Living With a Concealable Stigmatized Identity: The Impact of Anticipated Stigma, Centrality, Salience, and Cultural Stigma on Psychological Distress and Health

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Volumn 97, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 634-651

  Quinn, Diane M ^a   Chaudoir, Stephenie R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT   (United States)

Author keywords

courtesy stigma; identity; mental illness; psychological distress; stigma

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ANXIETY DISORDER; ARTICLE; ASSOCIATION; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; DEPRESSION; EGO; FEMALE; HEALTH STATUS; HUMAN; MALE; MENTAL STRESS; PERCEPTION; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; STUDENT;

ADOLESCENT; ANXIETY DISORDERS; ASSOCIATION; CULTURE; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER; EGO; FEMALE; HEALTH STATUS; HUMANS; MALE; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; SOCIAL IDENTIFICATION; SOCIAL PERCEPTION; STEREOTYPING; STRESS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; STUDENTS;

EID: 72049120105     PISSN: 00223514     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0015815     Document Type: Article

References (92)

1. Akaike H. Factor analysis and AIC. Psychometrika 52 (1987) 317-332
2. Allport G.W. The nature of prejudice (1954), Addison-Wesley, Cambridge, MA
3. Arbuckle J.L. Amos 6.0 (2005), SPSS, Chicago
4. Bentler P.M. Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin 107 (1990) 238-246
5. Birenbaum A. On managing a courtesy stigma. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 11 (1970) 196-206
6. Bourguignon D., Seron E., Yzerbyt V., and Herman G. Perceived group and personal discrimination: Differential effects on personal self-esteem. European Journal of Social Psychology 36 (2006) 773-789
7. Branscombe N.R., Schmitt M.T., and Harvey R.D. Perceiving pervasive discrimination among African Americans: Implications for group identification and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77 (1999) 135-149
8. Brewin C.R., Andrews B., and Valentine J.D. Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 68 (2000) 748-766
9. Cain R. Stigma management and gay identity development. Social Work 36 (1991) 67-73
10. Corrigan P.W., and Miller F.E. Shame, blame, and contamination: A review of the impact of mental illness stigma on family members. Journal of Mental Health 13 (2004) 537-548
11. Corrigan P.W., and Watson A.C. The paradox of self-stigma and mental illness. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 9 (2002) 35-53
12. Crocker J., and Major B. Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review 96 (1989) 608-630
13. Crocker J., Major B., and Steele C. Social stigma. In: Gilbert D.T., Fiske S.T., and Lindzey G. (Eds). The handbook of social psychology. 4th ed. 2 (1998), McGraw-Hill, New York 504-553
14. Cross Jr. W.E. Shades of black: Diversity in African American identity (1991), Temple University Press, Philadelphia
15. Cutrona C.E., Russell D.W., Brown P.A., Clark L.A., Hessling R.M., and Gardner K.A. Neighborhood context, personality, and stressful life events as predictors of depression among African American women. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 114 (2005) 3-15
16. Cutrona C.E., Wallace G., and Wesner K.A. Neighborhood characteristics and depression: An examination of stress processes. Current Directions in Psychological Science 15 (2006) 188-192
17. Derlega V.J., Winstead B.A., Greene K., Serovich J., and Elwood W.N. Reasons for HIV disclosure/nondisclosure in close relationships: Testing a model of HIV-disclosure decision making. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology 23 (2004) 747-767
18. Diaz R.M., Ayala G., and Bein E. Sexual risk as an outcome of social oppression: Data from a probability sample of Latino gay men in three U.S. cities. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology 10 (2004) 255-267
19. Eccleston C.P., and Major B.N. Attributions to discrimination and self-esteem: The role of group identification and appraisals. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 9 (2006) 147-162
20. Erickson E. The problem of ego-identity. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 4 (1956) 56-121
21. Frable D.E., Platt L., and Hoey S. Concealable stigmas and positive self-perceptions: Feeling better around similar others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (1998) 909-922
22. Friedman M.A., and Brownell K.D. Psychological correlates of obesity: Moving to the next research generation. Psychological Bulletin 117 (1995) 3-20
23. Gallo J.J., Armenian H.K., Ford D.E., Eaton W.W., and Khachaturian A.S. Major depression and cancer: The 13-year follow-up of the Baltimore epidemiologic catchment area sample (United States). Cancer Causes, and Control 11 (2000) 752-758
24. Gidron Y., Peri T., Connolly J.F., and Shalev A.Y. Written emotional expression in posttraumatic stress disorder: Is it beneficial for the patient?. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 184 (1996) 505-507
25. Goffman E. Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity (1963), Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ
26. Gray-Little B., and Hafdahl A.R. Factors influencing racial comparisons of self-esteem: A quantitative review. Psychological Bulletin 126 (2000) 26-54
27. Griffith K.H., and Hebl M.R. The disclosure dilemma for gay men and lesbians: "Coming out" at work. Journal of Applied Psychology 87 (2002) 1191-1199
28. Hebl M.R., and Dovidio J.F. Promoting the "social" in the examination of social stigmas. Personality and Social Psychology Review 9 (2005) 156-182
