby Co, St Louis. F. L'Esperance (Ed.).
78. Goldbaum M.H., Jampol L.M., Goldberg M.F. The disc sign in sickling hemoglobinopathies. Arch Ophthalmol 1978, 96:1597-1600.
79. Goldbaum M.H., Peyman G.A., Nagpal K.C., et al. Vitrectomy in sickling retinopathy: report of five cases. Ophthalmic Surg 1976, 7:92-102.
80. Goldbaum M.H. Retinal depression sign indicating a small retinal infarct. Am J Ophthalmol 1978, 86(1):45-55.
81. Goldberg M.F. Retinal neovascularization in sickle cell retinopathy. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol 1977, 83:409-431.
82. Goldberg M.F. Natural history of untreated proliferative sickle retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1971, 85:428-437.
83. Goldberg M.F. Sickled erythrocytes, hyphema, and secondary glaucoma IV. The rate and percentage of sickling of erythrocytes in rabbit aqueous humor, in vitro and in vivo. Ophthalmic Surg 1979, 10:62-69.
84. Goldberg M.F. Sickled erythrocytes, hyphema, and secondary glaucoma I. The diagnosis and treatment of sickled erythrocytes in human hyphemas. Ophthalmic Surg 1979, 10:17-31.
85. Goldberg M.F. The diagnosis and treatment of secondary glaucoma after hyphema in sickle cell patients. Am J Ophthalmol 1979, 87:43-49.
86. Goldberg M.F., Dizon R., Raichand M. Sickled erythrocytes, hyphema, and secondary glaucoma II. Injected sickle cell erythrocytes into human, monkey, and guinea pig anterior chambers: the introduction of sickling and secondary glaucoma. Ophthalmic Surg 1979, 10:32-51.
87. Goldberg M.F., Galinos S., Lee C.B., et al. Macular ischemia and infarction in sickling. Invest Ophthalmol 1973, 12:633-635.
88. Goldberg M.F., Tso M.O.M. Rubeosis iridis and glaucoma associated with sickle cell retinopathy: a light and electron microscopic study. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otol 1978, 85:1028-1041.
89. Goodman G., Sallman L., Holland M.G. Ocular manifestations of sickle cell disease. Arch Ophthalmol 1957, 58:655-682.
90. Gupta K., Gupta P., Solovey A., Hebbel R.P. Mechanism of interaction of thrompospondin with human endothelium and inhibition of sickle erythrocyte adhesion to human endothelial cells by heparin. Biochem Biophys Acta 1999, 1453:63-73.
91. Gurkan E., Tanriverdi K., Baslamish F. Clinical relevance of vascular endothelial growth factor levels in sickle cell disease. Ann Hematol 2005, 84:71-75.
92. Hamilton A.M., Pope F.M., Condon P.I., et al. Angioid streaks in Jamaican patients with homozygous sickle cell disease. Br J Ophthalmol 1981, 65:341-347.
93. Hankins J., Aygun B. Pharmacotherapy in sickle cell disease--state of the art and future prospects. Br J Haematol 2009, 145(3):296-308.
94. Hanscom T.A. Indirect treatment of peripheral retinal neovascularization. Am J Ophthalmol 1982, 93:88-91.
95. Harlan J.M. Anti-adhesion therapy in sickle cell disease. Blood 2000, 95:365-367.
96. Hebbel R.P., Osarogiagbon R., Kaul D. The endothelial biology of sickle cell disease: inflammation and a chronic vasculopathy. Microcirculation 2004, 11(2):129-151.
97. Hebbel R.P. Adhesive interactions of sickle erythrocytes with endothelium. J Clin Investig 1997, 100:S83-S86.
98. Hebbel R.P. Blockade of adhesion of sickle cells to endothelium by monoclonal antibodies. N Eng J Med 2000, 342:1910-1911.
99. Hedreville M., Connes P., Romana M., et al. Central retinal vein occlusion in a sickle cell trait carrier after a cycling race. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2009, 41(1):14-18.
100. Hirst C., Owusu-Ofori S. Prophylactic antibiotics for preventing pneumococcal infection in childrenwith sickle cell disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002, (3):CD003427.
