From open door to world systems: Economic interpretations of late nineteenth century American foreign relations

Pacific Historical Review

Volumn 65, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 277-302

  Fry, Joseph A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEVADA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ECONOMIC INFLUENCE; FOREIGN POLICY; GEOPOLITICAL RELATIONS; GILDED AGE; HISTORICAL THEORY; THEORETICAL STUDY; WISCONSIN SCHOOL;

USA;

EID: 0030482828     PISSN: 00308684     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3639986     Document Type: Article

References (156)

1. Los Angeles Times, Nov. 16, 1993 (President Bill Clinton).
2. Ibid., Nov. 14, 1993 (Rep. Tom Ridge, Penn.).
3. Wall Street Journal, Nov. 2, 1993 (President Clinton).
4. Edward P. Crapol, "Coming to Terms with Empire: The Historiography of Late-Nineteenth-Century American Foreign Relations," Diplomatic History, XVI (1992), 573-597; Walter LaFeber, The American Search, for Opportunity, 1865-1913 (Vol. II in The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations [Cambridge, Eng., 1993]); Thomas D. Schoonover, The United States in Central America, 1860-1911: Episodes of Social Imperialism and Imperial Rivalry in the World System (Durham, N.C., 1991). With only a few exceptions (i.e., J. A. Thompson, Cristóbal Kay, Wolfgang J. Mommsen, and Ian Tyrrell), this essay examines U.S. authors and materials and thereby traces the debate within the American historical profession. To be sure, important perspectives on this topic have been written in Cuba, Central and South America, and the Philippines; however, their inclusion extends beyond the scope and available space for this essay.
5. Edward P. Crapol, "Coming to Terms with Empire: The Historiography of Late-Nineteenth-Century American Foreign Relations," Diplomatic History, XVI (1992), 573-597; Walter LaFeber, The American Search, for Opportunity, 1865-1913 (Vol. II in The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations [Cambridge, Eng., 1993]); Thomas D. Schoonover, The United States in Central America, 1860-1911: Episodes of Social Imperialism and Imperial Rivalry in the World System (Durham, N.C., 1991). With only a few exceptions (i.e., J. A. Thompson, Cristóbal Kay, Wolfgang J. Mommsen, and Ian Tyrrell), this essay examines U.S. authors and materials and thereby traces the debate within the American historical profession. To be sure, important perspectives on this topic have been written in Cuba, Central and South America, and the Philippines; however, their inclusion extends beyond the scope and available space for this essay.
6. Edward P. Crapol, "Coming to Terms with Empire: The Historiography of Late-Nineteenth-Century American Foreign Relations," Diplomatic History, XVI (1992), 573-597; Walter LaFeber, The American Search, for Opportunity, 1865-1913 (Vol. II in The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations [Cambridge, Eng., 1993]); Thomas D. Schoonover, The United States in Central America, 1860-1911: Episodes of Social Imperialism and Imperial Rivalry in the World System (Durham, N.C., 1991). With only a few exceptions (i.e., J. A. Thompson, Cristóbal Kay, Wolfgang J. Mommsen, and Ian Tyrrell), this essay examines U.S. authors and materials and thereby traces the debate within the American historical profession. To be sure, important perspectives on this topic have been written in Cuba, Central and South America, and the Philippines; however, their inclusion extends beyond the scope and available space for this essay.
7. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Cycles of American History (Boston, 1986), 136, 138-39, 143; Ernest R. May, American Imperialism: A Speculative Essay (1968; reprint, Chicago, 1991 [with a new introduction]), xxxi.
8. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Cycles of American History (Boston, 1986), 136, 138-39, 143; Ernest R. May, American Imperialism: A Speculative Essay (1968; reprint, Chicago, 1991 [with a new introduction]), xxxi.
9. Robin W. Winks, "The American Struggle with 'Imperialism': How Words Frighten," in Rob Kroes, ed., The American Identity: Fusion and Fragmentation (Amsterdam, 1980), 143-177;
10. Joseph A. Fry, "Imperialism, American Style, 1890-1916," in Gordon Martel, ed., American Foreign Relations Reconsidered, 1890-1993 (London and New York, 1994), 52-54;
11. Robert L. Beisner, From the Old Diplomacy to the New, 1865-1900 (2nd ed., Arlington Heights, II., 1986), 13-15, 26-31.
12. William A. Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (1959; 2nd rev. ed., New York, 1972);
13. Walter LaFeber, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansionism, 1860-1898 (Ithaca, N.Y., 1963);
14. Thomas J. McCormick, China Market: America's Quest for Informal Empire, 1893-1901 (Chicago, 1967), 7, 125 (quotations).
