‘Regions' and their study: Wherefrom, what for and whereto?

Review of International Studies

Volumn 35, Issue S1, 2009, Pages 5-34

  Fawn, Rick ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 70349738893     PISSN: 02602105     EISSN: 14699044     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0260210509008419     Document Type: Article

References (236)

1. Mark Beeson, ‘Rethinking Regionalism: Europe and the East Asia in Comparative Historical Perspective’, Journal of European Public Policy, 12:6 (December 2005), p. 969.
2. Victor Bulmer-Thomas, ‘Regional Integration in Latin America and the Caribbean’, Bulletin of Latin American Research, 20:3 (2001), p. 363.
3. Richard Pomfret, however, argues that regional trade agreements often end in failure. Richard Pomfret, ‘Is Regionalism an Increasing Feature of the World Economy?’, The World Economy, 30:6 (June 2007), pp. 923–947.
4. Amitva Acharya warns that ‘not all international relations scholars are going to be persuaded’ of the centrality of regions in world politics. ‘The Emerging Regional Architecture of World Politics’, World Politics, 59:4 (July 2007), p. 630.
5. Timothy M. Shaw and Fredrik Soderbaum (eds), Theories of New Regionalism (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003).
6. Louise Fawcett, ‘Exploring Regional Domains: A Comparative History of Regionalism’, International Affairs, 80:3 (2004), p. 431.
7. Shaun Breslin, Richard Higgott and Ben Rosamond, ‘Regions in comparative perspective’, in Shaun Breslin, Richard Higgott, Nicola Phillips and Ben Rosamond (eds), New Regionalism in the Global Political Economy (London: Routledge, 2002), p. 1.
8. The literature is now so vast that it cannot all, as its authors will appreciate, be realistically cited in one place. Among very useful literature surveys, from which the present work has benefited, are: Edward D. Mansfield and Helen V. Milner, ‘The New Wave of Regionalism’, International Organization, 53:3 (Summer 1999), pp. 589–627;
9. Raimo Vayrynen, ‘Regionalism: Old and New’, International Studies Review, 5 (2003), pp. 25–51; and.
10. Bjorn Hettne, ‘Beyond the “New” Regionalism’, New Political Economy, 10:4 (December 2005), pp. 543–571.
11. Mansfield and Milner, ‘New Wave’, citing Serra et al., 1997.
12. Fawcett, ‘Explaining regional domains’, p. 431.
13. Hettne, ‘Beyond the “new” regionalism’.
14. This is the generalisation conclusion from East Asia as analysed in Joakim Ojendal, ‘Back to the Future? Regionalism in South-East Asia Under Unilateral Pressure’, International Affairs, 80:3 (May 2004), pp. 519–333.
15. Peter J. Katzenstein, A World of Regions: Asia and Europe in the American Imperium (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005).
16. Morten Bøås, Marianne H. Marchand and Timothy M. Shaw, ‘The Weave-world: The Regional intervening of Economies, Ideas and Identities’, in Timothy M. Shaw and Fredrik Soderbaum (eds), Theories of New Regionalism (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003).
17. Ravenhill also writes that regionalism dates ‘back several centuries’. ‘Regionalism’, p. 183. A study of IR as system over time is given in Barry Buzan and Richard Little, International Systems in World History: Remaking the Study of International Relations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
18. See Walter Mattli, The Logic of Regional Integration: Europe and Beyond (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
19. See, for example, Arnold J. Toynbee, Survey of International Affairs: The Islamic world since the peace settlement (London: Oxford University Press for Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1927). I appreciate this point in particular from Nick Rengger.
20. Michael Barnett and Etel Solingen, ‘Designed to Fail or Failure of Design?' The Origins and Legacy of the Arab League’, in Acharya and Johnstone, p. 180.
21. As mentioned below, the Arab League also seems to have to preserve rather than weaken state sovereignty. A relative early account of several post-World War II intergovernmental organisations, including some regional, is Mark Zacher, International Conflicts and Collective Security, 1946-1977: The United Nations, Organization of American States, Organization for African Unity, and Arab League (New York: Praeger, 1979).
22. Leading works were: David Mitrany, A Working Peace System; Bela A. Balassa, The Theory of Economic Integration (Homewood, IL: R. D. Irwin, 1961);
23. Ernst B. Haas, The Uniting of Europe (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1958) and.
24. Beyond the Nation-State: Functionalism and International Organization (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1964).
25. Even Haas subsequently declared the theory outmoded in his Obsolescence of Regional Integration Theory (Berkeley, CA: University of California Institute of International Studies, 1975).
26. Walter Mattli, ‘Ernst Haas's Evolving Thinking on Comparative Regional Integration: of Virtues and Infelicities’, Journal of European Public Policy, 12:2 (April 2005), pp. 327–348.
27. Jagdish Bhagwati, ‘Regionalism and Multilateralism: An Overview’, in Jamie de Melo and Arvind Panagariya (eds), New Dimensions in Regional Integration (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 22–51.
28. Michael Kitson and Jonathan Michie, ‘Trade and Growth: An Historical Perspective’, in Jonathan Michie and John Grieve Smith (eds), Managing the Global Economy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 18.