101. Hofricher J., Ross P.D., Eaton W.A. Kinetics and mechanism of deoxyhemoglobin S gelation: a new approach to understanding sickle cell disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1974, 71:4864-4868.
102. Holash J., Maisonpierre P.C., Compton D., et al. Vessel cooption, regression, and growth in tumors mediated by angiopoietins and VEGF. Science 1999, 284:1994-1998.
103. Holash J., Wiegand S.J., Yancopoloulos G.D. New model for tumor angiogenesis: dynamic balance between vessel regression and growth mediated by angiopoietins and VEGF. Oncogene 1999, 18:5356-5362.
104. Hoppe C., Klitz W., D'Harlingue K., et al. Stroke Prevention Trial in Sickle Cell Anemia (STOP) Investigators. Confirmation of an association between the TNF(-308) promoter polymorphism and stroke risk in children with sickle cell anemia. Stroke 2007, 38(8):2241-2246.
105. Hoppe C., Klitz W., Noble J., et al. Distinct HLA associations by stroke subtype in children with sickle cell anemia. Blood 2003, 101(7):2865-2869.
106. Isenberg S.J., McRee W.E., Jedrzynski M.S., et al. Effects of sickle cell anemia on conjunctival oxygen tension and temperature. Arch Intern Med 1987, 147:67-69.
107. Jampol L.M., Farber M., Rabb M.F., et al. An update on techniques of photocoagulation treatment of proliferative sickle cell retinopathy. Eye 1991, 5(Pt 2):260-263.
108. Jampol L.M., Green J.L., Goldberg M.F., et al. An update on vitrectomy surgery and retinal detachment repair in sickle cell disease. Arch Ophthalmol 1982, 100:591-593.
109. Jampol L.M., Condon P., Dizon-Moore R., et al. Salmon patch hemorrhages after central retinal artery occlusion in sickle cell disease. Arch Ophthalmol 1981, 99:237-240.
110. Jampol L.M., Goldberg M.F. Retinal breaks after photocoagulation of proliferative sickle cell retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1980, 98:676-679.
111. Joneckis C.C., Shock D.D., Cunningham M.L., et al. Glycoprotein IV-independent adhesion of sickle red blood cells to immobilized thrombospondin under flow conditions. Blood 1996, 87:4862-4870.
112. Karaman K., Culic S., Erceg I., et al. Treatment of post-traumatic trabecular mashwork thrombosis and secondary glaucoma with intracameral tissue plasminogen activator in previously unrecognized sickle cell anemia. Coll Antropol 2005, 29(Suppl 1):123-126.
113. Kato G.J., Hebbel R.P., Steinberg M.H., et al. Vasculopathy in sickle cell disease: biology, pathophysiology, genetics, translational medicine, and new research directions. Am J Hematol 2009, 84(9):618-625.
114. Kim S.Y., Mocanu C., Mcleod D.S., et al. Expression of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in sickle cell retina and choroid. Exp Eye Res 2003, 77(4):433-445.
115. Kimmel A.S., Magargal L.E., Maizel R., et al. Proliferative sickle retinopathy under age 20: a review. Ophthalmic Surg 1987, 18:126-128.
116. Kimmel A.S., Margargal L.E., Stephens R.F., et al. Peripheral circumferential retinal scatter photocoagulation for the treatment of proliferative sickle retinopathy. Ophthalmology 1986, 93:1429-1434.
117. Kimmel A.S., Magargal L.E., Tasman W.S. Proliferative sickle retinopathy and neovascularization of the disc: regression following treatment with peripheral retinal scatter laser photocoagulation. Ophthalmic Surg 1986, 17:20-22.
118. Klein M.L., Jampol L.M., Condon P.I., et al. Central retinal artery occlusion without retrobulbar hemorrhage after retrobulbar anesthesia. Am J Ophthalmol 1982, 93:573-577.
119. Knisely M.H., Bloch E.H., Eliot T.S., Warn, et al. Sludged blood. Science 1947, 106:431-440.
120. Konotey-Ahulu F.I.D. The sickle cell diseases: clinical manifestations including the " sickle crisis" Arch Intern Med 1974, 133:611-619.
