Genetics of alcohol use in humans: An overview

International Journal of Human Genetics

Volumn 8, Issue 1-2, 2008, Pages 181-197

  Nayak, Jayanta Kumar ^a   Sarkar, B N ^a   Das, P K ^b   Rao, V R ^a  

^a Anthropological Survey of India   (India)

^b UTKAL UNIVERSITY   (India)

Author keywords

Adoptee; Alcohol dehydrogenase; Candidate genes; Case control studies; CYP2E1; Dopamine system; Family studies; GABA; Linkage studies; SNPs; Twin studies

Indexed keywords

ACETALDEHYDE; ACETIC ACID; ALCOHOL; ALCOHOL DEHYDROGENASE; ALDEHYDE DEHYDROGENASE;

ADOPTION; ALCOHOLISM; FAMILY STUDY; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; GENETIC RISK; GENOTYPE PHENOTYPE CORRELATION; HUMAN; MOLECULAR GENETICS; REVIEW; TWINS;

EID: 75749111435     PISSN: 09723757     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09723757.2008.11886030     Document Type: Review

References (141)

1. Agarwal DP 2001. The Genetics of Alcohol Metabolism and Alcoholism. IJHG, 1(1): 25-32.
2. Amad S, Noble EP, Fourcade-Amad ML, et al. 2000. Association of D2 dopamine receptor and alcohol dehydrogenase2 genes with Polynesian alcoholics. Eur Psychiatry, 15: 97-102.
3. Anghelescu I, Germeyer S, Muller MJ, et al. 2001. No association between the dopamine d2 receptor taqi a1 allele and earlier age of onset of alcohol dependence according to different specified criteria. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 25: 805-809.
4. Bang AT, Bang RA 1991. Community participation in research and action against alcoholism. World Health Forum, 12: 104-109.
5. Benjamin J, Li L, Patterson C, et al. 1996. Population and familial association between the D4 dopamine receptor gene and measures of novelty seeking. Nature Genet, 12: 81-84.
6. Bhaskar LVKS, Thangaraj K, Osier M, et al. 2007. Single nucleotide polymorphisms of the ALDH2 gene in six Indian populations. Annals of Human Biology, (in press).
7. Bohman M, Cloninger CR, Sigvardsson S, Von Knorring AL 1987. The genetics of alcoholism and related disorders. J Psychiatric Res, 21: 447-452.
8. Bosron WF, Li TK 1986. Genetic polymorphism of human liver alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenases, and their relationship to alcohol metabolism and alcoholism. Hepatology, 6: 502-510.
9. Brennan P, Lewis S, Hashibe M, et al. 2004. Pooled analysis of alcohol dehydrogenase genotypes and head and neck cancer: A HuGE Review: Am J Epidemiol, 159: 1-16.
10. Chakravarthy C 1990. Community workers estimate of drinking and alcohol-related problems in rural areas. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 13: 49-56.
11. Chang FM, Kidd JR, Livak KJ, et al. 1996. The worldwide distribution of allele frequencies at the human dopamine D4 receptor locus. Hum Genet, 98: 91-101.
12. Chen CC, Lu RB, Chen YC, et al. 1999. Interaction between the functional polymorphisms of the alcohol-metabolism genes in protection against alcoholism. Am J Hum Genet, 65: 795-807.
13. Chen WJ, et al. 1998. Self-reported flushing and genotypes of ALDH2, 15 ADH2, and ADH3 among Taiwanese Han. Alcoholism: Clin Exp Res, 22: 1048-1052.
14. Chen WJ, Loh EW, Hsu YP, et al. 1996. Alcohol metabolizing genes and alcoholism among Taiwanese Han men: independent effect of ADH2, ADH3 and ALDH2. Br J Psychiatry, 168: 762-767.
15. Cloninger CR, Bohman M, Sigvardsson S 1981. Inheritance of alcohol abuse - Cross-fostering analysis of adopted men. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 38: 861-868.
