The Disclosure Processes Model: Understanding Disclosure Decision Making and Postdisclosure Outcomes Among People Living With a Concealable Stigmatized Identity

Psychological Bulletin

Volumn 136, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 236-256

  Chaudoir, Stephenie R ^a   Fisher, Jeffrey D ^b  

^a BRADLEY UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT   (United States)

Author keywords

concealable stigmatized identities; disclosure; goals; psychological inhibition; social support

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; COMPREHENSION; DECISION MAKING; HUMAN; IDENTITY; INHIBITION (PSYCHOLOGY); MOTIVATION; PHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; SELF DISCLOSURE; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIAL SUPPORT;

COMPREHENSION; DECISION MAKING; GOALS; HUMANS; IDENTIFICATION (PSYCHOLOGY); INHIBITION (PSYCHOLOGY); PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; SELF DISCLOSURE; SOCIAL SUPPORT; STEREOTYPING;

EID: 77649195505     PISSN: 00332909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0018193     Document Type: Article

References (170)

1. Afifi W.A., and Caughlin J.P. A close look at revealing secrets and some consequences that follow. Communication Research 33 (2006) 467-488
2. Ahrens C.E. Being silenced: The impact of negative social reactions on the disclosure of rape. American Journal of Community Psychology 38 (2006) 263-274
3. Ahrens C.E., Campbell R., Ternier-Thames N.K., Wasco S.M., and Sefl T. Deciding whom to tell: Expectations and outcomes of rape survivors' first disclosures. Psychology of Women Quarterly 31 (2007) 38-49
4. Alonzo A.A., and Reynolds N.R. Stigma, HIV, and AIDS: An exploration and elaboration of a stigma trajectory. Social Science & Medicine 41 (1995) 303-315
5. Altman I., and Taylor D.A. Social penetration: The development of interpersonal relationships (1973), Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, New York, NY
6. Beals K.P., and Peplau L.A. Social involvement, disclosure of sexual orientation, and the quality of lesbian relationships. Psychology of Women Quarterly 25 (2001) 10-19
7. Beals K.P., and Peplau L.A. Identity support, identity devaluation, and well-being among lesbians. Psychology of Women Quarterly 29 (2005) 140-148
8. Beals K.P., Peplau L.A., and Gable S.L. Stigma management and well-being: The role of perceived social support, emotional processing, and suppression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 35 (2009) 867-879
9. Berg J.H., and Wright-Buckley C. Effects of racial similarity and interviewer intimacy in a peer counseling analogue. Journal of Counseling Psychology 35 (1988) 377-384
10. Black B.P., and Shandor M. Calculating the risks and benefits of disclosure in African American women who have HIV. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing 31 (2002) 688-696
11. Broman-Fulks J., Ruggiero K.J., Hanson R.F., Smith D.W., Resnick H.S., Kilpatrick D.G., and Saunders B.E. Sexual assault disclosure in relation to adolescent mental health: Results from the national survey of adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 36 (2007) 260-266
12. Butler E.A., Egloff B., Wlhelm F.H., Smith N.C., Erickson E.A., and Gross J.J. The social consequences of expressive suppression. Emotion 3 (2003) 48-67
13. Cain R. Stigma management and gay identity development. Social Work 36 (1991) 67-73
14. Carver C.S. Approach, avoidance, and the self-regulation of affect and action. Motivation and Emotion 30 (2006) 105-110
15. Carver C.S., and Scheier M.F. On the self-regulation of behavior (1998), Cambridge University Press, New York, NY
16. Carver C.S., and White T.L. Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67 (1994) 319-333
17. Chandra P.S., Deepthivarma S., Jairam K.R., and Thomas T. Relationship of psychological morbidity and quality of life to illness-related disclosure among HIV-infected persons. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 54 (2003) 199-203
18. Chaudoir, S. R. (2009). HIV/AIDS disclosure decision making and outcomes: A longitudinal, event-based analysis. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Connecticut, Storrs.