121. Lanaro C., Franco-Penteado C.F., Albuqueque D.M., et al. Altered levels of cytokines and inflammatory mediators in plasma and leukocytes of sickle cell anemia patients and effects of hydroxyurea therapy. J Leukoc Biol 2009, 85(2):235-242.
122. Lard L.R., Mul F.P., de Haas M., et al. Neutrophil activation in sickle cell disease. J Leukoc Biol 1999, 66:411-415.
123. Lasky L.A. Selectins: interpreters of cell-specific carbohydrate information during inflammation. Science 1992, 258:964-969.
124. Lee C.B., Woolf M.B., Galinos S.O., et al. Cryotherapy of proliferative sickle retinopathy. Part I. Single freeze-thaw cycle. Ann Ophthalmol 1975, 7:1299-1308.
125. Lee C.M., Charles H.C., Smith R.T., et al. Quantification of macular ischemia in sickle cell retinopathy. Br J Ophthalmol 1987, 71:540-545.
126. Leen J.S., Ratnakaram R., Del Priore L.V., et al. Anterior segment ischemia after vitrectomy in sickle cell disease. Retina 2002, 22:216-219.
127. Levasseur D.N., Ryan T.M., Pawlik K.M., et al. Correction of a mouse model of sickle cell disease: lentiviral/antisickling beta-globin gene transduction of unmobilized, purified hematopoietic stem cells. Blood 2003, 102:4312-4319.
128. Liang J.C., Jampol L.M. Spontaneous peripheral chorioretinal neovascularization in association with sickle cell anemia. Br J Ophthalmol 1983, 67:107-110.
129. Lima C.S., Rocha E.M., Silva N.M., et al. Risk factors for conjunctival and retinal vessel alterations in sickle cell disease. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2006, 84(2):234-241.
130. Locatelli F. Related umblical cord blood transplantation in patients with thalassemia and sickle cell disease. Blood 2003, 101:2137-2143.
131. Lorey F.W., Arnopp J., Cunningham G.C. Distribution of hemoglobinopathy variants by ethnicity in a multiethnic state. Genet Epidemiol 1996, 13:501-512.
132. Lowry W.E., Richter L., Yachechko R., et al. Generation of human induced pluripotent stem cells from dermal fibroblasts. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2008, 105:2883-2888.
133. Lu M., Perez V.L., Ma N. VEGF increases retinal vascular ICAM-1 expression in vivo. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1999, 40:1808-1812.
134. Lutty G.A., Goldberg M.F. Ophalmological complications. Sickle Cell Disease: Basic Principles and Clinical Practice 1994, 703-724. Raven Press, New York. S.H. Embury, R.P. Hebbel, N. Mohandas (Eds.).
135. Lutty G.A., Otsuji T., Taomoto M., et al. Mechanisms for sickle red blood cell retention in choroid. Curr Eye Res 2002, 25(3):163-171.
136. Lutty G.A., Merges C., McLeod D.S., et al. Nonperfusion of retina and choroid in transgenic mouse models of sickle cell disease. Curr Eye Res 1998, 17(4):438-444.
137. Lutty G.A., Phelan A., McLeod D.S., et al. A rat model for sickle cell-mediated vaso-occlusion in retina. Microvasc Res 1996, 52(3):270-280.
138. Lutty G.A., McLeod D.S., Pachnis A., et al. Retinal and choroidal neovascularization in a transgenic mouse model of sickle cell disease. Am J Pathol 1994, 145(2):490-497.
139. Lutty G.A., Merges C., Crone S., et al. Immunohistochemical insights into sickle cell retinopathy. Curr Eye Res 1994, 13(2):125-138.
140. Lutty G.A., Taomoto M., Cao J., McLeod D.S., et al. Inhibition of TNF-alpha-induced sickle RBC retention in retina by a VLA-4 antagonist. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2001, 42(6):1349-1355.
141. Madigan C., Malik P. Pathophysiology and therapy for haemoglobinopathies. Part I: sickle cell disease. Expert Rev Mol Med 2006, 8(9):1-23.
142. Maisonpierre P.C., Suri C., Jones P.F., et al. Angiopoietin-2, a natural antagonist for Tie-2 that disrupts in vivo angiogenesis. Science 1997, 277:55-60.