16. Cloninger CR, Svrakic DM, Przybeck TR 1993. A psychobiological model of temperament and character. Arch Gen Psychiat, 50: 975-990.
17. Cloninger CR 1990. Genetic Epidemiology of alcoholism: observations critical in the design and analysis of linkage studies. In: CR Cloninger, H Begleiter (Ed.): Genetics and Biology of Alcoholism: Banbury Report 33. New York: Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory Press, pp. 105-133.
18. Collins FS, Guyer MS, Charkravarti A 1997. Variations on a theme: Cataloging human DNA sequence variation. Science, 278: 1580-1581.
19. Connor JP, Young RM, Lawford BR, et al. 2002. D (2) dopamine receptor (DRD2) polymorphism is associated with severity of alcohol dependence. Eur Psychiatry, 17: 17-23.
20. Cotton NS 1979. The familial incidence of alcoholism: a review. J Stud Alcohol, 40: 89-116.
21. Crabbe JC 2002. Genetic contributions to addiction. Annu Rev Psychol, 53: 435-462.
22. Dawson DA, Archer L 1992. Gender differences in alcohol consumption: effects of measurement. Brit J Addiction, 87: 119-123.
23. Deb PC, Jindal BR 1975. Drinking in Rural Areas. Study in selected villages of Punjab. Ludhiana, Punjab Agricultural University Monograph.
24. Deswal BS, Jindal AK, Gupta KK 2006. Epidemiology of Alcohol use among residents of remote hills of Arunachal Pradesh. IJCM, 31 (2): 88-89.
25. Dhupdale NY, Motghare DD, Ferreira AMA, Prasad YD 2006. Prevalence and pattern of Alcohol consumption in rural Goa. IJCM, 31 (2): 104-105.
26. Ding YC, Chi HC, Grady DL, et al. 2002. Evidence of positive selection acting at the human dopamine receptor D4 gene locus. Proc Nat Acad Sci, 99: 309-314.
27. Dobashi I, Inada T, Hadano K 1997. Alcoholism and gene polymorhisms related to central dopaminergic transmission in Japanese population. Psychiatr Genet, 7: 87-91.
28. Ebstein RP, Novick O, Umansky R, et al. 1996. Dopamine D4 receptor exon III polymorphism associated with the human personality trait of novelty seeking. Nature Genet, 12: 78-80.
29. Edenberg HJ, Bosron WF 1997. Alcohol dehydrogenase. In: FP Guengerich (Ed.): Comprehensive toxicology. Vol 3: Bio-transformation. Pergamon Press, New York, pp 119- 131.
30. Edenberg HJ, Foroud T, Koller DL, et al. 1998. A family-based analysis of the association of the dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) with alcoholism. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 22: 505-512.
31. Edenberg HJ 2000. Regulation of the mammalian alcohol dehydrogenase genes. Prog Nucleic Acid Res Mol Biol, 64: 295-341.
32. Eriksson CJ, Fukunaga T, Sarkola T, et al. 2001. Functional relevance of human ADH polymorphism. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 25(suppl): 157s-163s.
33. Freudenheim JL, Ambrosone CB, Moysich KB, et al. 1999. Alcohol dehydrogenase 3 genotype modification of the association of alcohol consumption with breast cancer risk. Cancer Causes Control, 10: 369-377.
34. Goedde HW, et al. 1992. Distribution of ADH2 and ALDH2 genotypes in different populations. Hum Genet, 88: 344-346.
35. Goldman D, Urbanck M, Guenther D, Robin R, Long JC 1997. Linkage and association of a functional DRD2 variant [Ser311Cys] and DRD2 markers to alcoholism, substance abuse and schizophrenia in Southwestern American Indians. Am J Med Genet, 74: 386-394.
36. Goodwin DW, Schulsinger F, Moller N, et al. 1974. Drinking problems in adopted and non-adopted sons of alcoholics. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 31: 164-169.
37. Grant M 1985. Establishing priorities for action; In: Alcohol Policies WHO Reg. Publication, European Series No. 18: 6.