29. Amitav Acharya and Alastair Iain Johnston, ‘Comparing Regional Institutions: An Introduction’, in Amitav Acharya and Alastair Iain Johnston (eds), Crafting Cooperation: Regional International Institutions in Comparative Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 1. Italics added.
30. Some of the major literature includes Jeffrey A. Frankel, Regional Trading Blocs in the World Economic System (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics, 1997).
31. and The Regionalization of the World Economy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1998).
32. Jessie P. Poon, ‘The Cosmopolitanization of Trade Regions: Global Trends and Implications, 1965-1990’, Economic Geography, 73:4 (October 1997), pp. 390–404.
33. and Jessie P. H. Poon, Edmund R. Thompson and Philip F. Kelly, ‘Myth of the Triad? The Geography of Trade and Investment “Blocs” ’, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, New Series, 25:4 (2000), pp. 427–444.
34. A summary is given in Mansfield and Milner, ‘New Wave’, esp. p. 592.
35. Takatoshi Ito and Ann O. Krueger, ‘Introduction’, in Takatoshi Ito and Ann O. Krueger (eds), Regionalism Versus Multilateral Trade Agreements (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press for National Bureau on Economic Research, 1997).
36. Fawcett, ‘Exploring Regional Domains’, p. 437.
37. For such an argument, see James H. Mittelman and Richard Falk, ‘Hegemony: The Relevance of Regionalism?’, in Bjorn Hettne, Andreas Inotai and Osvaldo Sunkel (eds), National perspectives on new regionalism in the North (London: Macmillan, 1999).
38. For Chinese multilateralism, including SCO, see Marc Lanteigne, China and International Institutions: Alternate Paths to Global Power (London: Routledge, 2005), esp. ch. 4, ‘Labyrinth's edge: China and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization’.
39. See such assessment in the important example of Japan, which is then attributed to the increased strength of ASEAN in Chang-Gun Park, ‘Japan's Policy Stance on East Asian Neo-Regionalism: From Being a “Reluctant”, to Becoming a “Proactive” State’, Global Economic Review, 35:3 (September 2006), pp. 285–301.
40. Edmund Herzig, ‘Regionalism, Iran and Central Asia’, International Affairs, 80:3 (May 2004). The official website of ECO is (http://www.ecosecretariat.org/).
41. Victor Bulmer-Thomas, ‘The Central American common market: From closed to open regionalism’, World Development, 26:2 (February 1998), pp. 313–322.
42. See, for example, Wilfred J. Ethier, ‘The New Regionalism’, The Economic Journal, 108 (July 1998), p. 1161.
43. See Robert Z. Lawrence, Regionalism, Multilateralism and Deeper Integration (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1995).
44. Mansfield and Milner, ‘New Wave’, pp. 619–621, quotation at p. 621.
45. See Hettne, ‘Beyond’, p. 543.
46. See the collection ‘Governing the Asia Pacific: Beyond the “New Regionalism”’, Third World Quarterly, 24:2 (April 2003).
47. Alex Warleigh-Lack, ‘Towards a Conceptual Framework for Regionalisation: Bridging “New Regionalism” and “Integration Theory”’, Review of International Political Economy, 13:5 (December 2006), pp. 750–771.
48. Fredrik Soderbaum, ‘Introduction: New Theories of Regionalism’, in Timothy M. Shaw and Fredrik Soderbaum (eds), Theories of New Regionalism (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. 3.
49. Fawcettt, ‘Exploring Regional Domains’, p. 438.
50. Mansfield and Milner, ‘New Wave’, p. 590.
51. John Agnew, ‘Regions on the Mind Does Not Equal Regions of the Mind’, Progress in Human Geography, 23:1 (1999), p. 93.
52. Anssi Paasi, ‘The Resurgence of the “Region” and “Regional Identity”: Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Observations on Regional Dynamics in Europe’, in this collection.
53. Iwona Sagan, ‘Looking for the Nature of the Contemporary Region’, Progress in Human Geography, 28:2 (2004), p. 141;
54. more generally on new regionalism in Geography. See John Harrison, ‘Re-reading the New Regionalism: A Sympathetic Critique’, Polity & Space, 10:1 (April 2006), pp. 21–46.
55. A useful overview of these developments in Geography, including suggestions for use of terminology across disciplines, is given in David Newman, ‘Borders and Bordering: Towards an Interdisciplinary Dialogue’, European Journal of Social Theory, 9:2 (2006), pp. 171–186.
56. For this argument as applied to the Baltic Sea region, see Helmut Hubel, ‘The Baltic Sea Subregion after Dual Enlargement’, Cooperation and Conflict, 39:3 (2004), pp. 283–298.
57. Two of the larger works on regional cooperation in post-communist Central and Eastern Europe use ‘subregional’: Andrew Cottey (ed.), Subregional Cooperation in the New Europe: Building Security, Prosperity and Solidarity from the Barents to the Black Sea (Houndsmills, UK: Palgrave Macmillan in Association with the East-West Center, 1999)
58. and Martin Dangerfield, Subregional Economic Cooperation in Central and Eastern Europe: The Political Economy of CEFTA (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2000).