143. Malave I., Perdomo Y., Escalona E., et al. Levels of tumor necrosis factor a/cachectin (TNFa) in sera from patients with sickle cell disease. Acta Haematol 1993, 90:172-176.
144. Mandriota S.J., Pepper M.S. Regulation of angiopoietin-2 mRNA levels in bovine microvascular endothelial cells by cytokines and hypoxia. Circ Res 1998, 83:852-859.
145. Marcus R.E., Bolger J.P., Roderick P.J., et al. Central retinal artery occlusion in homozygous sickle cell (SS) disease. Clin Lab Haematol 1988, 10:467-470.
146. Marsh R.J., Ford S.M., Rabb M.F., et al. Macular vasculature, visual acuity and irreversibly sickled cells in homozygous sickle cell disease. Br J Ophthalmol 1982, 66:155-160.
147. Mason J.O. Surgical closure of macular hole in association with proliferative sickle cell retinopathy. Retina 2002, 22(4):501-502.
148. Mathews M.K., McLeod D.S., Merges C., et al. Neutrophils and leucocyte adhesion molecules in sickle cell retinopathy. Br J Ophthalmol 2002, 86:684-690.
149. McLeod D.S., Merges C., Fukushima A., et al. Histopathologic features of neovascularization in sickle cell retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol 1997, 124(4):455-472.
150. McLeod D.S., Goldberg M.F., Lutty G.A. Dual-perspective analysis of vascular formations in sickle cell retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1993, 111(9):1234-1245.
151. Mehta J.S., Whittaker K.W., Tsaloumas M.D. Latent proliferative sickle cell retinopathy in sickle cell trait. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2001, 79:81-82.
152. McLane N.J., Grizzard W.S., Kousseff B.G., et al. Angioid streaks associated with hereditary spherocytosis. Am J Ophthalmol 1984, 97:444-449.
153. Miller C.L., Imren S., Antonchuk J., et al. Feasibility of using autologous transplantation to evaluate hematopoietic stem cell-based gene therapy strategies in transgenic mouse models of human disease. Mol Ther 2002, 6(3):422-428.
154. Minatoya H., Acacio I., Goldberg M. Fluorescein angiography of the bulbar conjunctiva in sickle cell disease. Ann Ophthalmol 1973, 5:908-992.
155. Mohan J.S., Lip P.L., Blann A.D., et al. The angiopoietin/Tie-2 system in proliferative sickle retinopathy: relation to vascular endothelial growth factor, its soluble receptor Flt-1 and von Willebrand factor, and to the effects of laser treatment. Br J Ophthalmol 2005, 89:815-819.
156. Moore C., Ehlayel M., Leiva L., et al. New concepts in the immunology of sickle cell disease. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1996, 76:385-403.
157. Morgan D.M., D'Amico D.J. Vitrectomy surgery in proliferative sickle retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol 1987, 104:133-138.
158. Moriarty B.J., Acheson R.W., Condon P.I., et al. Patterns of visual loss in untreated sickle cell retinopathy. Eye 1988, 2(Pt 3):330-335.
159. Moriarty B.J., Acheson R.W., Serjeant G.R. Epiretinal membranes in sickle cell disease. Br J Ophthalmol 1987, 71:466-469.
160. Moriarty B.J., Webb D.K., Serjeant G.R. Treatment of subretinal neovascularization associated with angioid streaks in sickle cell retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1987, 105:1327-1328.
161. Morris C.R. Mechanisms of vasculopathy in sickle cell disease and thalassemia. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program 2008, 177-185.
162. Mozzarelli A., Hofricher J., Eaton W.A. Delay time of hemoglobin S polymerization prevents most cells from sickling in vivo. Science 1987, 237:500-506.
163. Nagel R.L., Ranney H.M. Genetic epidemiology of structural mutations of the beta-globin gene. Semin Hematol 1990, 27:342-359.