15. For the most recent overall assessment of William's work and influence, see Paul M. Buhle and Edward Rice-Maximin, William Appleman Williams: The Tragedy of Empire (New York and London, 1995).
16. LaFeber, "That 'Splendid Little War' in Historical Perspective," Texas Quarterly, XI (1968), 91.
17. Williams, The Roots of the Modern American Empire: A Study of the Growth and Shaping of Social Consciousness in a Marketplace Society (New York, 1969); Edward P. Crapol and Howard Schonberger, "The Shift to Global Empire, 1865-1900," in W. A. Williams, ed., From Colony to Empire: Essays in the History of American Foreign Relations (New York, 1972), 135-202; LaFeber, New Empire; McCormick, China Market.
18. Williams, The Roots of the Modern American Empire: A Study of the Growth and Shaping of Social Consciousness in a Marketplace Society (New York, 1969); Edward P. Crapol and Howard Schonberger, "The Shift to Global Empire, 1865-1900," in W. A. Williams, ed., From Colony to Empire: Essays in the History of American Foreign Relations (New York, 1972), 135-202; LaFeber, New Empire; McCormick, China Market.
19. Williams, The Roots of the Modern American Empire: A Study of the Growth and Shaping of Social Consciousness in a Marketplace Society (New York, 1969); Edward P. Crapol and Howard Schonberger, "The Shift to Global Empire, 1865-1900," in W. A. Williams, ed., From Colony to Empire: Essays in the History of American Foreign Relations (New York, 1972), 135-202; LaFeber, New Empire; McCormick, China Market.
20. Williams, The Roots of the Modern American Empire: A Study of the Growth and Shaping of Social Consciousness in a Marketplace Society (New York, 1969); Edward P. Crapol and Howard Schonberger, "The Shift to Global Empire, 1865-1900," in W. A. Williams, ed., From Colony to Empire: Essays in the History of American Foreign Relations (New York, 1972), 135-202; LaFeber, New Empire; McCormick, China Market.
21. Tom E. Terrill, The Tarill, Politics, and American Foreign Policy, 1874-1901 (Westport, Conn., 1973), 185-186 (quotation); Edward P. Crapol, America for Americans: Economic Nationalism and Anglophobia in the Late Nineteenth Century (Westport, Conn., 1973).
22. Tom E. Terrill, The Tarill, Politics, and American Foreign Policy, 1874-1901 (Westport, Conn., 1973), 185-186 (quotation); Edward P. Crapol, America for Americans: Economic Nationalism and Anglophobia in the Late Nineteenth Century (Westport, Conn., 1973).
23. Howard B. Schonberger, Transportation to the Seaboard: The "Communication Revolution" and American Foreign Policy, 1860-1900 (Westport, Conn., 1971).
24. Patrick J. Hearden, Independence and Empire: The New South's Cotton Mill Campaign, 1865-1901 (DeKalb, 1982), 67.
25. Martin J. Sklar, "The N.A.M. and Foreign Markets on the Eve of the Spanish-American War," Science and Society, XXIII (1959), 133-162. Although not directly tied to Williams or Wisconsin, the following bolster the argument for the pursuit of markets: Thomas G. Paterson, "American Businessmen and Consular Service Reform, 1890's to 1906," Business History Review, XL (1966), 77-97; Albert K. Steigerwalt, The National Association of Manufacturers, 1885-1914 (Ann Arbor, 1964), 10-11, 13, 17-25, 32, 44-64, 67, 72, 83, 101; Charles S. Campbell, Jr., Special Business Interests and the Open Door Policy (1951; reprint, New York, 1968).
26. Martin J. Sklar, "The N.A.M. and Foreign Markets on the Eve of the Spanish-American War," Science and Society, XXIII (1959), 133-162. Although not directly tied to Williams or Wisconsin, the following bolster the argument for the pursuit of markets: Thomas G. Paterson, "American Businessmen and Consular Service Reform, 1890's to 1906," Business History Review, XL (1966), 77-97; Albert K. Steigerwalt, The National Association of Manufacturers, 1885-1914 (Ann Arbor, 1964), 10-11, 13, 17-25, 32, 44-64, 67, 72, 83, 101; Charles S. Campbell, Jr., Special Business Interests and the Open Door Policy (1951; reprint, New York, 1968).
27. Martin J. Sklar, "The N.A.M. and Foreign Markets on the Eve of the Spanish-American War," Science and Society, XXIII (1959), 133-162. Although not directly tied to Williams or Wisconsin, the following bolster the argument for the pursuit of markets: Thomas G. Paterson, "American Businessmen and Consular Service Reform, 1890's to 1906," Business History Review, XL (1966), 77-97; Albert K. Steigerwalt, The National Association of Manufacturers, 1885-1914 (Ann Arbor, 1964), 10-11, 13, 17-25, 32, 44-64, 67, 72, 83, 101; Charles S. Campbell, Jr., Special Business Interests and the Open Door Policy (1951; reprint, New York, 1968).