38. Grobin AC, Mathews DB, Devaud LL, Morrow AL 1998. The role of GABAA receptors in the acute and chronic effects of ethanol. Psychopharmacology, 139: 2-19.
39. Harada S, Agarwal DP, Goedde HW 1981. Aldehyde dehydrogenase deficiency as cause of facial flushing reaction to alcohol in Japanese. (Letter) Lancet, ii: 982.
40. Harada S, Agarwal DP, Goedde HW 1985. Aldehyde dehydrogenase polymorphism and alcohol metabolism in alcoholics. Alcohol, 2: 391-392.
41. Heath AC, Madden PA, Bucholz KK, et al. 1999. Genetic differences in alcohol sensitivity and the inheritance of alcoholism risk. Psychol Med, 29: 1069-1081.
42. Heath AC, Madden PA, Grant JD, et al. 1999. Resiliency factors protecting against teenage alcohol use and smoking: influences of religion, religious involvement and values, and ethnicity in the Missouri Adolescent Female Twin Study. Twin Res, 2: 145-155.
43. Heath AC, Madden PA, Martin NG 1998. Statistical methods in genetic research on smoking. Stat Methods Med Res, 7: 165-186.
44. Henderson AS, Korten AE, Jorm AF, et al. 2000. COMT and DRD3 polymorphisms, environmental exposures, and personality traits related to common mental disorders. Am J Med Genet, 96: 102-107.
45. Hietala J, Pohjalainen T, Heikkila-Kallio U, et al. 1997. Allelic association between D2 but not D1 dopamine receptor gene and alcoholism in Finland. Psychiatr Genet, 7: 19-25.
46. Higuchi S, Muramatsu T, Matsushita S, Murayama M 1996. No evidence of association between structural polymorphism at the dopamine D3 receptor locus and alcoholism in the Japanese. Am J Hum Genet, 67: 412-414.
47. Hill SY 1992. Is there a genetic basis of alcoholism? Biol Psychiatry, 32: 955-957.
48. Hines LM, Stampfer MJ, Ma J, et al. 2001. Genetic variation in alcohol dehydrogenase and the beneficial effect of moderate alcohol consumption on myocardial infarction. New Eng J Med, 344: 549-555.
49. Homann N, Jousimies-Somer H, Jokelainen K, et al. 1997. High acetaldehyde levels in saliva after ethanol consumption: methodological aspects and pathogenetic implications. Carcinogenesis, 18: 1739-43.
50. Homann N, Tillonen J, Meurman JH, et al. 2000. Increased salivary acetaldehyde levels in heavy drinkers and smokers: a microbiological approach to oral cavity cancer. Carcinogenesis, 21: 663-668.
51. Howard LA, Sellers EM, Tyndale RF 2002. The role of pharmacogenetically- variable cytochrome P450 enzymes in drug dependence. Pharmacogenomics, 3: 185-199.
52. Hsu LC, Tani K, Fujiyoshi T, Kurachi K, Yoshida A 1985. Cloning of cDNAs for human aldehyde dehydrogenases 1& 2. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 82: 3771-3775.
53. Hutchison KE, Mc Geary J, Smolen A, Bryan A, Swift RM 2002. The DRD4 VNTR polymorphism moderates craving after alcohol consumption. Health Psychol, 21: 139-146.
54. Jacob T, Sher KJ, Bucholz KK, et al. 2001. An integrative approach for studying the etiology of alcoholism and other addictions. Twin Res, 4: 103-118.
55. Johnson EO, Van den Bree MB, Gupman AE, Pickens RW 1998. Extension of a typology of alcohol dependence based on relative genetic and environmental loading. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 22: 1421-1429.
56. Kendler KS, Neale MC, Heath AC, Kessler RC, Eaves LJ 1994. A twin-family study of alcoholism in women. Am J Psychiatry, 151: 707-715.
57. Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Zhao S, et al. 1994. Lifetime and 12- month prevalence of DSM-III-R Psychiatric Disorders in the United States: Results from the National Co-morbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51: 8-9.