19. Chaudoir, S. R., & Quinn, D. M. (in press). Revealing concealable stigmas: An examination of the psychological correlates and outcomes of positive first-time disclosure experiences. Journal of Social Issues
20. Chesney M.A., Chambers D.B., Taylor J.M., Johnson L.M., and Folkman S. Coping effectiveness training for men living with HIV: Results from a randomized clinical trial testing a group-based intervention. Psychosomatic Medicine 65 (2003) 1038-1046
21. Church M.A., Elliot A.J., and Gable S.L. Perceptions of classroom environment, achievement goals, and achievement outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology 93 (2001) 43-54
22. Clair J.A., Beatty J.E., and Maclean T.L. Out of sight but not out of mind: Managing invisible social identities in the workplace. Academy of Management Review 30 (2005) 78-95
23. Clark H.J., Lindner G., Armistead L., and Austin B. Stigma, disclosure, and psychological functioning among HIV-infected and non-infected African-American women. Women & Health 38 (2003) 57-71
24. Cole S.W., Kemeny M.E., and Taylor S.E. Social identity and physical health: Accelerated HIV progression in rejection-sensitive gay men. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72 (1997) 320
25. Cole S.W., Kemeny M.E., Taylor S.E., and Visscher B.R. Elevated physical health risk among gay men who conceal their homosexual identity. Health Psychology 15 (1996) 243-251
26. Cole S.W., Kemeny M.E., Taylor S.E., Visscher B.R., and Fahey J.L. Accelerated course of human immunodeficiency virus infection in gay men who conceal their homosexual identity. Psychosomatic Medicine 58 (1996) 219-231
27. Collins N.L., and Miller L.C. Self-disclosure and liking: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin 116 (1994) 457-475
28. Corrigan P.W. Dealing with stigma through personal disclosure. In: Corrigan P.W. (Ed). On the stigma of mental illness: Practical strategies for research and social change (2005), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 257-280
29. Corrigan P.W., and Kleinlein P. The impact of mental illness stigma. In: Corrigan P.W. (Ed). On the stigma of mental illness: Practical strategies for research and social change (2005), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 11-44
30. Cozby P.C. Self disclosure: A literature review. Psychological Bulletin 79 (1973) 73-91
31. Crocker J., and Canevello A. Creating and undermining social support in communal relationships: The role of compassionate and self-image goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95 (2008) 555-575
32. Crocker J., and Major B. Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 96 (1989) 608-630
33. Day N.E., and Schoenrade P. Staying in the closet versus coming out: Relationships between communication about sexual orientation and work attitudes. Personnel Psychology 50 (1997) 147-163
34. DePaulo B.M., and Friedman H.S. Nonverbal communication. In: Gilbert D.T., Fiske S.T., and Lindzey G. (Eds). The handbook of social psychology. 4th ed. (1998), McGraw-Hill, Boston, MA 3-40
35. Derlega V.J., and Grzelak J. Appropriateness of self-disclosure. In: Chelune G.J. (Ed). Self-disclosures: Origins, patterns and implications of openness in interpersonal relationships (1979), Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA 151-176
36. Derlega V.J., Metts S., Petronio S., and Margulis S.T. Self-disclosure (1993), Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA
37. Derlega V.J., and Winstead B.A. HIV-infected persons' attributions for the disclosure and nondisclosure of the seropositive diagnosis to significant others. In: Manusov V., and Harvey J.H. (Eds). Attribution, communication behavior, and close relationships (2001), Cambridge University Press, New York, NY 267-283
38. Derlega V.J., Winstead B.A., and Folk-Barron L. Reasons for and against disclosing HIV-seropositive test results to an intimate partner: A functional perspective. In: Petronio S. (Ed). Balancing the secrets of private disclosure (2000), Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ 53-69
39. Derlega V.J., Winstead B.A., Greene K., Serovich J., and Elwood W.N. Perceived HIV-related stigma and HIV disclosure to relationship partners after finding out about the seropositive diagnosis. Journal of Health Psychology 7 (2002) 415-432
40. Derlega V.J., Winstead B.A., Greene K., Serovich J., and Elwood W.N. Reasons for HIV disclosure/nondisclosure in close relationships: Testing a model of HIV-disclosure decision making. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 23 (2004) 747-767
41. Derryberry D., and Reed M.A. Temperament and attention: Orienting toward and away from positive and negative signals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66 (1994) 1128-1139