164. Nagel R.L., Fabry M.E., Steinberg M.H. The paradox of hemoglobin SC disease. Blood Rev 2003, 17(3):167-178.
165. Nagel R.L., Fabry M.E. The panoply of animal models for sickle cell anaemia. Br J Haematol 2001, 112(1):19-25.
166. Nagpal K.C., Goldberg M.F., Rabb M.F. Ocular manifestations of sickle hemoglobinopathies. Surv Ophthalmol 1977 Mar-Apr, 21(5):391-411.
167. Nagpal K.C., Asdourian G., Goldbaum M., et al. Angioid streaks and sickle hemoglobinopathies. Br J Ophthalmol 1976, 60:31-34.
168. Nagpal K.C., Patrianakos D., Asdourian G.K., et al. Spontaneous regression (autoinfarction) of proliferative sickle retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol 1975, 80:885-892.
169. Nagpal K.C., Asdourian G.K., Patrianakos D., et al. Proliferative retinopathy in sickle cell trait. Arch Intern Med 1977, 137:325-328.
170. Oh H., Takagi H., Suzuma K., et al. Hypoxia and vascular endothelial growth factor selectively upregulate angiopoietin-2 in bovine microvascular endothelial cells. J Biol Chem 1999, 274:15732-15739.
171. Park I.H., Zhao R., West J.A., et al. Reprogramming of human somatic cells to pluripotency with defined factors. Nature 2008, 451:141-146.
172. Paszty C., Brion C.M., Manci E., et al. Transgenic knockout mice with exclusively human sickle hemoglobin and sickle cell disease. Science 1997, 278:876-878.
173. Paton D. The conjunctival sign of sickle cell disease. Arch Ophthalmol 1961, 66:90-94.
174. Paton D. The conjunctival sign of sickle cell disease: further observations. Arch Ophthalmol 1962, 68:627-632.
175. Pawlik R., Westerman K.A., Fabry M.E., et al. Correction of of sickle cell disease in transgenic mouse models by gene therapy. Science 2001, 294:2368-2371.
176. Peachey N.S., Charles H.C., Lee C.M., et al. Electroretinographic findings in sickle cell retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1987, 105:934-938.
177. Peachey N.S., Gagliano D.A., Jacobson M.S., et al. Correlation of electroretinographic findings and peripheral retinal nonperfusion in patients with sickle cell retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1990, 108:1106-1109.
178. Penman A.D., Talbot J.F., Chuang E.L., et al. New classification of peripheral retinal vascular changes in sickle cell disease. Br J Ophthalmol 1994, 78:681-689.
179. Perelman N., Selvaraj S.K., Batra S., et al. Placenta growth factor activates monocytes and correlates with sickle cell disease severity. Blood 2003, 102:1506-1514.
180. Perlman J.I., Forman S., Gonzalez E.R. Retrobulbar ischemic optic neuropathy associated with sickle cell disease. J Neuro-Ophthalmol 1994, 14:45-48.
181. Powars D., Hiti A. Sickle cell anemia: beta s gene cluster haplotypes as genetic markers for severe disease expression. Am J Dis Child 1993, 147:1197-1202.
182. Procianoy F., Brandão Filho M., Cruz A.A., et al. Subperiosteal hematoma and orbital compression syndrome following minor frontal trauma in sickle cell anemia: case report. Arq Bras Oftalmol 2008, 71(2):262-264.
183. Pulido J.S., Flynn H.W., Clarkson J.G., et al. Pars plana vitrectomy in the management of complications of proliferative sickle retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1988, 106:1553-1557.
184. Raichand M., Dizon R.V., Nagpal K.C., et al. Macular holes associated with proliferative sickle cell retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1987, 96:1592-1596.
185. Rednam K.R.V., Jampol L.M., Goldberg M.F. Scatter retinal photocoagulation for proliferative sickle cell retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol 1982, 93:594-599.
186. Ribeiro J.A., Lucena D da R., Lucena L da R., et al. Proliferative sickle cell retinopathy associated with sickle cell trait and gestational diabetes: case report. Arq Bras Oftalmol 2009, 72(3):400-402.
187. Rodgers G.P., Roy M.S., Noguchi C., et al. Is there a role for selective vasodilation in the management of sickle cell disease?. Blood 1988, 71:597-602.
188. Romayananda N., Goldberg M.F., Green W.R. Histopathology of sickle cell retinopathy. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otol 1973, 77:652-676.