58. Kwon JM, Goate AM 2000. The candidate gene approach. Alcohol Research and Health, 24: 164-168.
59. Lands WE 1998. A review of alcohol clearance in humans. Alcohol, 15: 147-160.
60. Lappalainen J, Long JC, Eggert M, et al. 1998. Linkage of antisocial alcoholism to the Serotonin 5- HT1B receptor gene in 2 populations. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55: 989-994.
61. Lee HC, Lee HS, Jung SH, et al. 2001. Association between polymorphisms of ethanol-metabolizing enzymes and susceptibility to alcoholic cirrhosis in a Korean male population. J Korean Med Sci, 16: 745-750.
62. Li TK, Yin SJ, Crabb DW, O'Connor S, Ramchandani VA 2001. Genetic and environmental influences on alcohol metabolism in humans. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 25: 136-144.
63. Li TK 2000. Pharmacogenetics of responses to alcohol and genes that influence alcohol drinking. J Stud Alcohol, 61: 5-12.
64. Loh E-W, Higuchi S, Matsushita S, et al. 2000. Association analysis of GABAA receptor subunit genes cluster on 5q33-34 and alcohol dependence in a Japanese population. Mol Psych, 5: 301-307.
65. Loh E-W, Smith I, Murray R, et al. 1999. Association between variants at the GABAAbeta2, GABAAalpha6 and GABAAgamma2 gene cluster and alcohol dependence in a Scottish population. Mol Psych, 4: 539-544.
66. Long JC, Knowler WC, Hanson RL, et al. 1998. Evidence for genetic linkage to alcohol dependence on chromosomes 4 and 11 from an autosome-wide scan in an American Indian Population. Am J Med Genet, 81: 216-221.
67. Longmate JA 2001. Complexity and power in casecontrol association studies. Am J Hum Genet, 68: 1229-1237.
68. Luczak SE, Wall TL, Shea SH, Byun SM, Carr LG 2001. Binge drinking in Chinese, Korean, and White college students: genetic and ethnic group differences. Psychol Addict Behav, 15: 306-309.
69. Maczawa Y, Yamauchi M, Toda G, Suzuki H, Sakurai S 1995. Alcohol-metabolizing enzyme polymorphisms and alcoholism in Japan. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 19: 951-954.
70. Malhotra AK, Virkkunen M, Rooney W, et al. 1996. The association between the dopamine D(4) receptor (D4DR) 16 amino acid repeat polymorphism and novelty seeking. Molec. Psychiat., 1: 388-391.
71. McGue M, Pickens RW, Svikis DS 1992. Sex and age effects on the inheritance of alcohol problems: a twin study. J Abnorm Psychol, 101: 3-17.
72. Mehta AK and Ticku MK. 1992. An update on GABAA receptors. Brain Res. Rev.; 29: 196-217.
73. Mohan D, et al. 1992. A rapid survey of substance abuse disorders in the urban slums of Delhi. IJMR, 96: 122-127.
74. Mongconthawornchai P, Nanakorn S, Nishiyori A 2002. Aldehyde Dehydrogenase - 2 genotype detection in fingernails among non-alcoholic Northeastern Thai population and derived gene frequency. Science Asia, 28: 99-103.
75. Muramatsu T, Higuchi S, Murayama M, Matsushita S, Hayashida M 1996. Association between alcoholism and the dopamine D4 receptor gene. J. Med. Genet., 33: 113-115.
76. Murray CJL, Lopez AD 1996. Quantifying the burden of disease and injury attributable to ten major risk factors. In: CJL Murray and AD Lopez (Ed.): The Global burden of disease: a comprehensive assessment of mortality and disability from disease, injuries and risk factors in 1990 and projected to 2020 Cambridge, M.A. Harward School of Public Health: 295-314.
77. Muto M, Hitomi Y, Ohtsu A, et al. 2000. Acetaldehyde production by non-pathogenic neisseria in human oral microflora: implications for carcinogenesis in upper aerodigestive tract. International Journal of Cancer, 88: 342-350.