42. Dindia K. "Going into and coming out of the closet": The dialectics of stigma disclosure. In: Montgomery B.M., and Baxter L.A. (Eds). Dialectical approaches to studying personal relationships (1998), Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ 83-108
43. Douglas K.M., and Sutton R.M. Effects of communication goals and expectancies on language abstraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84 (2003) 682-696
44. Dovidio J.F., Kawakami K., and Gaertner S.L. Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82 (2002) 62-68
45. Downey G., and Feldman S.I. Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70 (1996) 1327-1343
46. Duru O.K., Collins R.L., Ciccarone D.H., Morton S.C., Stall R., Beckman R., and Kanouse D.E. Correlates of sex without serostatus disclosure among a national probability sample of HIV patients. AIDS and Behavior 10 (2006) 495-507
47. Edwards J.R., and Lambert L.S. Methods for integrating moderation and mediation: A general analytical framework using moderated path analysis. Psychological Methods 12 (2007) 1-22
48. Ekman P., and Friesen W.V. Detecting deception from the body or face. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 29 (1974) 288-298
49. Elliot A.J. Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. Educational Psychologist 34 (1999) 169-189
50. Elliot A.J., and Church M.A. A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72 (1997) 218-232
51. Elliot A.J., and Church M.A. Client-articulated avoidance goals in the therapy context. Journal of Counseling Psychology 49 (2002) 243-254
52. Elliot A.J., Gable S.L., and Mapes R.R. Approach and avoidance motivation in the social domain. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 32 (2006) 378-391
53. Elliot A.J., and Harackiewicz J.M. Approach and avoidance achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70 (1996) 461-475
54. Elliot A.J., and Sheldon K.M. Avoidance personal goals and the personality-illness relationship. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75 (1998) 1282-1299
55. Esterling B.A., Antoni M.H., Fletcher M.A., Margulies S., and Schneiderman N. Emotional disclosure through writing or speaking modulates latent Epstein-Barr virus antibody titers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 62 (1994) 130-140
56. Farina A. Mental illness and the impact of believing others know about it. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 77 (1971) 1-5
57. Frable D.E., Blackstone T., and Scherbaum C. Marginal and mindful: Deviants in social interactions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 59 (1990) 140-149
58. Frable D.E.S., Platt L., and Hoey S. Concealable stigmas and positive self-perceptions: Feeling better around similar others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (1998) 909-922
59. Frattaroli J. Experimental disclosure and its moderators: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 132 (2006) 823-865
60. Frijda N.H. Moods, emotion episodes, and emotions. In: Lewis M., Haviland J.M., Lewis M., and Haviland J.M. (Eds). Handbook of emotions (1993), Guilford Press, New York, NY 381-403
61. Frisina P.G., Borod J.C., and Lepore S.J. A meta-analysis of the effects of written emotional disclosure on the health outcomes of clinical populations. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 192 (2004) 629-634
62. Gable S.L. Approach and avoidance social motives and goals. Journal of Personality 74 (2006) 175-222
63. Gable S.L., and Berkman E.T. Making connections and avoiding loneliness: Approach and avoidance social motives and goals. In: Elliot A.J. (Ed). Handbook of approach and avoidance motivation (2008), Psychology Press, New York, NY 203-216
64. Gable S.L., Reis H.T., and Elliot A.J. Behavioral activation and inhibition in everyday life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78 (2000) 1135-1149
65. Gable S.L., Reis H.T., and Elliot A.J. Evidence for bivariate systems: An empirical test of appetition and aversion across domains. Journal of Research in Personality 37 (2003) 349-372
66. Gable S.L., and Strachman A. Approaching social rewards and avoiding social punishments: Appetitive and aversive social motivation. In: Shah J.Y., and Gardner W.L. (Eds). Handbook of motivation science (2008), Guilford Press, New York, NY 561-575
67. Garcia J.A., and Crocker J. Reasons for disclosing depression matter: The consequences of having egosystem and ecosystem goals. Social Science and Medicine 67 (2008) 453-462
68. Genberg B.L., Kawichai S., Chingono A., Sendah M., Chariyalertsak S., Konda K.A., and Celentano D.D. Assessing HIV/AIDS stigma and discrimination in developing countries. AIDS and Behavior 12 (2007) 772-780
69. Gerrard M., Gibbons E.X., and Bushman B.J. The relation between perceived vulnerability to HIV and precautionary sexual behavior. Psychological Bulletin 119 (1996) 390-409
70. Goffman E. Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity (1963), Simon & Schuster, New York, NY
