Those who forget historiography are doomed to republish it: Empire, imperialism and contemporary debates about American power

Review of International Studies

Volumn 35, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 45-67

  MacDonald, Paul K ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 67749119795     PISSN: 02602105     EISSN: 14699044     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0260210509008328     Document Type: Article

References (162)

1. See for example Chalmers A. Johnson, Blowback: the costs and consequences of American empire (New York: Metropolitan Books 2000). Andrew Bacevich, American Empire: the realities and consequences of US diplomacy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 2002). Clyde Prestowitz, Rogue Nation: American Unilateralism and the Failure of Good Intentions (New York: Basic Books, 2003).
2. W. K. Hancock, Survey of British Commonwealth Affairs (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1940), v.2, p. 1.
3. Lea Brilmayer, American Hegemony: Political Morality in a One-Superpower World (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press 1994). Thomas J. Vogley and Lawrence E. Imwalle, 'Hegemonic and Bipolar Perspectives on the New World Order', American Journal of Political Science, 39 (1995), pp. 819-34. John Agnew, Hegemony: the new shape of global power (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press 2005).
4. Charles Krauthammer, 'The Unipolar Moment', Foreign Affairs (1990/1991). Christopher Layne, 'The Unipolar Illusion: Why New Great Powers Will Rise', International Security, 17 (1993), pp. 5-51. Michael Mastanduno, 'Preserving the Unipolar Moment: Realist Theories and US Grand Strategy after the Cold War', International Security, 21 (1997), pp. 49-88.
5. David A. Lake, Entangling relations: American foreign policy in its century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999). David C. Kang, 'Hierarchy, Balancing and Empirical Puzzles in Asian International Relations', International Security, 28 (2004). David A. Lake, 'Escape from the State-of-Nature: Authority and Hierarchy in World Politics', International Security, 32 (2007).
6. See, for example, Paul Kennedy, 'The Next American Century?' World Policy Journal, 16 (1999), pp. 52-8. Charles S. Maier, Among Empires: American ascendancy and its predecessors (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2006). Bernard Porter, Empire and Superempire: Britain, America and the World (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006).
7. Martin Walker, 'America's Virtual Empire', World Policy Journal (2002), p. 19.
8. See also Alexander Motyl, 'Is Everything Empire? Is Empire Everything?' Comparative Politics, 39 (2006), pp. 229-49.
9. Michael Cox, 'The Empire's Back in Town: or America's Imperial Temptation Again', Millennium, 32 (2003), p. 19.
10. Daniel Nexon and David Wright, 'What's at Stake in the American Empire Debate?' American Political Science Review, 101 (2007), pp. 253-71.
11. Stephen Peter Rosen, 'An Empire, if You Can Keep It', The National Interest, 71 (2003), p. 51.
12. See also, Tarak Barkawi and Mark Laffey, 'Retrieving the Imperial: Empire and International Relations', Millennium, 31 (2002), pp. 109-27.
13. See George Liska, Imperial America: the International Politics of Primacy (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press 1967). George Liska, Career of Empire: America and imperial expansion over land and sea (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press 1978). Raymond Aron, The Imperial Republic: the United States and the World (New York: University Press of America 1982).
14. William Appleman Williams, Tragedy of American Diplomacy (Cleveland, OH: World Publishing Company 1959). Walter LaFeber The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1860-1898 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1963). R. W. Van Alstyne, The Rising American Empire (Oxford: Basil Blackwell 1960).
15. Ronald Edward Robinson and John Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians: the Climax of Imperialism (Garden City, NY: Doubleday 1968). Ronald Edward Robinson, 'Non-European Foundations of European Imperialism', in Roger Owen and Robert B. Sutcliffe (eds), Studies in the Theory of Imperialism (London: Longman 1972). George Shepperson, 'Africa, the Victorians and Imperialism', in Wm Roger Louis (ed.), Imperialism: the Robinson and Gallagher Controversy (New York: Watts 1976).
16. Max Boot, for example, has naively asserted: 'Afghanistan and other troubled lands today cry out for the sort of enlightened foreign administration once provided by self-confident Englishmen in jodhpurs and pith helmets.' If only the British experience in Afghanistan were as rosy as Boot implies. Quoted in New York Times, 2 April 2002.