78. Nakamura K, Iwahashi K, Matsuo Y, et al. 1996. Characteristics of Japanese alcoholics with the atypical aldehyde dehydrogenase 2*2.1. A comparison of the genotypes of ALDH2, ADH2, ADH3 and Cytochrome P-450 2E1 between alcoholics and non-alcoholics. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 20: 52-55.
79. Nestler EJ 2000. Genes and addiction. Nat Genet, 26: 277-281.
80. Noble EP, Zhang X, Ritchie T, et al. 1998. D2 dopamine receptor and GABA(A) receptor beta3 subunit genes and alcoholism. Psychiatry Res, 81: 133-147.
81. Noble EP, Zhang X, Ritchie TL, Sparkes RS 2000. Haplotypes at the DRD2 locus and severe alcoholism. Am J Med Genet, 96: 622-631.
82. Novoradovsky A, Tsai SJ, Goldfarb L, et al. 1995. Mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase polymorphism in Asian and American Indian Populations: detection of a new ALDH2 alleles. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 19: 1105-1110.
83. Okamoto K, Murawaki Y, Yuasa, Kawasaki H 2001. Effect of ALDH2 and CYP2E1 gene polymorphisms on drinking behavior and alcoholic liver disease in Japanese male workers. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 25(6 suppl.): 19s-23s.
84. Osier MV, Pakstis AJ, Kidd JR, et al. 1999. Linkage disequilibrium at the ADH2 and ADH3 loci and risk of alcoholism. Am J Hum Genet, 64: 1147-1157.
85. Osier MV, Pakstis AJ, Soodyall H, et al. 2002. A global perspective on genetic variation at the ADH gene reveals unusual patterns of linkage disequilibrium and diversity. Am J Hum Genet, 71: 84-99.
86. Parsian A, Chakraverty S, Fisher L, Cloninger CR 1997. No association between polymorphisms in the human dopamine D3 and D4 receptors genes and alcoholism. Am J Hum Genet, 74: 281-285.
87. Parsian A, Cloninger CR 1997. Human GABA-A receptor á1 and á2 subunit genes and alcoholism. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 21: 430-433.
88. Parsian A, Zhang ZH 1997. Human dopamine transporter gene polymorphism (VNTR) and alcoholism. Am J Hum Genet, 74: 474-478.
89. Parsian A, Zhang ZH 1999. Human chromosomes 11p15 and 4p12 and alcohol dependence: Possible association with the GABRB1 gene. Am J Med Genet Neuropsych Genet, 88: 533-538.
90. Pastorelli R, Bardazzi G, Saieva C, et al. 2001. Genetic determinants of alcohol addiction and metabolism: a survey in Italy. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 25: 221-227.
91. Paterson AD, Petronis A 1999. Sex-based linkage analysis of alcoholism. Genet Epidemiol, 17 (suppl. 1): s289-s294.
92. Pawan GLS 1972. Metabolism of alcohol (ethanol) in man. Proc Nutr Soc, 3x: 83-89.
93. Pickens RW, Svikis DS, McGue M, et al. 1991. Heterogeneity in the inheritance of alcoholism. A study of male and female twins. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 48: 19-28.
94. Prescott CA, Aggen SH, Kendler KS 1999. Sex differences in the sources of genetic liability to alcohol abuse and dependence in a population-based sample of U.S. twins. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 23: 1136-1144.
95. Prescott CA, Kendler KS 1999. Genetic and environmental contributions to alcohol abuse and dependence in a population-based sample of male twins. Am J Psychiatry, 156: 34-40.
96. Rao VR, Bhaskar LVKS, Annapurna C, et al. 2007. Single nucleotide polymorphisms in alcohol dehydrogenase genes among some Indian populations. Am J Hum Biol, 19: 338-344.