59. Fredrik Soderbaum and Ian Taylor, ‘Introduction: Understanding the Dynamics of Micro-Regionalism in Southern Africa’, in Fredrick Soderbaum and Ian Taylor (eds), Regionalism and Uneven Development in Southern Africa: The Case of the Maputo Development Corridor (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003), p. 3.
60. For microregions more broadly, see Shaun Breslin and Glenn D. Hook (eds), Microregionalism and World Order (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002).
61. Passi, ‘The Resurgence of the ‘Region’ and ‘Regional Identity’: Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Observations on Regional Dynamics in Europe’. This is not to say that the EU has outright imposed national-level regionalisation on accession candidates, as elites in those countries have used the premise of EU conditionality to enact some reforms. For two cases, see Martin.
62. Brusis, ‘The Instrumental Use of European Union Conditionality: Regionalization in the Czech Republic and Slovakia’, East European Politics & Societies, 19:2 (2005), pp. 291–316.
63. See, for example, Jennifer A. Yoder, ‘Bridging the European Union and Eastern Europe: Cross-border Cooperation and the Euroregions’, Regional & Federal Studies, 13:3 (April 2003), pp. 90–106.
64. See, for example, Emmanuel Brunet-Jailly, ‘Comparing Local Cross-Border Relations under the EU and NAFTA’, Canadian-American Public Policy, 58 (2004).
65. James Wesley Scott, ‘European and North American Contexts for Cross-border Regionalism’, Regional Studies, 33:7 (October 1999), p. 606.
66. Stephen Clarkson, ‘The Multi-level State: Canada in the Semi-periphery of Both Continentalism and Globalization’, Review of International Political Economy, 8:3 (September 2001), pp. 501–527.
67. Recent examples include Jefferey M. Sellers, Governing from Below: Urban Regions and the Global Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
68. See also, Frank Moulaert, Globalization and Integrated Area Development in European Cities (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
69. Vayrynen, ‘Regional’, p. 26.
70. Mansfield and Milner, ‘New Wave’, p. 591.
71. Björn Hettne, ‘The New Regionalism: Prologue’, p. xvi.
72. See Fawcett, ‘Exploring Regional Domains’, p. 433.
73. James H. Mittelman, ‘Rethinking the New Regionalism in the Context of Globalization’, in Bjorn Hettne, Andras Inotai and Osvaldo Sunkel (eds), Globalism and the New Regionalism (Basingstoke: MacMillan, 1999), p. 26.
74. For the inclusion of integration, see, for example, Hurrell.
75. Ravenhill, ‘Regionalism’, p. 174.
76. Thus, with this distinction between regionalism and regionalisation, Ann Capling and Kim Richard Nossal argue that the latter has occurred under NAFTA, but not the former. See ‘The Contradictions of Regionalism in North America’ in this collection. For important IR discussion of the differences, see Andrew Hurrell, ‘Explaining the Resurgence of Regionalism in World Politics’ Review of International Studies, 21 (1995), pp. 331–358.
77. Richard Higgott, ‘De facto and de jure Regionalism: The Double Discourse of Regionalism in the Asia Pacific’, Global Society, 11:2 (May 1997), p. 166.
78. Bjorn Hettne, ‘Globalization and the New Regionalism: The Second Great Transformation’, in Hettne, Inotai and Sunkel (eds), Globalism and the New Regionalism (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 1999), p. 17. Italics added.
79. Hettne, ‘Beyond’, p. 556.
80. Samuel S. Kim, ‘Northeast Asia in the Local-Regional-Global Nexus: Multiple Challenges and Contending Explanations’, in Samuel S. Kim (ed.), The International Relations of Northeast Asia (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004), p. 11.
81. For the latter see, Katzenstein, World of regions, pp. 21–35.
82. Jessie P. H. Poon, Edmund R. Thompson and Philip F. Kelly, ‘Myth of the Triad? The Geography of Trade and Investment “Blocs”’, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, New Series, 25:4 (2000), pp. 427–444.
83. Karl Deutsch et al., Political Community and the North Atlantic Area: International Organization in the Light of Historical Experience (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957).
84. A more recent and comparative work is that of Emanuel Adler and Michael Barnett (eds), Security Communities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
85. This was originally defined as a group of countries whose security concerns are connected to one another and which must be addressed in relation to each other. Barry Buzan, Peoples, States and Fear: The National Security Problem in International Relations (Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1983).
86. While this approach notes that ‘[a]ll states in the system are to some extent enmeshed in a global web of security interdependence’, it maintains the ‘basic premise that security interdependence tends to be regionally focused’ because ‘it is strongly mediated by the power of the units concerned’. See Barry Buzan and Ole WÃver, Regions and Powers, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 46.
87. Patrick M. Morgan, ‘Regional Security Complexes and Regional Order’, in Lake and Morgan, p. 16.
88. David A. Lake, ‘Regional Hierarchy: Authority and Local International Order’, in this collection.
89. Emanuel Adler and Patricia Greve, ‘When Security Community Meets Balance of Power: Overlapping Regional Mechanisms of Security Governance’, in this collection.
90. Benjamin Miller, ‘Between the Revisionist State and the Frontier State: Regional Variations in State War-Propensity’, in this collection.