28. Martin J. Sklar, "The N.A.M. and Foreign Markets on the Eve of the Spanish-American War," Science and Society, XXIII (1959), 133-162. Although not directly tied to Williams or Wisconsin, the following bolster the argument for the pursuit of markets: Thomas G. Paterson, "American Businessmen and Consular Service Reform, 1890's to 1906," Business History Review, XL (1966), 77-97; Albert K. Steigerwalt, The National Association of Manufacturers, 1885-1914 (Ann Arbor, 1964), 10-11, 13, 17-25, 32, 44-64, 67, 72, 83, 101; Charles S. Campbell, Jr., Special Business Interests and the Open Door Policy (1951; reprint, New York, 1968).
29. Carl P. Parrini and Martin J. Sklar, "New Thinking about the Market, 1896-1904: Some Economists on Investment and the Theory of Surplus Capital," Journal of Economic History, XLIII (1983), 559-578.
30. LaFeber, "That 'Splendid Little War,'" 89-98; LaFeber, New Empire, 400.
31. LaFeber, "That 'Splendid Little War,'" 89-98; LaFeber, New Empire, 400.
32. Ernest N. Paolino, The Foundation of the American Empire: William Henry Seward and U.S. Foreign Policy (Ithaca, 1973); Edward Younger, John A. Kasson: Politics and Diplomacy from Lincoln to McKinley (Iowa City, 1955); Joseph A. Fry, Henry S. Sanford: Diplomacy and Business in Nineteenth-Century America (Reno, 1982); Fry, John Tyler Morgan and the Search for Southern Autonomy (Knoxville, 1992) ; Joyce S. Goldberg, The "Baltimore" Affair (Lincoln, 1986), 23-28; Frederick C. Drake, The Empire of the Seas: A Biography of Robert Wilson Shufeldt, USN (Honolulu, 1984); Michael J. Devine, John W. Foster: Politics and Diplomacy in the Imperial Era, 1873-1917 (Athens, Oh., 1981); Salvatore Prisco III, John Barrett, Progressive Era Diplomat: A Study of a Commercial Expansionist, 1877-1920 (University, Ala., 1973).
33. Ernest N. Paolino, The Foundation of the American Empire: William Henry Seward and U.S. Foreign Policy (Ithaca, 1973); Edward Younger, John A. Kasson: Politics and Diplomacy from Lincoln to McKinley (Iowa City, 1955); Joseph A. Fry, Henry S. Sanford: Diplomacy and Business in Nineteenth-Century America (Reno, 1982); Fry, John Tyler Morgan and the Search for Southern Autonomy (Knoxville, 1992) ; Joyce S. Goldberg, The "Baltimore" Affair (Lincoln, 1986), 23-28; Frederick C. Drake, The Empire of the Seas: A Biography of Robert Wilson Shufeldt, USN (Honolulu, 1984); Michael J. Devine, John W. Foster: Politics and Diplomacy in the Imperial Era, 1873-1917 (Athens, Oh., 1981); Salvatore Prisco III, John Barrett, Progressive Era Diplomat: A Study of a Commercial Expansionist, 1877-1920 (University, Ala., 1973).
34. Ernest N. Paolino, The Foundation of the American Empire: William Henry Seward and U.S. Foreign Policy (Ithaca, 1973); Edward Younger, John A. Kasson: Politics and Diplomacy from Lincoln to McKinley (Iowa City, 1955); Joseph A. Fry, Henry S. Sanford: Diplomacy and Business in Nineteenth-Century America (Reno, 1982); Fry, John Tyler Morgan and the Search for Southern Autonomy (Knoxville, 1992) ; Joyce S. Goldberg, The "Baltimore" Affair (Lincoln, 1986), 23-28; Frederick C. Drake, The Empire of the Seas: A Biography of Robert Wilson Shufeldt, USN (Honolulu, 1984); Michael J. Devine, John W. Foster: Politics and Diplomacy in the Imperial Era, 1873-1917 (Athens, Oh., 1981); Salvatore Prisco III, John Barrett, Progressive Era Diplomat: A Study of a Commercial Expansionist, 1877-1920 (University, Ala., 1973).