71. Goldberg A.E. Talking about family: Disclosure practices of adults raised by lesbian, gay, and bisexual parents. Journal of Family Issues 28 (2007) 100-131
72. Goodman-Brown T., Edelstein R.S., Goodman G.S., Jones D.P.H., and Gordon D.S. Why children tell: A model of children's disclosure of sexual abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect 27 (2003) 525-540
73. Greenberg M.A., and Stone A.A. Emotional disclosure about traumas and its relation to health: Effects of previous disclosure and trauma severity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63 (1992) 75-84
74. Greene K., Derlega V.J., and Mathews A. Self-disclosure in personal relationships. In: Vangelisti A.L., and Perlman D. (Eds). The Cambridge handbook of personal relationships (2006), Cambridge University Press, New York, NY 409-427
75. Greene K., Derlega V.J., Yep G.A., and Petronio S. Privacy and disclosure of HIV in interpersonal relationships: A sourcebook for researchers and practitioners (2003), Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ
76. Griffith K.H., and Hebl M.R. The disclosure dilemma for gay men and lesbians: "Coming out" at work. Journal of Applied Psychology 87 (2002) 1191-1199
77. Hays R.B., McKusick L., Pollack L., and Hilliard R. Disclosing HIV seropositivity to significant others. AIDS 7 (1993) 425-431
78. Helgeson V.S., Reynolds K.A., and Tomich P.L. A meta-analytic review of benefit finding and growth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 74 (2006) 797-816
79. Herek G.M. Hate crimes and stigma-related experiences among sexual minority adults in the United States: Prevalence estimates from a national probability sample. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 24 (2009) 54-74
80. Herek G.M., and Berrill K.T. Hate crimes: Confronting violence against lesbians and gay men (1992), Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA
81. Herrschaft D., and Mills K.I. The state of the workplace for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender Americans 2002 (2002), Human Rights Campaign, Washington, DC
82. Heyman R.E. Observation of couple conflicts: Clinical assessment applications, stubborn truths, and shaky foundations. Psychological Assessment 13 (2001) 5-35
83. Higgins E.T. Promotion and prevention: Regulatory focus as a motivational principle. In: Zanna M.P. (Ed). Advances in experimental social psychology (1998), Academic Press, San Diego, CA 1-46
84. Impett E.A., Strachman A., Finkel E.J., and Gable S.L. Maintaining sexual desire in intimate relationships: The importance of approach goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 94 (2008) 808-823
85. Jones E.E., Farina A., Hastorf A.H., Markus H., Miller D.T., and Scott R.A. Social stigma: The psychology of marked relationships (1984), Freeman, New York, NY
86. Jonzon E., and Lindblad F. Disclosure, reactions, and social support: Findings from a sample of adult victims of child sexual abuse. Child Maltreatment 9 (2004) 190-200
87. Jonzon E., and Lindblad F. Adult female victims of child sexual abuse: Multitype maltreatment and disclosure characteristics related to subjective health. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 20 (2005) 651-666
88. Jourard S.M. Self-disclosure: An experimental analysis of the transparent self (1971), Wiley, Oxford, England
89. Kaiser C.R., Vick S.B., and Major B. Prejudice expectations moderate preconscious attention to cues that are threatening to social identity. Psychological Science 17 (2006) 332-338
90. Kalichman S.C., DiMarco M., Austin J., Luke W., and Difonzo K. Stress, social support, and HIV-status disclosure to family and friends among HIV-positive men and women. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 26 (2003) 315-331
91. Kalichman S.C., and Hunter T.L. The disclosure of celebrity HIV infection: Its effects on public attitudes. American Journal of Public Health 82 (1992) 1374-1376
92. Kalichman S.C., and Nachimson D. Self-efficacy and disclosure of HIV-positive serostatus to sex partners. Health Psychology 18 (1999) 281-287
93. Kashy D.A., and Kenny D.A. The analysis of data from dyads and groups. In: Reis H.T., and Judd C.M. (Eds). Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (2000), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK 451-477
94. Kelly A.E. The psychology of secrets (2002), Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, NY
95. Kelly A.E., and McKillop K.J. Consequences of revealing personal secrets. Psychological Bulletin 120 (1996) 450-465
96. Kruger J., Epley N., Parker J., and Ng Z. Egocentrism over e-mail: Can we communicate as well as we think?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 89 (2005) 925-936
97. Lamb S., and Edgar-Smith S. Aspects of disclosure: Mediators of outcome of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 9 (1994) 307-326