91. See the findings in one of the major comparative works on post-Cold war regionalism, in David A. Lake and Patrick M. Morgan (eds), Regional Orders: Building Security in a New World (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997).
92. Lake and Morgan (eds), Regional Orders.
93. ‘In the absence of a new overarching and overriding global-level security dynamic, domestic, bilateral and regional dynamics have become more salient and have to be addressed in their own terms’. Muthiah Alagappa, ‘Regionalism and conflict management: a framework for analysis’, Review of International Studies, 21:4 (1995), pp. 359–387.
94. See James J. Hentz, ‘Introduction: New Regionalism and the “Theory of Security Studies”’, in James J. Hentz and Martin Bøås (eds), New and Critical Security and Regionalism: Beyond the Nation State (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003), esp. p. 4.
95. Katzenstein, World of Regions; Buzan and WÃver, Regions and Powers.
96. Agnew, ‘Regions on the Mind’, p. 95.
97. Hurrell, ‘Regionalism in Theoretical Perspective’, p. 38.
98. Zoleka Ndayi, ‘Theorising the rise of regionness' by Bjorn Hettne and Fredrik Soderbaum’, Politikon: South African Journal of Political Studies, 33:1 (April 2006), pp. 113–124.
99. See, for example, in the earlier study of Joseph Nye, Peace in parts: Integration and conflict in regional organization (New York: Little, Brown, 1971). Nye's work nevertheless primarily categorised regions as economic or political.
100. Mansfield and Milner, ‘New Wave’, p. 590.
101. John Ravenhill, ‘Regionalism’, in John Ravenhill (ed.), Global Political Economy, 2nd edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 174, emphasis added.
102. See, for example, L. Alan Winters, ‘Regionalism vs. Multilateralism’, in Richard E. Baldwin, Daniel Cohen, Andre Sapir and Anthony Venables (eds), Market Integration, Regionalism and the Global Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), esp. p. 8.
103. Bjorn Hettne, Andras Inotai and Osvaldo Sunkel, ‘Editors' Introduction’, in Bjorn Hettne, Andras Inotai and Osvaldo Sunkel (eds), Comparing Regionalisms: Implications for Global Development (Houndsmills: Palgrave, 2001), p. xxviii, which is part of a five-volume series.
104. Thus the Black Sea and the Baltic Sea have been so used for Black Sea Economic Cooperation and the Council of the Baltic Sea States, even if they have stretched their memberships in the process. BSEC includes some, but not all, Balkan states, which were not Black Sea littorals. Iceland and Norway are not on the Baltic Sea; yet the former was included by special invitation, and as a senior diplomat involved in CBSS put it, because of its wealth ‘Norway had to be included’. Interview, January 2008. Even landlocked Belarus wants participation in CBSS and has been considered by Baltic regional specialists as a ‘geopolitical presence both inside and outside the narrower region needs to be taken into account’ and that therefore a Baltic region in at least some respects also embraces it’. Olav F. Knudsen, ‘Introduction: A General perspective on the security of the Baltic sea region’, in Olav F. Knudsen (ed.), Stability and Security in the Baltic Sea Region: Russian, Nordic and European Aspects (London: Frank Cass, 1999), pp. x-xi. By contrast, in many cases the geographic expression of the Balkans - referring apolitically to a stretch of mountains - has been sidelined by the region, even if intergovernmental organisations have reintroduced it in aid programmes in the name ‘Western Balkans’.
105. See Carina Keskitalo, ‘International Region-Building: Development of the Arctic as an International Region’, Cooperation and Conflict, 42 (June 2007), pp. 187–205, and.
106. E. C. H. Keskitalo, Negotiating the Arctic: The Construction of an International Region (London: Routledge, 2003).
107. Georg Glasze, ‘The Discursive Constitution of a World-Spanning Region and the Role of Empty Signifiers: The Case of Francophonia’, Geopolitics, 12:4 (October 2007), pp. 656–679.
108. See, for example, Fawcett, ‘Exploring Regional Domains’.
109. Michael Schulz, Fredrik Soderbaum and Joakim Ojendal, ‘Key Issues in the New Regionalism’, in Bjorn Hettne, Andras Inotai and Osvaldo Sunkels, Comparing Regionalisms: Implications for Global Development (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001), p. 269. They are not excluding states from malign activities.
110. Richard Falk, ‘The post-Westphalia enigma’, in Bjorn Hettne and Bertil Odoen (eds), Global Governance in the 21st Century: Alternative Perspectives on World Order (Stockholm: Almkvist & Wiksell, 2002) p. 177, cited in Fawcett, ‘Exploring Regional Domains’, p. 429.
111. For the pernicious influence of the SCO in this regard, see Thomas Ambrosio, ‘Catching the ‘Shanghai Spirit’: How the Shanghai Cooperation Organization Promotes Authoritarian Norms in Central Asia’, Europe-Asia Studies, 60:8 (October 2008), pp. 1321–1344.
112. Robert Gilpin, U.S. Power and the Multinational Corporation: The Political Economy of Foreign Direct Investment (New York: Basic Books, 1975).
113. Evelyn Goh, Developing the Mekong: Regionalism and Regional Security in China-Southeast Asian Relations (London: IISS Adelphi Papers No. 387, 2006), p. 41.