17. See, for example, Niall Ferguson, Empire: how Britain made the modern world (London: Allen Lane 2003), pp. 303-18. Niall Ferguson, Colossus: the price of America's Empire (New York: Penguin Press 2004), pp. 169-99.
18. See also Dominic Lieven, Empire: the Russian Empire and its Rivals (London: Murray 2000), pp. 89-127.
19. Robert Kagan, 'The Benevolent Empire', Foreign Policy (1998), pp. 24-35. Max Boot, 'The Case for American Empire', Weekly Standard (2001). Sebastian Mallaby, 'The Reluctant Imperialist', Foreign Affairs (2002).
20. Michale Ignatieff, Empire Lite: Nation building in Bosnia, Kosovo, and Afghanistan (London: Vintage 2003). David Rieff, 'A New Age of Liberal Imperialism?' World Policy Journal, 16 (1999), p. 10. Robert Cooper, 'The New Liberal Imperialism', The Observer, 7 April 2002. James Kurth, 'The Adolescent Empire: America and the Imperial Idea', The National Interest (1997), pp. 3-15. Jodediah Purdy, 'Liberal Empire: Assessing the Arguments', Ethics & International Affairs, 17 (2003), pp. 35-48.
21. Joseph S. Nye, 'The Dependent Colossus', Foreign Policy (2002), pp. 74-7. Joseph S. Nye, The Paradox of American Power: Why the World's Only Superpower Can't Go it Alone (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2002). G. John Ikenberry, 'Liberalism and Empire: logics of order in the American Unipolar age', Review of International Studies, 30 (2004), pp. 609-30.
22. Ivan Eland, 'The Empire Strikes Out: the 'New Imperialism' and Its Fatal Flaws', Policy Analysis, 459 (2002), pp. 6-13. Jack Snyder, 'Imperial Temptations', The National Interest, 71 (2003), pp. 29-40. David P. Calleo, 'Power, Wealth and Wisdom: the US and Europe after Iraq', The National Interest, 72 (2003), pp. 10-11.
23. David Harvey, The New Imperialism (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2003). Alex Callinicos, 'The Grand Strategy of the American Empire', International Socialism Journal, 97 (2002). Alex Callinicos, New Mandarins of American Power: the Bush Administration's Plan for the World (New York: Polity Press 2004).
24. See also Ellen Meiksins Wood, The Empire of Capital (London: Verso, 2003), pp. 143-68.
25. Anna Simons, 'The Death of Conquest', The National Interest, 71 (2003), p. 42.
26. Stanley Kurtz, 'Democratic Imperialism: A Blueprint', Policy Review (2003). Walker 'Virtual Imperialism', p. 13. Benjamin Barber, 'Imperialism or Interdependence?' Security Dialogue, 35 (2004), p. 240.
27. See also Walter A. McDougall, 'Back to Bedrock: the Eight Traditions of American Statecraft', Foreign Affairs (1997), pp. 140-6.
28. G. John Ikenberry, 'American Power and the Empire of Capitalist Democracy', Review of International Studies, 27 (2001), pp. 191, 202. G. John Ikenberry, 'Illusions of Empire: Defining the New American Order', Foreign Affairs, 83 (2004), p. 611. G. John Ikenberry, 'America and the Ambivalence of Power', Current History, 102 (2003), pp. 377-82.
29. Michael Cox, 'Empire, Imperialism and the Bush Doctrine', Review of International Studies, 30 (2004), pp. 598-601.
30. Michael W. Doyle, Empires (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1986), pp. 30, 31-47.
31. For similar definitions, see David Abernethy, The Dynamics of Global Dominance: European Overseas Empires, 1415-1980 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press 2000), p. 19. Alexander J. Motyl, Imperial ends: the decay, collapse and revival of empires (New York: Columbia University Press 1999), pp. 124-6.
32. Charles S. Maier, 'An American Empire? The problems of frontiers and peace in twenty-first century world politics', Harvard Magazine (2002), p. 1.
33. See also Alexander Wendt and Daniel Friedheim, 'Hierarchy under Anarchy: Informal Empire and the East German State', International Organization, 49 (1995), pp. 689-721.