98. Laurenceau J., Barrett L.F., and Pietromonaco P.R. Intimacy as an interpersonal process: The importance of self-disclosure, partner disclosure, and perceived partner responsiveness in interpersonal exchanges. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (1998) 1238-1251
99. Laurenceau J., Barrett L.F., and Rovine M.J. The interpersonal process model of intimacy in marriage: A daily-diary and multilevel modeling approach. Journal of Family Psychology 19 (2005) 314-323
100. Lepore S.J. Expressive writing moderates the relation between intrusive thoughts and depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73 (1997) 1030-1037
101. Lepore S.J., Ragan J.D., and Jones S. Talking facilitates cognitive-emotional processes of adaptation to an acute stressor. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78 (2000) 499-508
102. Lepore S.J., and Smyth J.M. The writing cure: How expressive writing promotes health and emotional well-being (2002), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC
103. Limandri B.J. Disclosure of stigmatizing conditions: The discloser's perspective. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing 3 (1989) 69-78
104. Link B.G. Understanding labeling effects in the area of mental disorders: An assessment of the effects of expectations of rejection. American Sociological Review 52 (1987) 96-112
105. Link B.G., Cullen F.T., Struening E., Shrout P.E., and Dohrenwend B.P. A modified labeling theory approach to mental disorders: An empirical assessment. American Sociological Review 54 (1989) 400-426
106. Lutgendorf S.K., Antoni M.H., Ironson G., Starr K., Costello N., Zuckerman M., and Schneiderman N. Changes in cognitive coping skills and social support during cognitive behavioral stress management intervention and distress outcomes in symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-seropositive gay men. Psychosomatic Medicine 60 (1998) 204-214
107. Major B., Cozzarelli C., Sciacchitano A.M., Cooper M.L., Testa M., and Mueller P.M. Perceived social support, self-efficacy, and adjustment to abortion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 59 (1990) 452-463
108. Major B., and Gramzow R.H. Abortion as stigma: Cognitive and emotional implications of concealment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77 (1999) 735-745
109. Manne S., Ostroff J., Rini C., Fox K., Goldstein L., and Grana G. The interpersonal process model of intimacy: The role of self-disclosure, partner disclosure, and partner responsiveness in interactions between breast cancer patients and their partners. Journal of Family Psychology 18 (2004) 589-599
110. Mendoza-Denton R., Downey G., Purdie V.J., Davis A., and Pietrzak J. Sensitivity to status-based rejection: Implications for African American students' college experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002) 896-918
111. Miller L.C. Intimacy and liking: Mutual influence and the role of unique relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 59 (1990) 50-60
112. Miller L.C., and Kenny D.A. Reciprocity of self-disclosure at the individual and dyadic levels: A social relations analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50 (1986) 713-719
113. Muller D., Judd C.M., and Yzerbyt V.Y. When moderation is mediated and mediation is moderated. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 89 (2005) 852-863
114. Omarzu J. A disclosure decision model: Determining how and when individuals will self-disclose. Personality and Social Psychology Review 4 (2000) 174-185
115. Overall N.C., Fletcher G.J.O., Simpson J.A., and Sibley C.G. Regulating partners in intimate relationships: The costs and benefits of different communication strategies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 96 (2009) 620-639
116. Pachankis J.E. The psychological implications of concealing a stigma: A cognitive-affective-behavioral model. Psychological Bulletin 133 (2007) 328-345
117. Park C.L., and Folkman S. Meaning in the context of stress and coping. Review of General Psychology 1 (1997) 115-144
118. Pennebaker J.W. Emotion, disclosure, and health: An overview. In: Pennebaker J.W. (Ed). Emotion, disclosure, & health (1995), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 3-10
119. Pennebaker J.W. Writing about emotional experiences as a therapeutic process. Psychological Science 8 (1997) 162-166
120. Pennebaker J.W., Barger S.D., and Tiebout J. Disclosure of traumas and health among holocaust survivors. Psychosomatic Medicine 51 (1989) 577-589
121. Pennebaker J.W., Hughes C.F., and O'Heeron R.C. The psychophysiology of confession: Linking inhibitory and psychosomatic processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52 (1987) 781-793
122. Pennebaker J.W., Kiecolt Glaser J.K., and Glaser R. Disclosure of traumas and immune function: Health implications for psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 56 (1988) 239-245