35. Ernest N. Paolino, The Foundation of the American Empire: William Henry Seward and U.S. Foreign Policy (Ithaca, 1973); Edward Younger, John A. Kasson: Politics and Diplomacy from Lincoln to McKinley (Iowa City, 1955); Joseph A. Fry, Henry S. Sanford: Diplomacy and Business in Nineteenth-Century America (Reno, 1982); Fry, John Tyler Morgan and the Search for Southern Autonomy (Knoxville, 1992) ; Joyce S. Goldberg, The "Baltimore" Affair (Lincoln, 1986), 23-28; Frederick C. Drake, The Empire of the Seas: A Biography of Robert Wilson Shufeldt, USN (Honolulu, 1984); Michael J. Devine, John W. Foster: Politics and Diplomacy in the Imperial Era, 1873-1917 (Athens, Oh., 1981); Salvatore Prisco III, John Barrett, Progressive Era Diplomat: A Study of a Commercial Expansionist, 1877-1920 (University, Ala., 1973).
36. Ernest N. Paolino, The Foundation of the American Empire: William Henry Seward and U.S. Foreign Policy (Ithaca, 1973); Edward Younger, John A. Kasson: Politics and Diplomacy from Lincoln to McKinley (Iowa City, 1955); Joseph A. Fry, Henry S. Sanford: Diplomacy and Business in Nineteenth-Century America (Reno, 1982); Fry, John Tyler Morgan and the Search for Southern Autonomy (Knoxville, 1992) ; Joyce S. Goldberg, The "Baltimore" Affair (Lincoln, 1986), 23-28; Frederick C. Drake, The Empire of the Seas: A Biography of Robert Wilson Shufeldt, USN (Honolulu, 1984); Michael J. Devine, John W. Foster: Politics and Diplomacy in the Imperial Era, 1873-1917 (Athens, Oh., 1981); Salvatore Prisco III, John Barrett, Progressive Era Diplomat: A Study of a Commercial Expansionist, 1877-1920 (University, Ala., 1973).
37. Ernest N. Paolino, The Foundation of the American Empire: William Henry Seward and U.S. Foreign Policy (Ithaca, 1973); Edward Younger, John A. Kasson: Politics and Diplomacy from Lincoln to McKinley (Iowa City, 1955); Joseph A. Fry, Henry S. Sanford: Diplomacy and Business in Nineteenth-Century America (Reno, 1982); Fry, John Tyler Morgan and the Search for Southern Autonomy (Knoxville, 1992) ; Joyce S. Goldberg, The "Baltimore" Affair (Lincoln, 1986), 23-28; Frederick C. Drake, The Empire of the Seas: A Biography of Robert Wilson Shufeldt, USN (Honolulu, 1984); Michael J. Devine, John W. Foster: Politics and Diplomacy in the Imperial Era, 1873-1917 (Athens, Oh., 1981); Salvatore Prisco III, John Barrett, Progressive Era Diplomat: A Study of a Commercial Expansionist, 1877-1920 (University, Ala., 1973).
38. Ernest N. Paolino, The Foundation of the American Empire: William Henry Seward and U.S. Foreign Policy (Ithaca, 1973); Edward Younger, John A. Kasson: Politics and Diplomacy from Lincoln to McKinley (Iowa City, 1955); Joseph A. Fry, Henry S. Sanford: Diplomacy and Business in Nineteenth-Century America (Reno, 1982); Fry, John Tyler Morgan and the Search for Southern Autonomy (Knoxville, 1992) ; Joyce S. Goldberg, The "Baltimore" Affair (Lincoln, 1986), 23-28; Frederick C. Drake, The Empire of the Seas: A Biography of Robert Wilson Shufeldt, USN (Honolulu, 1984); Michael J. Devine, John W. Foster: Politics and Diplomacy in the Imperial Era, 1873-1917 (Athens, Oh., 1981); Salvatore Prisco III, John Barrett, Progressive Era Diplomat: A Study of a Commercial Expansionist, 1877-1920 (University, Ala., 1973).
39. Ernest N. Paolino, The Foundation of the American Empire: William Henry Seward and U.S. Foreign Policy (Ithaca, 1973); Edward Younger, John A. Kasson: Politics and Diplomacy from Lincoln to McKinley (Iowa City, 1955); Joseph A. Fry, Henry S. Sanford: Diplomacy and Business in Nineteenth-Century America (Reno, 1982); Fry, John Tyler Morgan and the Search for Southern Autonomy (Knoxville, 1992) ; Joyce S. Goldberg, The "Baltimore" Affair (Lincoln, 1986), 23-28; Frederick C. Drake, The Empire of the Seas: A Biography of Robert Wilson Shufeldt, USN (Honolulu, 1984); Michael J. Devine, John W. Foster: Politics and Diplomacy in the Imperial Era, 1873-1917 (Athens, Oh., 1981); Salvatore Prisco III, John Barrett, Progressive Era Diplomat: A Study of a Commercial Expansionist, 1877-1920 (University, Ala., 1973).