114. See James J. Hentz, ‘The Southern African Security Order: Regional Economic Integration and Security among Developing States’, in this collection.
115. Declared trade aims among Arab states and the lack of trade and other inter-regional economic development in practice is given in Barnett and Solingen, ‘Origins and Legacy’, p. 207.
116. Richard Higgott, ‘The International Political Economy of Regionalism: Asia-Pacific and Europe Compared’, in William D. Coleman and Geoffrey R. D. Underhill (eds), Regionalism and Global Economic Integration: Europe, Asia and the Americas (London: Routledge, 1998), p. 42.
117. Charles Tripp, ‘Regional Organizations in the Arab Middle East’, in Fawcett and Hurrell (eds), esp. pp. 283–284.
118. Mittelman, Globalization Syndrome, p. 115.
119. Felix Ciuta, ‘Region? Why Region? Security, Hermeneutics, and the Making of the Black Sea Region’, Geopolitics, 13:1 (2008), pp. 120–147.
120. Higgott, ‘De facto’, p. 181.
121. See for example, Hettne, ‘Globalization’.
122. Brian L. Job, ‘Matters of Multilateralism: Implications for Regional Conflict Management’, in Lake and Morgan (eds), p. 182.
123. Acharya and Johnstone, ‘Conclusion’, Crafting Cooperation, p. 268.
124. Interview at BSEC, March 2008. For a positive account of the Bank in ‘levating and sustaining economic growth and development’ in the region, written by one of its officials, see Ahmet Imre, ‘Financial Cooperation within the Black Sea Region: The Experience of the Black Sea Trade and Development Bank’, Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, 6:2 (June 2006), pp. 243–255.
125. See, again, some of the discussion in Barnett and Solingen, ‘Origins and Legacy’.
126. For such a distinction between security communities (rather than just regional groupings), see Alex J. Bellamy, Security Communities and their Neighbours Regional Fortresses or Global Integrators? (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2004).
127. Hurrell, ‘Regionalism in Theoretical Perspective’, p. 42.
128. Some of this is discussed in Rick Fawn, ‘The Elusive Defined? Visegrad Co-operation as the Contemporary Contours of Central Europe’, Geopolitics, 6:1 (2001), pp. 47–68.
129. Mittelman, Globalization Syndrome, p. 118.
130. See John Ravenhill, APEC and the Construction of Pacific Rim Regionalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
131. Iver B. Neumann, ‘A Region-Building Approach to Northern Europe’, Review of International Studies, 20:1 (1994), p. 58.
132. See Capling and Nossal, ‘Contradictions of Regionalism’.
133. Leonel Corona, Jerome Doutriaux and Sarfraz A. Mian, Building Knowledge Regions in North America: Emerging Technology Innovation Poles (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2005), p. 1.
134. Andrew Wyatt-Walter, ‘Regionalism, Globalization, and World Economic Order’, in Fawcett and Hurrell (eds), Regions in World Politics, p. 87.
135. Among early assessments of the environmental provisions, see John Kirton ‘Commission for Environmental Cooperation and Canada-U.S. Environmental Governance in the NAFTA Era’, American Review of Canadian Studies, 27 (1997).
136. Thomas J. Courchene, ‘FTA at 15, NAFTA at 10: A Canadian Perspective on North American Integration, The North American Journal of Economics and Finance, 14 (2003), p. 263.
137. For some discussion see Andrew Hurrell, ‘Hegemony in a region that dares not speak its name’, International Journal, LXI:3 (Summer 2006), pp. 545–566.
138. and Caplin and Nossal, ‘Contradictions of Regionalism’.
139. Robert A. Pastor, Toward a North American Community: Lessons from the Old World for the New (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics, 2001).
140. Fawcett, ‘Regionalism in Historical Perspective’, p. 87.
141. For such a view, see Hettne, Inotai and Sunkel, ‘Editors' Introduction’, p. xxxi.
142. See James Wesley Scott, ‘European and North American Contexts for Cross-border Regionalism’, Regional Studies, 33:7 (October 1999), pp. 605–617.
143. A major study that identified subcontinental dentities in North America - calling them nations-was Joel Garreau, Nine Nations of North America (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1984).
144. Jerome R. Corsi, The Late Great U.S.A.: The Coming Merger With Mexico and Canada (New York: WND Books, 2007.
145. Courchene, ‘FTA at 15’, p. 283.
146. See Anssi Paasi, ‘Region and Place: Regional Identity in Question’, Progress in Human Geography, 27 (2003), pp. 475–485, and Resurgence of the “Region”.
147. Iwona Sagan, ‘Looking for the Nature of the Contemporary Region’, Progress in Human Geography, 28:2 (2004), p. 142, who illustrates this from differing referendum results on EU membership that corresponded to identities in centuries-old parts of Poland that were part of other empires.
148. For example, as in the discussion regarding why some areas were excluded in Alberta Sbragia's ‘Comparative Regionalism’, JCMS Annual Lecture, given at the UACES Conference, Edinburgh, (2 September 2008).