34. Ignatieff, Empire Lite, p. 54. The Guardian, 18 September 2002.
35. See Abernethy, Dynamics of Global Dominance, p. 21. It is important to note, however, that imperialism need not lead to empire. An imperialist foreign policy may fail either because of local resistance by a target population or by the balancing behaviour of other great powers.
36. See Bruce Parrott, 'Analyzing the Transformation of the Soviet Union in Comparative Perspective', in Karen Dawisha and Bruce Parrott (eds), The End of Empire? (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), p. 8.
37. David Singh Drewal, 'Network Power and Globalization', Ethics & International Affairs, 17 (2003), p. 90.
38. See also Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 2000), pp. 160-82.
39. Michael Barnett and Raymond Duvall, 'Power in International Politics', International Organization, 59 (2005), pp. 39-75. G. John Ikenberry and Charles Kupchan, 'Socialization and Hegmonic Power', International Organization, 33 (1990), pp. 283-315.
40. See, for example, Stephen D. Krasner, Sovereignty: Organized Hypocrisy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 1999), pp. 3-42. Jack Donnelly, 'Sovereign Inequalities and Hierarchy in Anarchy: American Power and International Society', European Journal of International Relations, 12 (2006), pp. 13-17. David A. Lake, 'The New Sovereignty in International Relations', International Studies Review, 5 (2003), pp. 303-23.
41. David C. Hendrickson, 'Toward Universal Empire: the Dangerous Quest for Absolute Security', World Policy Journal, 19 (2002), p. 1. James Chace, 'Imperial America and the Common Interest', World Policy Journal, 19 (2002), p. 1.
42. Bruce Cumings, 'Is America an Imperial Power?' Current History, 102 (2003), p. 358.
43. Philip Zelikow, 'Transformation of National Security', The National Interest, 71 (2003), pp. 18-19.
44. Al Jazeera, Interview, 25 February 2003. Secretary of State Colin Powell made similar claims, stating: 'the US has the best record of any major power for not establishing imepriums, for not taking over counties.' Department of State, Interview (23 February 2003).
45. C. A. Bodelsen, Studies in Mid-Victorian Imperialism (London: Heinemann 1960 [1924]). William L. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890-1902 (New York: Knopf 1956 [1935]). R. L. Schuyler, The Fall of the Old Colonial System: a study in British Free Trade, 1770-1870 (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1945).
46. Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher, 'Imperialism of Free Trade', Economic History Review, 6 (1953), p. 1.
47. See also, John S. Galbraith, 'Myth of the 'Little England' Era', American Historical Review, 67 (1961), pp. 34-48.
48. Robinson and Gallagher, 'Imperialism of Free Trade', p. 13.
49. D. C. M. Platt, 'The Imperialism of Free Trade: Some Reservations', Economic History Review, 21 (1968), pp. 296-306. D. C. M. Platt, 'Further Objections to an 'Imperialism of Free Trade', 1830-60', Economic History Review, 26 (1973), pp. 77-91. Oliver Macdonagh, 'The Anti-Imperialism of Free Trade', Economic History Review, 16 (1963).
50. Paul Kennedy, 'Continuity and Discontinuity in British Imperialism', in C. C. Eldridge (ed.), British Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (London: MacMillan 1984), p. 21. C. C. Eldridge, Victorian Imperialism (London: Hodder and Stoughton 1978), pp. 74-81.
51. Conversely, as evidenced by Belgium and the Netherlands, countries need not possess hegemonic influence to establish empires. See Daniel Nexon, 'What's this, then? 'Romanes Enut Domus'?' Paper presented at the 2007 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, pp. 3-4. Ernest Lefever, America's Imperial Burden: Is the Past Prologue? (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1999), pp. 4-5.
52. Ignatieff, Empire Lite, p. 61.
53. See also Roland Paris, 'International Peacebuilding and the "mission civilisatrice" ', Review of International Studies, 28:4 (2002), pp. 638-9.
54. Robinson and Gallagher, 'Imperialism of Free Trade', p. 3.
55. For debates about mid-Victorian apathy, see C. C. Eldridge, British Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (London: Macmillan, 1984). Porter, Empire and Superempire, pp. 22-7.