40. Milton Plesur, "Rumblings Beneath the Surface: America's Outward Thrust, 1865-1890," in H. Wayne Morgan, ed., The Gilded Age: A Reappraisal (Syracuse, 1963), 148 (quotation); Plesur, America's Outward Thrust: Approaches to Foreign Affairs, 1865-1890 (DeKalb, 1971); David Healy, US Expansionism: The Imperialist Urge in the 1890s (Madison, 1970), 246.
41. Milton Plesur, "Rumblings Beneath the Surface: America's Outward Thrust, 1865-1890," in H. Wayne Morgan, ed., The Gilded Age: A Reappraisal (Syracuse, 1963), 148 (quotation); Plesur, America's Outward Thrust: Approaches to Foreign Affairs, 1865-1890 (DeKalb, 1971); David Healy, US Expansionism: The Imperialist Urge in the 1890s (Madison, 1970), 246.
42. Milton Plesur, "Rumblings Beneath the Surface: America's Outward Thrust, 1865-1890," in H. Wayne Morgan, ed., The Gilded Age: A Reappraisal (Syracuse, 1963), 148 (quotation); Plesur, America's Outward Thrust: Approaches to Foreign Affairs, 1865-1890 (DeKalb, 1971); David Healy, US Expansionism: The Imperialist Urge in the 1890s (Madison, 1970), 246.
43. Kenneth J. Hagan, American Gunboat Diplomacy and the Old Navy, 1877-1889 (Westport, Conn., 1973), 8-9; see also Hagan, This People's Navy: The Making of American Sea Power (New York, 1991).
44. Kenneth J. Hagan, American Gunboat Diplomacy and the Old Navy, 1877-1889 (Westport, Conn., 1973), 8-9; see also Hagan, This People's Navy: The Making of American Sea Power (New York, 1991).
45. Tennant S. McWilliams, "The Lure of Empire: Southern Interest in the Caribbean, 1877-1900," Mississippi Quarterly, XXIX (1975-76), 63.
46. Thomas J. Osborne, "Trade or War? America's Annexation of Hawaii Reconsidered," Pacific Historical Review, L (1981), 286; see also Osborne, "Empire Can Wait": American Opposition to Hawaiian Annexation (Kent, Oh., 1981), 123-124, 134, 137.
47. Thomas J. Osborne, "Trade or War? America's Annexation of Hawaii Reconsidered," Pacific Historical Review, L (1981), 286; see also Osborne, "Empire Can Wait": American Opposition to Hawaiian Annexation (Kent, Oh., 1981), 123-124, 134, 137.
48. Robert W. Rydell, All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916 (Chicago, 1984), 73, 124, 237.
49. Lester D. Langley and Thomas Schoonover, The Banana Men: American Mercenaries and Entrepreneurs in Central America, 1880-1930 (Lexington, Ky, 1995); Jimmy M. Skaggs, The Great Guano Rush; Entrepreneurs and American Overseas Expansion (New York, 1995).
50. Lester D. Langley and Thomas Schoonover, The Banana Men: American Mercenaries and Entrepreneurs in Central America, 1880-1930 (Lexington, Ky, 1995); Jimmy M. Skaggs, The Great Guano Rush; Entrepreneurs and American Overseas Expansion (New York, 1995).
51. David A. Lake, Power, Protection, and Free Trade: International Sources of U.S. Commercial Strategy, 1887-1939 (Ithaca, 1988), 216-217, 225; see also Arthur A. Stein, "The Hegemon's Dilemma: Great Britain, the United States, and the International Economic Order," International Organization, XXXVIII (1984), 364-373.
52. David A. Lake, Power, Protection, and Free Trade: International Sources of U.S. Commercial Strategy, 1887-1939 (Ithaca, 1988), 216-217, 225; see also Arthur A. Stein, "The Hegemon's Dilemma: Great Britain, the United States, and the International Economic Order," International Organization, XXXVIII (1984), 364-373.
53. Emily S. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890-1945 (New York, 1982), 7-63.
54. Louis A. Pérez, Jr., Cuba between Empires, 1878-1902 (Pittsburgh, 1983), xviii, 378-379 (quotations); Pérez, Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy (Athens, Ga., 1990), 1-166; see also Jules R. Benjamin, The United States and Cuba: Hegemony and Dependent Development, 1880-1934 (Pittsburgh, 1977).
55. Louis A. Pérez, Jr., Cuba between Empires, 1878-1902 (Pittsburgh, 1983), xviii, 378-379 (quotations); Pérez, Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy (Athens, Ga., 1990), 1-166; see also Jules R. Benjamin, The United States and Cuba: Hegemony and Dependent Development, 1880-1934 (Pittsburgh, 1977).
56. Louis A. Pérez, Jr., Cuba between Empires, 1878-1902 (Pittsburgh, 1983), xviii, 378-379 (quotations); Pérez, Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy (Athens, Ga., 1990), 1-166; see also Jules R. Benjamin, The United States and Cuba: Hegemony and Dependent Development, 1880-1934 (Pittsburgh, 1977).