189. Roth S.E., Magargal L.E., Kimmel A.S., et al. Central retinal artery occlusion in proliferative sickle cell retinopathy after retrobulbar injection. Ann Ophthalmol 1988, 20:221-224.
190. Roy M.S., Gascon P., Giuliani D. Macular blood flow velocity in sickle cell disease, relation to red cell density. Br J Ophthalmol 1995, 79:742-745.
191. Roy M.S., Rodgers G., Gunkel R., et al. Color vision defects in sickle cell anemia. Arch Ophthalmol 1987, 105:1676-1678.
192. Ryan S.J., Goldberg M.F. Anterior segment ischemia following scleral buckling in sickle cell hemoglobinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol 1971, 72:35-50.
193. Ryan S.J. Occlusion of the macular capillaries in sickle cell hemoglobin C disease. Am J Ophthalmol 1974, 77:459-461.
194. Saleh A.W., Hillen H.F., Duits A.J. Levels of endothelial, neutrophil and platelet-specific factors in sickle cell anemia patients during hydroxyurea therapy. Acta Haematol 1999, 102:31-37.
195. Sanders R.J., Brown G.C., Rosenstein R.B., et al. Foveal avascular zone diameter and sickle cell disease. Arch Ophthalmol 1991, 109(6):812-815.
196. Sayag D., Binaghi M., Souied E.H., et al. Retinal photocoagulation for proliferative sickle cell retinopathy: a prospective clinical trial with new sea fan classification. Eur J Ophthalmol 2008, 18(2):248-254.
197. Schubert H.D. Schisis in sickle cell retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 2005, 123:1607-1609.
198. Seiberth V. Transscleral diode laser photocoagulation in proliferative sickle cell retinopathy. Ophthalmology 1999, 106(9):1828-1829.
199. Serjeant G.R. The Clinical Features of Sickle Cell Disease 1974, Elsevier, New York.
200. Serjeant G.R., Serjeant B.E. Nomenclature and genetics of sickle cell disease. Sickle Cell Disease 2001, 31-40. Oxford University Press, Oxford. ed 3. G.R. Serjeant, B.E. Serjeant (Eds.).
201. Serjeant G.R., Serjeant B.E. The eyes. Sickle Cell Disease 2001, 366-392. Oxford University Press, Oxford. ed 3. G.R. Serjeant, B.E. Serjeant (Eds.).
202. Shaikh S. Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) for the treatment of proliferative sickle retinopathy. Indian J Ophthalmol 2008, 56:259.
203. Shields J.A., Federman J.L., Tomer T.L., et al. Angioid streaks, I. Ophthalmoscope variations and diagnostic problems. Br J Ophthalmol 1975, 59:257-266.
204. Shima D.T., Deutsch U., D'Amore P. Hypoxic induction of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in human epithelial cells is mediated by increases in mRNA stability. FEBS Lett 1995, 370:203-208.
205. Sidman J.D., Brownlee R.E., Smith W.C., et al. Orbital complications of sickle cell disease. Internat J Pediat Otorhinolaryngol 1990, 169:181-184.
206. Singerman L.J. Angioid streaks in thalassemia. Br J Ophthalmol 1983, 67:558.
207. Siqueira R.C., Costa R.A., Scott I.U., et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) injection associated with regression of retinal neovascularization caused by sickle cell retinopathy. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2006, 84:834-835.
208. Smith R.E., Wise K., Kingsley R.M. Idiopathic polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy and sickle cell retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol 2000, 129(4):544-546.
209. Solovey A., Gui L., Ramakrishnan S., et al. Sickle cell anemia as a possible state of enhanced anti-apoptotic tone: survival effect of vascular endothelial growth factor on circulating and unanchored endothelial cells. Blood 1999, 93(11):3824-3830.
210. Steinberg M.H., Thein S.L. Genetic Modulation of sickle cell disease. Renaissance of Sickle Cell Disease Research in the Genome Era 2007, 193-206. Imperial College Press, London. B.S. Pace (Ed.).
211. Stevens T.S., Busse B., Lee C.B., et al. Sickling hemoglobinopathies. Macular and perimacular vascular abnormalities. Arch Ophthalmol 1974, 92:455-463.