56. John S. Galbraith, 'The Turbulent Frontier as a Factor in British Expansion', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 2 (1960), pp. 150-68. D. K. Fieldhouse, Economics and Empire, 1830-1914 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press).
57. Robert Jervis, 'The Compulsive Empire', Foreign Policy (2003), pp. 82-3. Andrew Hurrell, 'Power and the International System', Security Dialogue, 35 (2004), p. 256.
58. Michael R. Gordon and Bernard E. Trainor, Cobra II: the Inside Story of the Invasion and Occupation of Iraq (New York: Pantheon, 2006), pp. 459-60. George Packer, The Assassins' Gate: America in Iraq (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005), pp. 133-43.
59. Washington Post, 20 November 2003. New York Times, 21 October 2004. Gordon and Trainor, Cobra II, pp. 105-9. Bremer disputes the claim that he freelanced and claims that officials in the Defense Department implicitly sanctioned the policy. L. Paul Bremer III, My Year in Iraq (New York: Simon & Schuster 2006), pp. 53-8.
60. Los Angeles Times, 24 October 2004. New York Times, 8 July 2004. New York Times, 29 August 2004.
61. Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher, 'The Partition of Africa', in John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson (eds), The Decline, Revival, and Fall of the British Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1982), pp. 66-71.
62. Susan Strange, The Retreat of the State: the Diffusion of Power in the World Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1996).
63. Dani Rodrik, Has Globalization Gone Too Far? (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics 1997).
64. James R. Blaker, United States Overseas Basing: An Anatomy of the Dilemma (New York: Praeger, 1990), p. 1. Joseph Gerson, 'The Sun Never Sets', in Joseph Gerson and Bruce Birchard (eds), The Sun Never Sets: Confronting the Network of Foreign US Military Bases (Boston, MA: South End Press 1991), pp. 16-17.
65. Ignatieff, Empire Lite, p. 57. Giddeon Rose, 'Imperialism: the Highest Stage of American Capitalism', The National Interest, 71 (2003), p. 134.
66. For arguments in support of this 'postmodern imperialism', see James D. Fearon and David D. Laitin, 'Neotrusteeship and the Problem of Weak States', International Security, 28 (Spring 2004). Stephen Krasner, 'Sharing Sovereignty: New Institutions for Collapsed and Failing States', International Security, 29 (Fall 2004), pp. 85-6, 105-8.
67. See Charles Tilly, 'How Empires End', in Karen Barkey and Mark von Hagen (eds), After Empire: Multiethnic Societies and Nation Building (Boulder, CO: Westview 1997). Alexander Cooley, Logics of Hierarchy: the Organization of Empires, States and Military Occupations (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 2005). Alexander J. Motyl, Revolutions, nations, empire: conceptual limits and theoretical possibilities (New York: Columbia University Press 1999).
68. See Paul Kenendy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (New York: Vintage 1987). Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (New York: Cambridge 1981).
69. Department of Defense, 'Base Structure Report: A Summary of the DoD's Real Property Inventory' (2004).
70. Department of Defense, 'Active Duty Military Personnel Strengths by Regional Area and by Country' (2004).
71. Department of Defense, 'National Defense Budget Estimates for FY2005' (2004).
72. William C. Wohlforth, 'The Stability of a Unipolar World', International Security, 24 (1999), pp. 5-41.
73. Barry Posen, 'Command of the Commons: the Military Foundation of US Hegemony', International Security, 28 (2003), p. 9.
74. Rosen, 'Empire', pp. 52-61.
75. Robert Hunter Wade, 'The Invisible Hand of the American Empire', Ethics & International Affairs, 17 (2003), pp. 77-88. Robert Hunder Wade, 'Bringing Economics Back In', Security Dialogue, 35 (2004), pp. 243-9. Peter Gowan, 'A Calculus of Power', New Left Review, 16 (2002), pp. 47-67.