57. Gilbert M. Joseph, Revolution from Without: Yucatán, Mexico, and the United States, 1880-1924 (Cambridge, Eng., 1982), 42-75, (quotations on, 43, 45).
58. Schoonover, United States in Central America, 2, 166, 171; see also Schoonover, "Metropole Rivalry in Central America, 1820s-1929: An Overview," in Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr., ed., Central America: Historical Perspectives on the Contemporary Crisis (New York, 1988), 21-46; see also Barry Rigby, "The Origins of American Expansion in Hawaii and Samoa, 1865-1900," International History Review, X (1988), 221-237.
59. Schoonover, United States in Central America, 2, 166, 171; see also Schoonover, "Metropole Rivalry in Central America, 1820s-1929: An Overview," in Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr., ed., Central America: Historical Perspectives on the Contemporary Crisis (New York, 1988), 21-46; see also Barry Rigby, "The Origins of American Expansion in Hawaii and Samoa, 1865-1900," International History Review, X (1988), 221-237.
60. Schoonover, United States in Central America, 2, 166, 171; see also Schoonover, "Metropole Rivalry in Central America, 1820s-1929: An Overview," in Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr., ed., Central America: Historical Perspectives on the Contemporary Crisis (New York, 1988), 21-46; see also Barry Rigby, "The Origins of American Expansion in Hawaii and Samoa, 1865-1900," International History Review, X (1988), 221-237.
61. Paul S. Holbo, "Economics, Emotion, and Expansion: An Emerging Foreign Policy," in H. Wayne Morgan, ed., The Gilded Age (Syracuse, 1970), 199-221.
62. J. A. Thompson, "William Appleman Williams and the 'American Empire,'" Journal of American Studies, VII (1973), 95.
63. Schlesinger, Cycles of American History, 132-135, (quotation on, 132); Robert Zevin, "An Interpretation of American Imperialism," Journal of Economic History, XXXII (1972), 343-344.
64. Schlesinger, Cycles of American History, 132-135, (quotation on, 132); Robert Zevin, "An Interpretation of American Imperialism," Journal of Economic History, XXXII (1972), 343-344.
65. David M. Pletcher, "1861-1898: Economic Growth and Diplomatic Adjustment," in William H. Becker and Samuel F. Wells, Jr., eds., Economics and World Power: An Assessment of American Diplomacy since 1789 (New York, 1984), 125-143;
66. Pletcher, "Rhetoric and Results: A Pragmatic View of American Economic Expansionism, 1865-1898," Diplomatic History, V (1981), 92-105.
67. Pletcher, "Economic Growth and Diplomatic Adjustment," 127 (quotation); William H. Becker, The Dynamics of Business-Government Relations: Industry and Exports, 1893-1921 (Chicago, 1982), xiv.
68. Pletcher, "Economic Growth and Diplomatic Adjustment," 127 (quotation); William H. Becker, The Dynamics of Business-Government Relations: Industry and Exports, 1893-1921 (Chicago, 1982), xiv.
69. John L. Offner, An Unwanted War: The Diplomacy of the United States and Spain over Cuba, 1895-1898 (Chapel Hill, 1992); see also John Dobson, Reticent Expansionism: The Foreign Policy of William McKinley (Pittsburgh, 1988).
70. John L. Offner, An Unwanted War: The Diplomacy of the United States and Spain over Cuba, 1895-1898 (Chapel Hill, 1992); see also John Dobson, Reticent Expansionism: The Foreign Policy of William McKinley (Pittsburgh, 1988).
71. Charles S. Campbell, The Transformation of American Foreign Relations, 1865-1900 (New York, 1976), 24, 194-216; Russell H. Bastert, "A New Approach to the Origins of Blaine's Pan American Policy," Hispanic American Historical Review, XXXIX (1959), 375-412; Charles W. Calhoun, Gilded Age Cato: The Life of Walter Q Gresham (Lexington, Ky., 1988); Richard E. Welch, Jr., The Presidencies of Grover Cleveland (Lawrence, 1988), 157-175.
72. Charles S. Campbell, The Transformation of American Foreign Relations, 1865-1900 (New York, 1976), 24, 194-216; Russell H. Bastert, "A New Approach to the Origins of Blaine's Pan American Policy," Hispanic American Historical Review, XXXIX (1959), 375-412; Charles W. Calhoun, Gilded Age Cato: The Life of Walter Q Gresham (Lexington, Ky., 1988); Richard E. Welch, Jr., The Presidencies of Grover Cleveland (Lawrence, 1988), 157-175.