123. Pennebaker J.W., and O'Heeron R. Confiding in others and illness rate among spouses of suicide and accidental-death victims. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 93 (1984) 473-476
124. Petrie K.J., Fontanilla I., Thomas M.G., Booth R.J., and Pennebaker J.W. Effect of written emotional expression on immune function in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection: A randomized trial. Psychosomatic Medicine 66 (2004) 272-275
125. Petronio S. Boundaries of privacy: Dialectics of disclosure (2002), State University of New York Press, Albany, NY
126. Pinel E.C. Stigma consciousness: The psychological legacy of social stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76 (1999) 114-128
127. Quattrone G.A., and Jones E.A. Selective self-disclosure with and without correspondent performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 14 (1978) 511-526
128. Quinn D.M. Concealable versus conspicuous stigmatized identities. In: Levin S., and van Laar C. (Eds). Stigma and group inequality: Social psychological perspectives (2006), Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ 83-103
129. Quinn D.M., and Chaudoir S.R. Living with a concealable stigmatized identity: The impact of anticipated stigma, centrality, salience, and cultural stigma on psychological distress and health. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 97 (2009) 634-651
130. Quinn D.M., Kahng S.K., and Crocker J. Discreditable: Stigma effects of revealing a mental illness history on test performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30 (2004) 803-815
131. Ragins B.R. Disclosure disconnects: Antecedents and consequences of disclosing invisible stigmas across life domains. Academy of Management Review 33 (2008) 194-215
132. Ragins B.R., Singh R., and Cornwell J.M. Making the invisible visible: Fear and disclosure of sexual orientation at work. Journal of Applied Psychology 92 (2007) 1103-1118
133. Rao D., Kekwaletswe T.C., Hosek S., Martinez J., and Rodriguez F. Stigma and social barriers to medication adherence with urban youth living with HIV. AIDS Care 19 (2007) 28-33
134. Reis H.T., and Gable S.L. Event-sampling and other study methods for studying everyday experience. In: Reis H.T., and Judd C.M. (Eds). Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (2000), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK 190-222
135. Reis H.T., and Patrick B.C. Attachment and intimacy: Component processes. In: Higgins E.T., and Kruglanski A.W. (Eds). Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (1996), Guilford Press, New York, NY 523-563
136. Reis H.T., and Shaver P. Intimacy as an interpersonal process. In: Duck S. (Ed). Handbook of personal relationships: Theory, research and interventions (1988), Wiley, Oxford, England 367-389
137. Rodriguez R.R., and Kelly A.E. Health effects of disclosing secrets to imagined accepting versus nonaccepting confidants. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 25 (2006) 1023-1047
138. Ruggiero K. Is disclosure of childhood rape associated with mental health outcome? Results from the national women's study. Child Maltreatment 9 (2004) 62-77
139. Sarason B.R., Sarason I.G., and Gurung R.A.R. Close personal relationships and health outcomes: A key to the role of social support. In: Sarason B.R., and Duck S. (Eds). Personal relationships: Implications for clinical and community psychology (2001), Wiley, New York, NY 15-41
140. Schneider B.E. Coming out at work: Bridging the private/public gap. Work and Occupations 13 (1986) 463-487
141. Serovich J.M., Oliver D.G., Smith S.A., and Mason T.L. Methods of HIV disclosure by men who have sex with the men to casual sexual partners. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 19 (2005) 823-832
142. Serovich J.M., Reed S., Grafsky E.L., and Andrist D. An intervention to assist men who have sex with men disclose their serostatus to casual sex partners: Results from a pilot study. AIDS Education and Prevention 21 (2009) 207-219
143. Sherman B.F., Bonanno G.A., Wiener L.S., and Battles H.B. When children tell their friends they have AIDS: Possible consequences for psychological well-being and disease progression. Psychosomatic Medicine 62 (2000) 238-247
144. Siegel K., Lune H., and Meyer I.H. Stigma management among gay/bisexual men with HIV/AIDS. Qualitative Sociology 21 (1998) 3-24
145. Simoni J.M., Mason H.R.C., Marks G., Ruiz M.S., Reed D., and Richardson J.L. Women's self-disclosure of HIV infection: Rates, reasons, and reactions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 63 (1995) 474-478
146. Simoni J.M., and Pantalone D.W. HIV disclosure and safer sex. In: Kalichman S.C. (Ed). Positive prevention: Sourcebook for HIV prevention with people living with HIV/AIDS (2005), Kluwer, New York, NY 65-98