97. Reddy BM, Reddy ANS, Nagaraja T, et al. 2006. Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms of the Alcohol Dehydrogenase genes among the 28 caste and tribal populations of India. Int J Hum Genet, 6: 309-316.
98. Reddy BM, Reddy ANS, Nagaraja T, et al. 2007. Anthropological Perspective of the Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms in the NPY and DRD2 Genes among the Socio-Economically Stratified Populations of Andhra Pradesh, India. Int J Hum Genet, 7: 277-284.
99. Reich T, Edenberg HJ, Goate A, et al. 1998. Genomewide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence. Am J Med Genet, 81: 207-215.
100. Reich T, Hinrich A, Culverhouse R, Bierut L 1999. Genetic studies of alcoholism and substance dependence. Am J Hum Genet, 65: 599-605.
101. Risch N, Merikangas K 1996. The future of genetic studies of complex human diseases. Science, 273: 1516-1517.
102. Roberts AJ, Koob GF 1997. The neurobiology of addiction: an overview. Alcohol Health Res. World, 21: 101-106.
103. A receptor diversity in the human genome. Gene, 227: 213-222.
104. Saccone NL, Kwon JM, Corbett J, et al. 2000. A genome screen of maximum number of drinks as an alcoholism phenotype. Am J Med Genet, 96: 632-637.
105. A, ?6, ?2 and ?2 gene cluster and alcohol dependence. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 23: 427-431.
106. Sander T, Harms H, Podschus J, et al. 1995. Dopamine D1, D2 and D3 receptor genes in alcohol dependence. Psychiatr Genet, 5: 171-176.
107. Sander T, Samochowiec J, Ladehoff M, et al. 1999. Association analysis of exonic variants of the gene encoding the GABAB receptor and alcohol dependence. Psychiatr Genet, 9: 69-73.
108. Saxena S 2004. Country profile on alcohol in India. WHO Global Status Report on Alcohol. 37-60.
109. Schmidt LG, Harms H, Kuhn S, Rommelspacher H, Sander T 1998. Modification of alcohol withdrawal by the A9 allele of the dopamine transporter gene. Am J Psychiatry, 155: 474-478.
110. Schuckit MA 2000. Genetics of the risk for alcoholism. Am J Addict, 9: 103-112.
111. Shen YC, Fan JH, Edenberg HJ, et al. 1997. Polymorphisms of ADH and ALDH genes among four ethnic groups in China and effects upon the risk for alcoholism. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 21: 1272-1277.
112. Sigvardsson S, Bohman M, Cloninger CR 1996. Replication of the Stockholm Adoption Study of alcoholism. Confirmatory cross-fostering analysis. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 53: 681-687.
113. 13, and localization of break-points in two Angelman syndrome patients. Am J Hum Genet, 52: 1216-1229.
114. Stallings MC, Hewilt JK, Beresford T, Heath AC, Eaves LJ 1999. A twin study of drinking and smoking onset and latencies from first use to regular use. Behav Genet, 29: 409- 421.
115. Stoltenberg SF, Burmeister M 2000. Recent progress in psychiatric genetics - some hope but no hype. Hum Mol Genet, 9: 927-935.
116. Sun F, Tsuritani I, Honda R, Ma ZY, Yamada Y 1999. Association of genetic polymorphisms of alcoholmetabolizing enzymes with excessive alcohol consumption in Japanese men. Hum Genet, 105: 295-300.
117. Sundaram KR, Mohan D, Advani G 1984. Alcohol abuse in a rural community in India, Part I: Epidemiological study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 14: 27-36.
118. m aldehyde dehydrogenase in Japanese population. Hum Genet, 94: 217-223.
119. Tanaka FY, Shiratori Y, Yokosuka O, et al. 1997. Polymorphism of alcohol- metabolizing genes affects drinking behavior and alcoholic liver disease in Japanese men. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 21: 596-601.