73. Charles S. Campbell, The Transformation of American Foreign Relations, 1865-1900 (New York, 1976), 24, 194-216; Russell H. Bastert, "A New Approach to the Origins of Blaine's Pan American Policy," Hispanic American Historical Review, XXXIX (1959), 375-412; Charles W. Calhoun, Gilded Age Cato: The Life of Walter Q Gresham (Lexington, Ky., 1988); Richard E. Welch, Jr., The Presidencies of Grover Cleveland (Lawrence, 1988), 157-175.
74. Charles S. Campbell, The Transformation of American Foreign Relations, 1865-1900 (New York, 1976), 24, 194-216; Russell H. Bastert, "A New Approach to the Origins of Blaine's Pan American Policy," Hispanic American Historical Review, XXXIX (1959), 375-412; Charles W. Calhoun, Gilded Age Cato: The Life of Walter Q Gresham (Lexington, Ky., 1988); Richard E. Welch, Jr., The Presidencies of Grover Cleveland (Lawrence, 1988), 157-175.
75. Becker, Industry and Exports, 184.
76. Holbo, "Economics, Emotion, and Expansion," 221.
77. William H. Becker, "American Manufacturers and Foreign Markets, 1870-1900: Business Historians and the 'New Economic Determinists,'" Business History Review, XLVII (1973), 468 (quotation), 497-98; Becker, Industry and Exports, 12-13, 41-43; see also Becker, "Foreign Markets for Iron and Steel, 1893-1913: A New Perspective on the Williams School of Diplomatic History," Pacific Historical Review, XLIV (1975), 223-248.
78. William H. Becker, "American Manufacturers and Foreign Markets, 1870-1900: Business Historians and the 'New Economic Determinists,'" Business History Review, XLVII (1973), 468 (quotation), 497-98; Becker, Industry and Exports, 12-13, 41-43; see also Becker, "Foreign Markets for Iron and Steel, 1893-1913: A New Perspective on the Williams School of Diplomatic History," Pacific Historical Review, XLIV (1975), 223-248.
79. William H. Becker, "American Manufacturers and Foreign Markets, 1870-1900: Business Historians and the 'New Economic Determinists,'" Business History Review, XLVII (1973), 468 (quotation), 497-98; Becker, Industry and Exports, 12-13, 41-43; see also Becker, "Foreign Markets for Iron and Steel, 1893-1913: A New Perspective on the Williams School of Diplomatic History," Pacific Historical Review, XLIV (1975), 223-248.
80. Mira Wilkins, The Emergence of Multinational Enterprise: American Business Abroad from the Colonial Era to 1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), 37-132 (quotation on 37); Robert Bruce Davies, Peacefully Working to Conquer the World: Singer Sewing Machines in Foreign Markets, 1854-1920 (New York, 1976); Sherman Cochran, "Commercial Penetration and Economic Imperialism in China: An American Cigarette Company's Entrance into the Market," in Ernest R. May and John K. Fairbank, eds., America's China Trade in Historical Bsrspective: The Chinese and American Performance (Cambridge, Mass., 1986), 151-203; Chu-Yuan Cheng, "The United States Petroleum Trade with China, 1876-1949," in ibid., 205-233; Michael H. Hunt, "Americans in the China Market: Economic Opportunities and Economic Nationalism, 1890s-1931," Business History Review, LI (1977), 278-281, 295, 306-307.
81. Mira Wilkins, The Emergence of Multinational Enterprise: American Business Abroad from the Colonial Era to 1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), 37-132 (quotation on 37); Robert Bruce Davies, Peacefully Working to Conquer the World: Singer Sewing Machines in Foreign Markets, 1854-1920 (New York, 1976); Sherman Cochran, "Commercial Penetration and Economic Imperialism in China: An American Cigarette Company's Entrance into the Market," in Ernest R. May and John K. Fairbank, eds., America's China Trade in Historical Bsrspective: The Chinese and American Performance (Cambridge, Mass., 1986), 151-203; Chu-Yuan Cheng, "The United States Petroleum Trade with China, 1876-1949," in ibid., 205-233; Michael H. Hunt, "Americans in the China Market: Economic Opportunities and Economic Nationalism, 1890s-1931," Business History Review, LI (1977), 278-281, 295, 306-307.
82. Mira Wilkins, The Emergence of Multinational Enterprise: American Business Abroad from the Colonial Era to 1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), 37-132 (quotation on 37); Robert Bruce Davies, Peacefully Working to Conquer the World: Singer Sewing Machines in Foreign Markets, 1854-1920 (New York, 1976); Sherman Cochran, "Commercial Penetration and Economic Imperialism in China: An American Cigarette Company's Entrance into the Market," in Ernest R. May and John K. Fairbank, eds., America's China Trade in Historical Bsrspective: The Chinese and American Performance (Cambridge, Mass., 1986), 151-203; Chu-Yuan Cheng, "The United States Petroleum Trade with China, 1876-1949," in ibid., 205-233; Michael H. Hunt, "Americans in the China Market: Economic Opportunities and Economic Nationalism, 1890s-1931," Business History Review, LI (1977), 278-281, 295, 306-307.