76. The Economist, 27 June 2002.
77. Department of Commerce, 'Trade Statistics Express.'.
78. The Economist, 18 September 2003.
79. Susan Strange, 'The Future of the American Empire', Journal of International Affairs, 42 (1988), p. 10.
80. James Kurth, 'Migration and the Dynamics of Empire', The National Interest, 71 (2003), pp. 5-17.
81. Peter Gowan, 'Empire as Superstructure', Security Dialogue, 35 (2004), p. 259.
82. See also Neil Smith, The Endgame of Globalization (New York: Routledge, 2005), pp. 14-16. Wood Empire of Capital, pp. 9-19.
83. Washington Post, 6 June 2003.
84. The Economist, 30 September 2004. International Monetary Fund, 'The Global Implications of the US Fiscal Deficit and of China's Growth' (2004). Wade, 'Invisible Hand', p. 83.
85. Julius William Pratt, Expansionists of 1898: the acquisition of Hawaii and the Spanish Islands (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press 1936).
86. Williams, Tragedy of American Diplomacy. LaFeber, The New Empire. Thomas J. McCormick, China Market: America's Quest for informal empire (Chicago, IL: Quadrangle Books 1967).
87. J. A. Hobson, Imperialism: A Study (London: Allen & Unwin 1967). Vladimir I. Lenin, Imperialism: the highest stage of capitalism (New York: International Publishers 1961).
88. Robinson and Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians, p. 74.
89. Ibid., pp. 120-59. Robinson and Gallagher, 'Partition of Africa', pp. 24-30.
90. Paul S. Holbo, 'Economics, Emotion, and Expansion: An Emerging Foreign Policy', in H. Wayne Morgan (ed.), The Gilded Age (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press 1970), pp. 199-221. Robert Zevin, 'An Interpretation of American Imperialism', Journal of Economic History, 32 (1972), pp. 333-74. James A. Field Jr., 'American Imperialism: the Worst Chapter in Almost Any Book', American Historical Review, 83 (1978), pp. 22-3.
91. Eric Stokes, 'Late Nineteenth-Century Colonial Expansion and the Attack on the Theory of Economic Imperialism: A Case of Mistaken Identity?' The Historical Journal, 12 (1969), pp. 285-301. P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion, 1688-1914 (London: Longman 1993).
92. Michael Mann, 'The First Failed Empire of the 21st Century', Review of International Studies, 30 (2004), p. 639.
93. Joseph A. Fry, 'From Open Door to World Systems: Economic Interpretations of Late Nineteenth Century American Foreign Relations', Pacific Historical Review, 65 (1996), pp. 277-303. John Darwin, 'Imperialism and the Victorians: the Dynamics of Territorial Expansion', English Historical Review, 112 (1997), pp. 614-42.
94. Thomas J. Osborne, 'Trade or War? America's Annexation of Hawaii Reconsidered', Pacific Historical Review, 50 (1981), pp. 296-7, 305-6.
95. A. G. Hopkins, 'Victorians and Africa: A Reconsideration of the Occupation of Egypt, 1882', Journal of African History, 27 (1986), pp. 363-91. Alaf Lutfi Al-Sayyid Marsot and John Kenneth Galbraith, 'British Occupation of Egypt: Another View', International Journal of Middle East Studies, 9 (1978).
96. Daniel Yergin, 'A Crude View of the Crisis in Iraq', Washington Post, 8 December 2002. Vijay V. Vaitheeswaran, 'Pipe Dreams in Iraq', Foreign Policy (2003). Edward L. Morse, 'Fighting for Oil?' National Interest (2004).
97. On the 'new imperial history', see overviews in Catherine Hall, 'Introduction', in Catherine Hall (ed.), Cultures of Empire (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000), pp. 1-36. Kathleen Wilson, 'Histories, Empires, Modernities', in Kathleen Wilson (ed.), A New Imperial History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp. 1-28.
98. For a critique, see Bernard Porter, Absent-Minded Imperialists: Empire, Society and Culture in Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), esp. pp. 134-65.
99. See also Duncan S. A. Bell, 'Empire and International Relations in Victorian Political Thought', The Historical Journal, 49 (2006), pp. 292-4.