29. Herek G.M., Gillis J.R., Cogan J.C., and Glunt E.K. Hate crime victimization among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 12 (1997) 195-215
30. Hu L.T., and Bentler P.M. Evaluating model fit. In: Hoyle R.H. (Ed). Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications (1995), Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA 76-99
31. Hu L., and Bentler P.M. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling 6 (1999) 1-55
32. Katon W., and Ciechanowski P. Impact of major depression on chronic medical illness. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 53 (2002) 859-863
33. Katz S., and Nevid J.S. Risk factors associated with posttraumatic stress disorder symptomatology in HIV-infected women. AIDS Patient Care and STDs 19 (2005) 110-120
34. Kelly A.E. The psychology of secrets (2002), Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York
35. Kenny D.A., Kashy D.A., and Bolger N. Data analysis in social psychology. In: Gilbert D.T., Fiske S.T., and Lindzey G. (Eds). The handbook of social psychology. 4th ed. 1 (1998), McGraw-Hill, New York 233-265
36. Kessler R.C., Mickelson K.D., and Williams D.R. The prevalence, distribution, and mental health correlates of perceived discrimination in the United States. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 40 (1999) 208-230
37. Kline R.B. Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. 2nd ed. (2005), Guilford Press, New York
38. Knox S., Barnes A., Kiefe C., Lewis C.F., Iribarren C., Matthews K.A., et al. History of depression, race, and cardiovascular risk in CARDIA. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine 13 (2006) 44-50
39. Lepore S.J., Fernandez-Berrocal P., Ragan J., and Ramos N. It's not that bad: Social challenges to emotional disclosure enhance adjustment to stress. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal 17 (2004) 341-361
40. Link B.G. Understanding labeling effects in the area of mental disorders: An assessment of the effects of expectations of rejection. American Sociological Review 52 (1987) 96-112
41. Link B.G., Cullen F.T., Struening E.L., and Shrout P.E. A modified labeling theory approach to mental disorders: An empirical assessment. American Sociological Review 54 (1989) 400-423
42. Link B.G., and Phelan J.C. Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology 27 (2001) 363-385
43. Link B.G., and Phelan J.C. Stigma and its public health implications. Lancet 367 (2006, February 11) 528-529
44. Link B.G., Struening E.L., Neese-Todd S., Asmussen S., and Phelan J.C. Stigma as a barrier to recovery: The consequences of stigma for the self-esteem of people with mental illnesses. Psychiatric Services 52 (2001) 1621-1626
45. Link B.G., Struening E.L., Rahav M., Phelan J.C., and Nuttbrock L. On stigma and its consequences: Evidence from a longitudinal study of men with dual diagnoses of mental illness and substance abuse. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 38 (1997) 177-190
46. Luhtanen R., and Crocker J. A collective self-esteem scale: Self-evaluation of one's social identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 18 (1992) 302-318
47. Major B. New perspectives on stigma and psychological well-being. In: Levin S., and van Laar C. (Eds). Stigma and group inequality: Social psychological perspectives (2006), Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ 193-210
48. Major B., and Gramzow R.H. Abortion as stigma: Cognitive and emotional implications of concealment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77 (1999) 735-745
49. Major B., and O'Brien L.T. The social psychology of stigma. Annual Review of Psychology 56 (2005) 393-421
50. Major B., Quinton W.J., and Schmader T. Attributions to discrimination and self-esteem: Impact of group identification and situational ambiguity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 39 (2003) 220-231
51. Mak W.W.S., Poon C.Y.M., Pun L.Y.K., and Cheung S.F. Meta-analysis of stigma and mental health. Social Science & Medicine 65 (2007) 245-261
52. Markowitz F.E. The effects of stigma on the psychological well-being and life satisfaction of persons with mental illness. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 39 (1998) 335-347
53. McCoy S.K., and Major B. Group identification moderates emotional responses to perceived prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 29 (2003) 1005-1017
54. Mendoza-Denton R., Downey G., Purdie V.J., Davis A., and Pietrzak J. Sensitivity to status-based rejection: Implications for African American students' college experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002) 896-918
55. Mickelson K.D. Perceived stigma, social support, and depression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 27 (2001) 1046-1056
56. Muehrer P. Research on co-morbidity, contextual barriers and stigma: An introduction to the special issue. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 53 (2002) 843-845
57. Nolen-Hoeksema S. Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 100 (1991) 569-582
58. Nolen-Hoeksema S., and Morrow J. A prospective study of depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster: The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 61 (1991) 115-121
59. Nolen-Hoeksema S., Stice E., Wade E., and Bohon C. Reciprocal relations between rumination and bulimic, substance abuse, and depressive symptoms in female adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 116 (2007) 198-207
60. Pachankis J.E. The psychological implications of concealing a stigma: A cognitive-affective-behavioral model. Psychological Bulletin 133 (2007) 328-345
61. Pennebaker J.W. The psychology of physical symptoms (1982), Springer-Verlag, New York