149. Yuen Foong Khong and Helen E. S. Nesadurai, ‘Hanging together: institutional design, and cooperation in Southeast Asia’, in Acharya and Johnston (eds), Crafting Cooperation, p. 40.
150. Particularly Hettne, Inotai and Sunkel, The New Regionalism and the Future of Security and Development (WIDER 4). See also Bjorn Hettne and Fredrik Soderbaum, ‘Intervening in Complex Humanitarian Emergencies: The Role of Regional Cooperation’, European Journal of Development Research, 17:3 (September 2005), pp. 449–461.
151. Ramses Amer, ‘Conflict Management and Constructive Engagement in ASEAN's Expansion’, Third World Quarterly, 20:5 (October 1999), pp. 1031–1048.
152. See Hans Mouritzen, ‘Security Communities in the Baltic Sea Region: Real and Imagined’, Security Dialogue, 32:3 (2001), p. 306.
153. Among literature, see Louise Fawcett, ‘The Evolving Architecture of Regionalization’, in Michael Pugh and W. P. S. Sidhu (eds), The United Nations and Regional Security: Europe and Beyond (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2003), pp. 11–30.
154. ‘To date no criteria have been developed for acceptance by the UN of an organization at its meetings with regional organizations … some regional agencies have observers status, some receive invitations from the Secretary-General, others have unilaterally declared themselves to be a “regional management” for the purposed of Chapter VIII'. Kennedy Graham and Tania Felicio, Regional Security and Global Governance: A Study of Interaction Between Regional Agencies and the UN Security Council, With a Proposal for a Regional-global Security Mechanism (Brussels: VUB Press, 2008), p. 276.
155. For such a view, but one seeing conflict management passing not only to regional bodies but coalitions and individual states, see Michele Griffin, ‘Retrenchment Reform and Regionalization: Trends in UN Peace Support Operations’, International Peacekeeping, 6:1 (Spring 1999), pp. 1–31.
156. David J. Francis, Uniting Africa: Building Regional Peace and Security Systems, p. 113.
157. Edmond J. Keller, ‘Rethinking African Regional Security’, in Lake and Morgan (eds), Regional Orders, p. 311.
158. See Fredrik Soderbaum, ‘The Role of the Regional Factor in West Africa’, in Bjorn Hettne, Andras Inotai and Osvaldo Sunkel (eds), The New Regionalism and the Future of Security and Development (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2000).
159. Herbert M. Howe, Ambiguous Order: Military Forces in African States (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2004), p. 165.
160. Adekeye Adebajo, ‘Liberia: A Warlord's Peace’, in by Stephen John Stedman, Donald Rothchild and Elizabeth Cousens (eds), Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002), p. 611; and Howe, Ambiguous Order, esp. p. 163.
161. For an overview of Russian ‘peacekeeping’, see Dov Lynch, Russian Peacekeeping Strategies in the CIS: The Case of Moldova, Georgia and Tajikistan (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 1999).
162. Brian L. Job, ‘Matters of Multilateralism: Implications for Regional Conflict Management’, in Lake and Morgan (eds), Regional Orders, p. 166.
163. Vivian Louis Forbes, ‘Geopolitical Change: Direction and Continuing Issues’, in Lin Sien Chia (ed.), Southeast Asia Transformed: A Geography of Change (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2003), p. 87.
164. Harrison, ‘Re-reading’.
165. An overview of economic limitations in the study of regions is given in Vayrynen, ‘Regionalism’, p. 26.
166. As with much work on the development (rather than evolution) of regions, the political-economic dimension outlines possible stages but indicates that not all stages must be passed. See Ravenhill, ‘Regionalism’.
167. See Dangerfield, Subregional Economic Cooperation.
168. Mittelman, ‘Rethinking the New Regionalism in the Context of Globalization’, in Hettne, Inotai and Sunkel, Globalism and the New Regionalism, p. 25.
169. Helge Hveen, ‘Political Regionalism: Master or Servant of Economic Internationalization’, in Hettne, Inotai and Sunkel (eds), Globalism and the New Regionalism.
170. Louis J. Cantori and Steven L. Spiegel, The International Politics of Regions: A Comparative Approach (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1970).
171. Katzenstein, World of Regions, p. 24.
172. Roy Allison, ‘Regionalism, Regional Structures and Security Management in Central Asia’, International Affairs, 80:3 (2004), esp. p. 483. Again, this is not to suggest that regional integration would have otherwise happened in the former Soviet Union.
173. See Mansfield and Milner, ‘New Wave of Regionalism’, p. 621.
174. A major statement is given in Robert Gilpin, The Challenge of Global Capitalism: The World Economy in the 21st Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000).
175. Ojendal, ‘Back to the Future?’.
176. See John Ravenhill, ‘East Asian Regionalism: Much Ado about Nothing?’, in this collection. Others have also written ‘It was from perception of collective humiliation by essentially “Western” institutions like the IMF and World Bank that the felt need for greater regional solidarity emerged’.
177. David Martin Jones and Michael L. R. Smith, ‘Constructing communities: The Curious Case of East Asian Regionalism’, Review of International Studies, 33:1 (2007), p. 169.