100. See for example John MacKenzie, Propaganda and Empire (Manchester: Manchester University Press 1984), pp. 15-38. Tony Ballantyne, Orientalism and Race: Aryanism in the British Empire (New York: Palgrave, 2001), pp. 1-17. Anders Stephanson, Manifest Destiny: American Exceptionalism and the Empire of Right (New York; Hill and Wang 1995), esp. pp. 112-30.
101. See for example Anatol Lieven, America Right or Wrong (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), pp. 19-46. Andrew Bacevich, The New American Militarism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 9-33. Chalmers A. Johnson, The Sorrows of Empire: militarism, secrecy and the end of the republic (New York: Metropolitan Books 2004), pp. 39-66. I want to thank an anonymous reviewer for pointing this out.
102. Ronald R. Krebs and Jennifer K. Lobasz, 'Fixing the Meaning of 9/11: Hegemony, Coercion and the Road to the Iraq War', Security Studies, 16 (2007), pp. 410-14. Ronald R. Krebs, 'Selling the Market Short? The Marketplace of Ideas and the Iraq War', International Security, 29 (2005), pp. 196-202.
103. For an alternative view, see Chaim Kaufmann, 'Threat Inflation and the Failure of the Marketplace of Ideas', International Security, 29 (2004), pp. 5-48.
104. Theo Farrell, 'Strategic Culture and American Empire', SAIS Review, 25 (2005), pp. 7-10.
105. See also Richard Saul, 'On the 'New American Empire', Security Dialogue, 35 (2004), pp. 250-3.
106. See also John B. Judis, The Folly of Empire (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), pp. 11-28, 185-200. Pratap Bhanu Mehta, 'Empire and Moral Identity', Ethics & International Affairs, 17 (2003), p. 55.
107. See Robinson, 'Non-European Foundations of European Imperialism.' C. W. Newbury, Patrons, Clients and Empire: Chieftaincy and Over-Rule in Asia, Africa and the Pacific (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2003).
108. See also Porter, Empire and Superempire, pp. 122-3.
109. See Paul K. MacDonald, Networks of Domination: Social Ties and Imperial Rule in International Politics, unpublished manuscript.
110. General Tommy Franks, American Soldier (New York: Harper Collins, 2004), pp. 419-20. Andrew Rathmell et al., Developing Iraq's Security Sector: the Coalition Provisional Authority's Experience (Santa Monica, CA: Rand National Defense Research Institute), pp. 10-11.
111. Rathmell, Developing Iraq's Security Sector, pp. 52-3. Jones et al., Establishing Law and Order After Conflict (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation), pp. 118-24. James Fallows, 'Why Iraq Has no Army', The Atlantic Monthly (December 2005), p. 70.
112. Anne Ellen Henderson, 'The Coalition Provisional Authority's Experience with Economic Reconstruction in Iraq', Special Report 138, United States Institute for Peace (2005), p. 8.
113. International Crisis Group 'Reconstructing Iraq', Report No. 30 (2004), pp. 8-15.
114. Robinson and Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians, pp. 291-351.
115. For a critique, see C. W. Newbury, 'Victorians, Republicans and the Partition of West Africa', Journal of African History, 3 (1962), pp. 493-501.
116. Nick Cullather, Illusions of Influence: the Political Economy of the United States-Philippines Relations, 1942-1960 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994). Paolo E. Coletta, 'McKinley, the Peace Negotiations, and the Acquisition of the Philippines', Pacific Historical Review, 30 (1961), pp. 349-50.
117. Marc O'Reilly and Wesley Renfro, 'Evolving Empire: America's 'Emirates' Strategy in the Persian Gulf', International Studies Perspectives, 8 (2007), pp. 137-51.
118. See also Michael T. Klare, 'The Empire's New Frontiers', Current History, 102 (2003), pp. 383-7.
119. Alexander Cooley, 'Base Politics', Foreign Affairs (2005).
120. Robert G. Rabil, Syria, the United States and the War on Terror in the Middle East (London: Praeger 2006). Kenneth Pollack, The Persian Puzzle: the Conflict between Iran and America (New York: Random House 2005).
121. Hobson, Imperialism.
122. See also D. K. Fieldhouse, The Theory of Capitalist Imperialism (New York: Barnes & Noble 1967).
123. Herbert Feis, Europe, the world's banker 1870-1914 (Clifton, NJ: Council on Foreign Relations 1974 [1930]). Alex K. Cairncross, Home and Foreign Investment, 1870-1913 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1953).