147. Smart L., and Wegner D.M. Covering up what can't be seen: Concealable stigma and mental control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77 (1999) 474-486
148. Smith R., Rossetto K., and Peterson B.L. A meta-analysis of disclosure of one's HIV-positive status, stigma and social support. AIDS Care 20 (2008) 1266-1275
149. Smyth J.M. Written emotional expression: Effect sizes, outcome types, and moderating variables. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 66 (1998) 174-184
150. Steele C.M., Spencer S.J., and Aronson J. Contending with group image: The psychology of stereotype and social identity threat. In: Zanna M.P. (Ed). Advances in experimental social psychology (2002), Academic Press, San Diego, CA 379-440
151. Stirrat M.J., Remien R.H., Smith A., Copeland O.Q., Dolezal C., and Krieger D. The role of HIV serostatus disclosure in antiretroviral medication adherence. AIDS and Behavior 10 (2006) 483-493
152. Strachan E.D., Bennett W.R.M., Russo J., and Roy-Byrne P.P. Disclosure of HIV status and sexual orientation independently predicts increased absolute CD4 cell counts over time for psychiatric patients. Psychosomatic Medicine 69 (2007) 74-80
153. Strachman A., and Gable S.L. What you want (and do not want) affects what you see (and do not see): Avoidance social goals and social events. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 32 (2006) 1446-1458
154. Suarez T.P., Kelly J.A., Pinkerton S.D., Stevenson Y.L., Hayat M., Smith M.D., and Ertl T. Influence of a partner's HIV serostatus, use of highly active antiretroviral therapy, and viral load on perceptions of sexual risk behavior in a community sample of men who have sex with men. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 28 (2001) 471-477
155. Tajfel H., and Turner J.C. The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In: Worchel S., and Austin W.G. (Eds). Psychology of intergroup relations (1986), Nelson-Hall, Chicago, IL 7-24
156. Taylor D.A., and Altman I. Self-disclosure as a function of reward-cost outcomes. Sociometry 38 (1975) 18-31
157. Taylor D.A., Altman I., and Sorrentino R. Interpersonal exchange as a function of rewards and costs and situational factors: Expectancy confirmation-disconfirmation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 5 (1969) 324-339
158. Taylor D.A., Wheeler L., and Altman I. Self-disclosure in isolated groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 26 (1973) 39-47
159. Tennen H., Affleck G., and Armeli S. Daily processes in health and illness. In: Suls J., Wallston K.A., Suls J., and Wallston K.A. (Eds). Social psychological foundations of health and illness (2003), Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA 495-529
160. Tröster H. Coping with the stigma of epilepsy. Psychology, Health, and Medicine 3 (1998) 149-161
161. Turner R.N., Hewstone M., and Voci A. Reducing explicit and implicit outgroup prejudice via direct and extended contact: The mediating role of self-disclosure and intergroup anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 93 (2007) 369-388
162. Uchino B.N. Understanding the links between social support and physical health: A life-span perspective with emphasis on the separability of perceived and received support. Perspectives on Psychological Science 4 (2009) 236-255
163. Ullman S.E. Social reactions, coping strategies, and self-blame attributions in adjustment to sexual assault. Psychology of Women Quarterly 20 (1996) 505-526
164. Ullman S.E. Social reactions to child sexual abuse disclosures: A critical review. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 12 (2003) 89-121
165. Ullman S.E., and Filipas H.H. Predictors of PTSD symptom severity and social reactions in sexual assault victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress 14 (2001) 369-389
166. Ullrich P.M., Lutgendorf S.K., and Stapleton J.T. Concealment of homosexual identity, social support, and CD4 cell count among HIV-seropositive gay men. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 54 (2003) 205-212
167. Waddell E.N., and Messeri P.A. Social support, disclosure, and use of antiretroviral therapy. AIDS and Behavior 10 (2006) 263-272
168. Walther J.B., Loh T., and Granka L. Let me count the ways: The interchange of verbal and nonverbal cues in computer-mediated and face-to-face affinity. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 24 (2005) 36-65
169. Zea M.C., Reisen C.A., Poppen P.J., Bianchi F.T., and Echeverry J.J. Disclosure of HIV status and psychological well-being among Latino gay and bisexual men. AIDS and Behavior 9 (2005) 15-26
170. Zea M.C., Reisen C.A., Poppen P.J., Bianchi F.T., and Echeverry J.J. Predictors of disclosure of human immunovirus-positive serostatus among Latino gay men. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 13 (2007) 304-312