178. Amitav Acharya, ‘The Emerging Regional Architecture of World Politics’, World Politics, 59:4 (July 2007).
179. Mattli, Globalization Syndrome, p. 56.
180. See the findings in Peter J. Katzenstein and Takashi Shiraishi (eds), Beyond Japan: The Dynamics of East Asian Regionalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006).
181. Mouritzen, ‘Security Communities’.
182. Philip Roeder, ‘From Hierarchy to Hegemony: the Post-Soviet Security Complex’, in Lake and Morgan (eds).
183. For a more recent interpretation, see Paul Kubicek, ‘The Commonwealth of Independent States: An Example of Failed Regionalism?’, in this collection.
184. Francis, Uniting Africa, p. 114.
185. For the former view see Hitoshi Tanaka, ‘Japan's Policy for East Asia’, Asia-Pacific Review, 14:2 (November 2007), pp. 30–44;
186. for the latter view, see T. J. Pempel, ‘Northeast Asian Economic Integration: A Region in Flux’, Asia-Pacific Review, 14:2 (November 2007), pp. 45–61.
187. Mittelman, Globalization Syndrome, p. 115.
188. Allison, ‘Regionalism’.
189. Theodore Pelagidis and Harry Papasotiriou, ‘Globalisation or Regionalism? States, Markets and the Structure of International Trade’, Review of International Studies, 28:3 (July 2002), pp. 519–35.
190. James D. Sidaway, ‘Pacific Dreaming, APEC, ASEAN and Their Geographies: Reflections on Poon (2001)’, Area, 34:2 (2002), p. 205.
191. Jessie P. H. Poon, ‘Regionalism in the Asia Pacific: Is Geography Destiny?’, Area, 33:3 (2001), p. 254.
192. Ellen L. Frost, Asia's New Regionalism (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2008).
193. Hadi Soesastro, ‘ASEAN and APEC: Do Concentric Circles Work?’, The Pacific Review, 8:3 (1995), pp. 475–493.
194. Hurrell, ‘Regionalism in Theoretical Perspective’, p. 46.
195. Acharya, ‘Emerging Regional Architecture’, esp. p. 630.
196. As one example, see James J. Hentz, ‘South Africa and the political economy of regional cooperation in Southern Africa’, The Journal of Modern African Studies, 43:1 (2005), pp. 21–51.
197. Etel Solingen particularly shows the salience of domestic coalitions in influencing regional formations. Regional Orders at Century's Dawn: Global and Domestic Influences on Grand Strategy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999).
198. See again Peter J. Katzenstein and Takashi Shiraishi (eds), Beyond Japan: The dynamics of East Asian regionalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006).
199. See also T. J. Pempel (ed.), Remapping East Asia: The Construction of a Region (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005).
200. T. J. Pempel, ‘Introduction: Emerging Webs of Regional Connectedness’, in T. J. Pempel (ed.), Remapping East Asia, p. 2.
201. Donald K. Emmerson, ‘Security, Community, and Democracy in Southeast Asia: Analyzing ASEAN’, Japanese Journal of Political Science, 6 (2005), pp. 165–185.
202. Yuen Foong Khong and Helen E. S. Nesadurai, ‘Hanging Together, Institutional Design and Cooperation in Southeast Asia: AFTA and the ARF’, in Acharya and Johnston (eds), Crafting Cooperation.
203. Diana Tussie, ‘Latin America’.
204. See the very defensible reasons for the limitations of the CIS becoming a ‘region’, given in Kubicek, ‘Commonwealth of Independent States’.
205. A recent assessment that shows the centrality in Western policy for the reconstruction of the Balkans on a regional level and the challenge thereto, inter alia, from transitional crime, is provided in Jim Seroka, ‘Issues with regional reintegration of the Western Balkans’, Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans, 10:1 (April 2008), pp. 15–29.
206. Fredrik Soderbaum, ‘Introduction: New Theories of Regionalism’, in Timothy M. Shaw and Fredrik Soderbaum (eds), Theories of New Regionalism (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), esp. p. 2.
207. Sarah Eaton and Richard Stubbs, ‘Is ASEAN Powerful? Neo-realist Versus Constructivist Approaches to Power in Southeast Asia’, The Pacific Review, 19:2 (June 2006). pp. 135–155.
208. See, for example, Hurrell, ‘Regionalism in Theoretical Perspective’, p. 38. Vayrynen demonstrates this effectively by analysing regions through different purposes such as economic and political-military. See ‘Regionalism’.
209. Vayrynen, ‘Regionalism’, p. 34.
210. This absence is particularly important considering that discussions of global governance were also considered to avoid spatiality, especially international terms of regions and regional organisations, are doing so more. For brief discussion, see Mathias Albert and Paul Reuber, ‘Introduction: The Production of Regions in the Emerging Global Order - Perspectives on ‘Strategic Regionalisation’, Geopolitics, 12:4 (October 2007), p. 550.
211. Schulz, Soderbaum and Ojendal assert ‘contrary to the tendency in mainstream theories, it is important to recognize the diversity of actors involved [in regionalization]’. ‘Key Issues in the New Regionalism’, p. 268.