124. Between 1860-1914, rates of return on domestic capital, for example, averaged 10.8 per cent, foreign rates of return averaged just 9.4 per cent, while empire returned an average of 7.6 per cent after 1880. Lance Davis and Robert Huttenback, Mammon and the Pursuit of Empire: the Political Economy of British Imperialism, 1860-1912 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1986), pp. 81-111.
125. Between 1860-1914, British taxpayers paid on average £2.41 per capita in taxes and £1.14 per capita in defense spending, compared with £0.96 per capita taxes and £0.42 per capita defense spending for other states. Davis and Huttenback, Pursuit of Empire, pp. 160-5.
126. A. G. Hopkins, 'Accounting for the British Empire', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 15 (1988). Patrick K. O'Brien, 'The Costs and Benefits of British Imperialism, 1846-1914', Past and Present, 120 (1988), pp. 163-200. Paul Kennedy, 'Debate: Costs and Benefits of British Imperialism, 1846-1914', Past and Present, 125 (1989), pp. 186-92.
127. Michael Edelstein, 'Foreign Investment and Empire, 1860-1914', in R. C. Floud and D. N. McCloskey (eds), Economic History of Britain since 1700 (New York: Cambridge University Press 1981), pp. 90-3. Michael Edelstein, Overseas Investments in the Age of High Imperialism (New York: Columbia University Press 1982).
128. Andrew Porter, 'The Balance Sheet of Empire, 1850-1914', Historical Journal, 31 (1988), p. 691.
129. Newsweek, 8 September 2004. Washington Post, 22 October 2004.
130. Washington Post, 2 November 2004. Washington Post, 14 January 2005.
131. James Phillips, 'The Evolving Al-Qaeda Threat', Heritage Foundation (2006). Bruce Riedel, 'Al-Qaeda Strikes Back', Foreign Affairs (2006).
132. Quote from O'Brien, 'Costs and Benefits', pp. 168-70. Edelstein, 'Foreign Investment and Empire', pp. 90-4.
133. Cited in Sidney Pollard, 'Capital Exports, 1870-1914: Harmful or Beneficial?' Economic History Review, 38 (1985), pp. 503-4.
134. See also Wolfgang Mommsen, 'The Decline of Great Britain: Reality of Optical Distorition?' in Patrick K. O'Brien and Armand Cleese (eds), Two Hegemonies: Britain 1846-1914 and the United States 1941-2001 (Burlington, VT: Ashgate 2002), pp. 150-3.
135. Jeffrey A. Frankel and David Romer, 'Does Trade Cause Growth?' American Economic Review, 89 (1999), pp. 379-99. Jeffrey Kentor, 'The Long Term Effects of Globalization on Income Inequality, Population Growth, and Economic Development', Social Problems, 48 (2001), pp. 435-55.
136. Sebastian Edwards, 'Trade Policy, Growth, and Income Distribution', American Economic Review, 87 (1997), pp. 205-10. Francisco Rodŕiguez and Dani Rodrik, 'Trade Policy and Economic Growth: A Skeptic's Guide to the Cross-National Evidence', NBER Macroeconomics Annual, 15 (2000), pp. 261-325.
137. Morton Abromowitz, 'Does Iraq Matter?' National Interest, 75 (2004), pp. 39-45.
138. Steven J. Davis, Kevin M. Murphy and Robert H. Topel, 'War in Iraq Verses Containment', NBER Working Paper 12092 (2006), pp. 15-16.
139. Congressional Budget Office, 'Estimated Funding for Operations in Iraq and the War on Terrorism' (7 February 2007). Amy Belasco, 'The Cost of Iraq, Afghanistan and Other Global War on Terror Operations Since 9/11', CRS Report for Congress, RL33110 (14 March 2007).
140. Washington Post, 26 October 2004. William D. Nordhaus, 'The Economic Consequences of War with Iraq', in Carl Kaysen et al. (eds), War with Iraq: Costs, Consequences and Alternatives (Cambridge, MA: American Academy of Arts & Sciences 2002), pp. 54-6.