62. Penninx B.W., Guralnik J.M., Pahor M., Ferrucci L., Cerhan J.R., Wallace R.B., et al. Chronically depressed mood and cancer risk in older persons. Journal of the National Cancer Institute Monographs 90 (1998) 1888-1893
63. Pinel E.C. Stigma consciousness: The psychological legacy of social stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76 (1999) 114-128
64. Preacher K.J., and Hayes A.R. Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in simple and multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods 40 (2008) 879-891
65. Quinn D.M. Concealable versus conspicuous stigmatized identities. In: Levin S., and van Laar C. (Eds). Stigma and group inequality: Social psychological perspectives (2006), Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ 83-103
66. Quinn D.M., Kahng S.K., and Crocker J. Discreditable: Stigma effects of revealing a mental illness history on test performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30 (2004) 803-815
67. Radloff L.S. The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement 1 (1977) 385-401
68. Radloff L.S. The use of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale in adolescents and young adults. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 20 (1991) 149-166
69. Ragins B.R. Disclosure disconnects: Antecedents and consequences of disclosing invisible stigmas across life domains. Academy of Management Review 33 1 (2008) 194-215
70. Ramirez-Valles J., Fergus S., Reisen C.A., Poppen P.J., and Zea M.C. Confronting stigma: Community involvement and psychological well-being among HIV-positive Latino gay men. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 27 (2005) 101-119
71. Richards J.M., Beal W.E., Seagal J.D., and Pennebaker J.W. Effects of disclosure of traumatic events on illness behavior among psychiatric prison inmates. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 109 (2000) 156-160
72. Rind B., Tromovitch P., and Bauserman R. A meta-analytic examination of assumed properties of child sexual abuse using college samples. Psychological Bulletin 124 (1998) 22-53
73. Rosenfield S. Labeling mental illness: The effects of received services and perceived stigma on life satisfaction. American Sociological Review 62 (1997) 660-672
74. Sellers R.M., Caldwell C.H., Schmeelk-Cone K.H., and Zimmerman M.A. Racial identity, racial discrimination, perceived stress, and psychological distress among African American young adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 44 (2003) 302-317
75. Sellers R.M., Smith M.A., Shelton J.N., Rowley S.A.J., and Chavous T.M. Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review 2 (1998) 18-39
76. Shafer A.B. Meta-analysis of the factor structures of four depression questionnaires: Beck, CES-D, Hamilton, and Zung. Journal of Clinical Psychology 62 (2006) 123-146
77. Shrout P.E., and Fleiss J.L. Intraclass correlations: Uses in assessing rater reliability. Psychological Bulletin 86 (1979) 420-428
78. Sloan D.M., Marx B.P., and Epstein E.M. Further examination of the exposure model underlying the efficacy of written emotional disclosure. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 73 (2005) 549-554
79. Smart L., and Wegner D.M. Covering up what can't be seen: Concealable stigma and mental control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77 (1999) 474-486
80. Spielberger C.D., Vagg P.R., Barker L.R., Donham G.W., and Westberry L.G. The factor structure of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. In: Spielberger C.D., and Sarason I.G. (Eds). Stress and anxiety 7 (1980), Hemisphere, Washington, DC 95-109
81. Steele C.M., Spencer S.J., and Aronson J. Contending with group image: The psychology of stereotype and social identity threat. In: Zanna M.P. (Ed). Advances in experimental social psychology 34 (2002), Academic Press, San Diego, CA 379-440
82. Steiger J.H. A note on multiple sample extensions of the RMSEA fit index. Structural Equation Modeling 5 (1998) 411-419
83. Tomarken A.J., and Waller N.G. Potential problems with "well fitting" models. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 112 (2003) 578-598
84. Treynor W., Gonzalez R., and Nolen-Hoeksema S. Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research 27 (2003) 247-259
85. Twenge J.M., and Crocker J. Race and self-esteem: Meta-analyses comparing Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and American Indians and comment on Gray-Little and Hafdahl (2000). Psychological Bulletin 128 (2002) 371-408
86. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Mental health: A report of the surgeon general (1999), Author, Rockville, MD. http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/home.html Retrieved April 1, 2009, from http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/home.html
87. Wahl O.F. Mental health consumers' experience of stigma. Schizophrenia Bulletin 25 (1999) 467-478
88. Weissman M.M., Sholomskas D., Pottenger M., Prusoff B.A., and Locke B.Z. Assessing depressive symptoms in five psychiatric populations: A validation study. American Journal of Epidemiology 106 (1977) 203-214
89. Westbrook L.E., Bauman L.J., and Shinnar S. Applying stigma theory to epilepsy: A test of a conceptual model. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 17 (1992) 633-649
90. Wight R.G., Aneshensel C.S., Murphy D.A., Miller-Martinez D., and Beals K.P. Perceived HIV stigma in AIDS caregiving dyads. Social Science & Medicine 62 (2006) 444-456
91. Williams D.R., Neighbors H.W., and Jackson J.S. Racial/ethnic discrimination and health: Findings from community studies. American Journal of Public Health 93 (2003) 200-208
92. Yip T., Seaton E.K., and Sellers R.M. African American racial identity across the lifespan: Identity status, identity content, and depressive symptoms. Child Development 77 (2006) 1504-1517