120. Thomasson HR, Crabb DW, Edenber HJ, et al. 1994. Low frequency of the ADH2*2 allele among atyal natives of Taiwan with alcohol use disorders. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 18: 640-643.
121. Thomasson HR, Edenber HJ, Crabb DW, et al. 1991. Alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase genotypes and alcoholism in Chinese men. Am J Hum Genet, 48: 677-681.
122. Ueno S, Nakamura M, Mikami M, et al. 1999. Identification of a novel polymorphism of the human dopamine transporter (DAT1) gene and the significant association with alcoholism. Mol Psychiatry, 4: 552-557.
123. Van den Bree MB, Johnson EO, Neale Mc, et al. 1998. Genetic analysis of diagnostic systems of alcoholism in males. Biol Psychiatry, 43: 139-145.
124. Van Tol HHM, Wu CM, Guan HC, et al. 1992. Multiple dopamine D4 receptor variants in the human population. Nature, 358: 149-152.
125. Vanyukov MM, Tarter RE 2000. Genetic studies of substance abuse. Drug Alcohol Depend, 59: 101-123.
126. Varama VK, et al. 1980. Extent and pattern of alcohol use and alcohol-related problems in North India. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 22: 331-337.
127. Viken RJ, Kaprio J, Koskenvuo M, Rose RJ 1999. Longitudinal analyses of the determinants of drinking and of drinking to intoxication in adolescent twins. Behav Genet, 29: 455-461.
128. Visapaa JP, Gotte K, Benesova M, et al. 2004. Increased cancer risk in heavy drinkers with the alcohol dehydrogenase 1C*1 allele, possibly due to salivary acetaldehyde. Gut, 53: 871-876.
129. Wahlsten D 1999. Single-gene influences on brain and behavior. Annu Rev Psychol, 50: 599-624.
130. Wall TL, Horn SM, Johnson ML, Smith TL, Carr LG 2000. Hangover symptoms in Asian Americans with variations in the aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH2) gene. J Stud Alcohol, 61: 13-17.
131. Wallner M, Hanchar HJ, Olsen RW 2003. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 100: 15218-15223.
132. Weiland AJ 2000. The challenges of genetic advances. Healthplan, 41: 24-30.
133. WHO 1980. Problems related to alcohol consumption, Technical Report Series, 650: 10-16.
134. WHO 1993. International classification of Disease, Ed. 10. Geneva, World Health Organization.
135. WHO-Global Status Report on alcohol 2004. 〈http://www.who.int/ substance-abuse/publications/en/global-status-report-2004-overview.pdf〉
136. Wiesbeck GA, Mauerer C, Thome J, Jakob F, Boening J 1995. Neuroendocrine support for a relationship between 'novelty seeking' and dopaminergic function in alcohol-dependent men. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 20: 755-761.
137. Wight AJ, Ogden GR 1998. Possible mechanisms by which alcohol may influence the development of oral cancer: A review. Oral Oncology, 34: 441-447.
138. Yamamoto K, et al. 1993. Genetic polymorphism of alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase and the effects on alcohol metabolism. Jpn J Alcohol Drug Depend, 28: 13-25.
139. Yoshida A, Hsu LC, Yasunami M 1991. Genetics of human alcohol metabolizing enzymes. Prog Nucleic Acid Res Mol Biol, 40: 255-287.
140. Yoshida A, Huang IY, Ikawa M 1984. Molecular abnormality of an inactive aldehyde dehydrogenase variant commonly found in Orientals. Proc Natl Acad Sci, 81: 258-261.
141. Yuasa I, et al. 1997. Simple and rapid determination of the acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH2) genotypes by non-radioactive single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis. Electrophoresis, 18: 1940-1941.