141. Brian W. Cashell, 'The Economics of the Federal Budget Deficit', CRS Report for Congress, RL 31235 (2007).
142. Steven Kosiak, 'The Global War on Terror: Costs, Cost Growth and Estimating Funding Requirements', Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessment (2007), p. 3.
143. Lind Bilmes and Joseph E. Stiglitz, 'The Economic Costs of the Iraq War: An Appraisal Three Years after the Beginning of the Conflict', NBER Working Paper 12054 (2006), p. 12.
144. Linda Bilmes and Joseph Stiglitz, 'Encore: Iraq Hemorrhage', Milken Institute Review (2006), pp. 81-2.
145. Benjamin Barber, Fear's Empire: War, Terrorism and Diplomacy (New York: Norton 2003), pp. 111-12. Essays in Stanley Aronowitz and Heather Gautney (eds), Implicating Empire: Globalization and Resistance in the 21st Century World Order (New York: Basic Books, 2002). I want to thank an anonymous reviewer for pointing this out.
146. See for example Morris David Morris, 'Towards a Reinterpretation of Nineteenth Century Indian Economic History', Journal of Economic History, 23 (1963), pp. 606-18. Anand Yang, The Limited Raj (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press 1989).
147. For overviews of these debates, see P. J. Marshall, 'Introduction', in The Eighteenth Century in Indian History: Evolution or Revolution? (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2003), pp. 1-52. Ian J. Barrow and Douglas E. Haynes, 'The Colonial Transition: South Asia, 1780-1840', Modern Asian Studies, 38 (2003), pp. 469-78.
148. See the pathbreaking work of Eric Stokes, for example, 'The First Century of British Colonial Rule in India: Social Revolution or Social Stagnation?' Past and Present, 58 (1973), pp. 136-60.
149. See also Robert Frykenberg, Gunter District 1788-1848: A History of Local Influence and Central Authority in South India (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1965).
150. Snyder, 'Imperial Temptations', p. 30. Michael Mann, Incoherent Empire (New York: Verso 2003), pp. 18-48.
151. New York Times Magazine, 17 October 2004.
152. Office of Management and Budget, Section 1506 Report to Congress (14 July 2003), p. 6.
153. See also Anne Ellen Henderson, 'The Coalition Provisional Authority's Experience with Economic Reconstruction in Iraq', Special Report 138, United States Institute for Peace (April 2005), p. 12.
154. Inspector General of the Coalition Political Authority (IG-CPA), Quarterly Report to the United States Congress (October 2004), p. 31. Special Inspector General for Iraqi Reconstruction, Lessons in Contracting and Procurement (July 2006), pp. 29, 45.
155. Onur Ozlu, 'Iraqi Economic Reconstruction and Development', Center for Strategic and International Studies (21 April 2006), p. 23. Kenneth M. Pollack, After Saddam: Assessing the Reconstruction of Iraq, Brookings Institution (January 2004), p. 26.
156. Security costs ballooned to between 16-22 per cent of project costs, resulting in 'project delays and cost increases.' Department of State, Quarterly Update to Congress, Section 2207 Report (July 2005), p. 5.
157. IG-CPA, Quarterly Report to the United States Congress (October 2004), p. 31. Kathleen Ridolfo, 'Iraq: the Corruption Quandary', Radio Free Europe, 13 October 2005.
158. Government Accountability Office, 'Rebuilding Iraq: Governance, Security, Reconstruction and Facing Challenges', GAO-06-697T (25 April 2006), p. 19.
159. See, for example, essays in Monica Hirst, Carlos Perez Llana and Roberto Russell (eds), Imperio, Estados E Instituciones: La Politica Internacional en los Comienzos del Siglo XXI (Altamira, 2004).
160. For a useful periodisation of empire, see John Darwin, After Tamerlane: the Global History of Empire (London: Allen Lane 2007), pp. 6-46.
161. See also Abernethy, Dynamics of Global Dominance, pp. 45-174.
162. For an argument in favour of continuity in imperial dynamics, see Paul K. MacDonald, 'Is Imperial Rule Obsolete? Assessing the Barriers to Overseas Adventurism', Security Studies, forthcoming.