212. Stuart M.J., Settty B.N. Sickle cell acute chest syndrome: pathogenesis and rationale for therapy. Blood 1999, 95:1555-1560.
213. Sugihara K., Sugihara T., Mohandas N., et al. Thrombospondin mediates adherence of CD36+ sickle erythrocytes to endothelial cells. Blood 1992, 80:2634-2642.
214. Swerlick R., Eckman J., Kumar A., et al. Alpha 4 beta 1 expression on sickle reticulocytes: vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 dependent binding to the endothelium. Blood 1993, 82:1891-1899.
215. Taban M., Sears J.E., Crouch E., et al. Acute idiopathic frosted branch angiitis. J AAPOS 2007, 11(3):286-287.
216. Takagi H., Koyama S., Seike H., et al. Potential role of angiopoietin/Tie-2 system in ischemia-induced retinal neovascularization. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2003, 44:393-402.
217. Takahashi K., Yamanaka S. Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors. Cell 2006, 126:663-676.
218. Talbot A.F., Bird A.C., Maude G.H., et al. Sickle cell retinopathy in Jamaican children: fyrther observation from a cohort study. Br J Ophthalmol 1988, 72:727-732.
219. Talbot A.F., Bird A.C., Rabb L.M., et al. Sickle cell retinopathy in Jamaican children: a search for prognostic factors. Br J Ophthalmol 1983, 67:782-785.
220. Talbot J.F., Bird A.C., Serjeant G.R., et al. Sickle cell retinopathy in young children in Jamaica. Br J Ophthalmol 1982, 66:149-154.
221. Thomas P.W., Higgs D.R., Serjeant G.R. Benign clinical course in homozygous sickle cell disease: a search for predictors. J Clin Epidemiol 1997, 50:121-126.
222. Townes T.M. Gene replacement therapy for sickle cell disease and other blood disorders. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program 2008, 193-196.
223. Traoré J., Boitre J.P., Bogoreh I.A., et al. Sickle cell disease and retinal damage: a study of 38 cases at the African Tropical Ophthalmology Institute (IOTA) in Bamako. Med Trop (Mars) 2006, 66(3):252-254.
224. Trudel M., De Paepe M.E., Chrétien N., et al. Sickle cell disease of transgenic SAD mice. Blood 1994, 84(9):3189-3197.
225. Vichinsky E. New therapies in sickle cell disease. Lancet 2002, 360(9333):629-631.
226. Wajer S.D., Taomoto M., McLeod D.S., et al. Velocity measurements of normal and sickle red blood cells in the ratretinal and choroidal vasculatures. Microvasc Res 2000, 60(3):281-293.
227. Wallow I.H.L., Davis M.D. Clinicopathologic correlation of xenon arc and argon laser photocoagulation. Arch Ophthalmol 1979, 97:2308-2314.
228. Welch R.B., Goldberg M.F. Sickle-cell hemoglobin and its relation to fundus abnormality. Arch Ophthalmol 1966, 75:353-362.
229. Williamson T.H., Rajput R., Laidlaw D.A.H., Mokete B. Vitreoretinal management of the complications of sickle cell retinopathy by observation or pars plana vitrectomy. Eye 2008, 296:1-7.
230. Witkin A.J., Rogers A.H., Ko T.H., et al. Optical coherence tomography demonstration of macular infarction in sickle cell retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 2006, 124(5):746-747.
231. Wood K.C., Hsu L.L., Gladwin M.T. Sickle cell disease vasculopathy: a state of nitric oxide resistance. Free Radic Biol Med 2008, 44(8):1506-1528.
232. Wun T., Paglieroni T., Field C.L., et al. Platelet-erythrocyte adhesion in sickle cell disease. J Investig Med 1999, 47:121-127.
233. Yu J., Vodyanik M.A., Smuga-Otto K., et al. Induced pluripotent stem cell lines derived from human somatic cells. Science 2007, 318:1917-1920.
234. Zimmerman S.A., O'Branski E.E., Rosse W.F., et al. Hemoglobin S/O(Arab): thirteen new cases and review of the literature. Am J Hematol 1999, 60(4):279-284.