212. Hurrell, ‘Regionalism in Theoretical Perspective’, in Fawcett and Hurrell, p. 64.
213. While, for example, Buzan and WÃver retain aspects of neorealism in their study of regional security orders, Wendt writes ‘Neorealists’ growing reliance on social forces to do their explanatory work suggests that if ever there were a candidate for a degenerating research program in IR theory, this is it’. Alexander Wendt, ‘Constructing International Politics’, International Security, 20:1 (Summer 1995), p. 79.
214. Writing in the Asia-Pacific context, see Dominique Shirer, ‘Communities and Security in Pacific Asia’, in Stephen Hoadley and Jürgen Riiland (eds), Asian Security Reassessed (Singapore: Institute for Southeast Asian Studies, 2006), p. 329.
215. Poon, ‘Regionalism in the Asia Pacific’, p. 255.
216. Yukiko Nishikawa, ‘The “ASEAN Way” and Asian Regional Security’, Politics & Policy, 35:1 (March 2007), pp. 42–56, quoting the abstract.
217. T. J. Pempel, ‘Introduction: Emerging Webs of Regional Connectedness’, in T. J. Pempel (ed.), Remapping East Asia: The Construction of a Region (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005), pp. 1–2.
218. See for example, Helga Haftendorn, Celeste Wallender and Robert O. Keohane (eds), Imperfect Unions: Security Institutions Over Time and Space (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), which also contains two chapters on ASEAN.
219. See the review of Edward D. Mansfield and Helen V. Milner (eds), The Political Economy of Regionalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997).
220. by William Roberts Clark, The Journal of Politics, 60:3 (August 1998), p. 908.
221. See, again, Lake and Morgan (eds), Regional Orders.
222. Fawcett, ‘Exploring Regional Domains’, p. 430.
223. See Hurrell, ‘The Regional Dimension in International Relations Theory’, in Mary Farrell, Bjorn Hettne and Luk van Langenhove (eds), Global Politics of Regionalism: Theory and Practice (London: Pluto Press, 2005).
224. The literature on these two comparative cases is relatively large, as is that between the EU and East Asia. For an overview of work on the former, see Edme Domingues and Bjorn Hettne, ‘The European Union and NAFTA Compared’, in Bjorn Hettne, Andras Inotai and Osvaldo Sunkel, ‘Editors' Introduction’, in Bjorn Hettne, Andras Inotai and Osvaldo Sunkel (eds), Comparing Regionalisms, pp. 187–213.
225. Beeson, ‘Rethinking Regionalism’;
226. Mark Beeson, Regionalism and Globalization in East Asia: Politics, Security and Economic Development (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2006).
227. Although an Americas-wide trading arrangement gives direct policy overtones to any comparison of NAFTA to other initiatives in the Americas, useful analytical comparisons are made in Daniel Lederman, William F. Maloney and Luis Serven, Lessons from NAFTA for Latin America and the Caribbean (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press and the World Bank, 2005).
228. In reviewing two major works on regions, Acharya notes the insufficiency of attention to the ‘horizontal relationship between regions’. ‘Emerging Regional Architecture’, p. 637.
229. On the EU and inter-regional relations, see for example, Mario Telo (ed.), European Union and New Regionalism: Regional Actors and Global Governance in a Post-Hegemonic Era, 2nd edn (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007).
230. Sergiu Celac and Panagiota Manoli, ‘Towards a New Model of Comprehensive Regionalism in the Black Sea Area’, Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, 6:2 (June 2006), pp. 193–205.
231. Andrew Hurrell, ‘One World? Many Worlds? The Place of Regions in the Study of International Society’, International Affairs, 83:1 (January 2007), p. 218.
232. See Breslin, Higgott and Rosamond, ‘Regions in Comparative Perspective’, in Breslin, Higgott, Phillips and Rosamond (eds), New Regionalism, p. 11.
233. Jeffrey T. Checkel, ‘Social Mechanisms and Regional Cooperation: Are Europe and the EU Really all that Different’, in Acharya and Johnston (eds), Crafting Cooperation, p. 243.
234. Karoline Postel-Vinay, ‘The Historicity of the International Region: Revisiting the “Europe and the Rest” Divide’, Geopolitics, 12:4 (2007), pp. 555–567.
235. For particularly the relationship between integration and democracy, see Jeffrey J. Anderson, ‘Introduction’, in Jeffrey J. Anderson (ed.), Regional Integration and Democracy: Expanding on the European Experience (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999), p. 2. 34 Rick Fawn The choice of both themes and of case studies in this collection - and then the specific choices within each of those - should be reflective of fundamental issues and debates in study of regionalism. The nature of the study of regions also requires that the approach not be a straightjacket.213 Among the themes that can emerge from this collection is precisely the prevalence of divergence among the formation, form and self-declared purpose of regions, and of how regions interact with one another, other actors and the international system. If these articles consequently generate more questions in the study of regions, we hope that too might serve as a contribution to the continuing debates and dynamism of this subject.
236. The few major comparative studies regionalism, including one focusing beneficially especially on instititionalisation, provided its contributors with variables but did not impose a common methodology. See Amitav Acharya and Alastair Iain Johnston, ‘Conclusion: Institutional Features, Cooperation Effects, and the Agenda for Future Research on Comparative Regionalism’, in Acharya and Johnston (eds), Crafting Cooperation, esp. p. 244.