83. Mira Wilkins, The Emergence of Multinational Enterprise: American Business Abroad from the Colonial Era to 1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), 37-132 (quotation on 37); Robert Bruce Davies, Peacefully Working to Conquer the World: Singer Sewing Machines in Foreign Markets, 1854-1920 (New York, 1976); Sherman Cochran, "Commercial Penetration and Economic Imperialism in China: An American Cigarette Company's Entrance into the Market," in Ernest R. May and John K. Fairbank, eds., America's China Trade in Historical Bsrspective: The Chinese and American Performance (Cambridge, Mass., 1986), 151-203; Chu-Yuan Cheng, "The United States Petroleum Trade with China, 1876-1949," in ibid., 205-233; Michael H. Hunt, "Americans in the China Market: Economic Opportunities and Economic Nationalism, 1890s-1931," Business History Review, LI (1977), 278-281, 295, 306-307.
84. Mira Wilkins, The Emergence of Multinational Enterprise: American Business Abroad from the Colonial Era to 1914 (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), 37-132 (quotation on 37); Robert Bruce Davies, Peacefully Working to Conquer the World: Singer Sewing Machines in Foreign Markets, 1854-1920 (New York, 1976); Sherman Cochran, "Commercial Penetration and Economic Imperialism in China: An American Cigarette Company's Entrance into the Market," in Ernest R. May and John K. Fairbank, eds., America's China Trade in Historical Bsrspective: The Chinese and American Performance (Cambridge, Mass., 1986), 151-203; Chu-Yuan Cheng, "The United States Petroleum Trade with China, 1876-1949," in ibid., 205-233; Michael H. Hunt, "Americans in the China Market: Economic Opportunities and Economic Nationalism, 1890s-1931," Business History Review, LI (1977), 278-281, 295, 306-307.
85. Pletcher, "Rhetoric and Results," 93-105.
86. Pletcher, "Economic Growth and Diplomatic Adjustment," 146.
87. Paul A. Varg, The Making of a Myth: The United States and China, 1897-1912 (East Lansing, 1968), 1-53, (quotation on 53); Peter Schran, "The Minor Significance of Commercial Relations between the United States and China, 1850-1931," in May and Fairbank, eds., America's China Trade, 237-258.
88. Paul A. Varg, The Making of a Myth: The United States and China, 1897-1912 (East Lansing, 1968), 1-53, (quotation on 53); Peter Schran, "The Minor Significance of Commercial Relations between the United States and China, 1850-1931," in May and Fairbank, eds., America's China Trade, 237-258.
89. Zevin, "Interpretation of American Imperialism," 353-356, 360 (quotations on 360).
90. James A. Field, Jr., "American Imperialism: The Worst Chapter in Almost Any Book," American Historical Review, LXXXIII (1978), 645.
91. Hugh DeSantis, "The Imperialist Impulse and American Innocence, 1865-1900," in Gerald K. Haines and J. Samuel Walker, eds., American Foreign Relations: A Historiographical Review (Westport, Conn., 1981), 71, 77, 79.
92. Frank Ninkovich, "Interests and Discourse in Diplomatic History," Diplomatic History, XIII (1989), 157-158. Both DeSantis and Ninkovich are students of Akira Iriye, the most well-known practitioner of the "cultural" approach. See Iriye, "Culture and International History," in Michael J. Hogan and Thomas S. Paterson, eds., Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations (Cambridge, Eng., 1991), 214-225; Iriye, Across the Pacific: An Inner History of American-East Asian Relations (New York, 1967), 53-110; Iriye, Paafic Estrangement: Japanese and American Expansionism, 1897-1911 (Cambridge, Mass., 1972).
93. Frank Ninkovich, "Interests and Discourse in Diplomatic History," Diplomatic History, XIII (1989), 157-158. Both DeSantis and Ninkovich are students of Akira Iriye, the most well-known practitioner of the "cultural" approach. See Iriye, "Culture and International History," in Michael J. Hogan and Thomas S. Paterson, eds., Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations (Cambridge, Eng., 1991), 214-225; Iriye, Across the Pacific: An Inner History of American-East Asian Relations (New York, 1967), 53-110; Iriye, Paafic Estrangement: Japanese and American Expansionism, 1897-1911 (Cambridge, Mass., 1972).
94. Frank Ninkovich, "Interests and Discourse in Diplomatic History," Diplomatic History, XIII (1989), 157-158. Both DeSantis and Ninkovich are students of Akira Iriye, the most well-known practitioner of the "cultural" approach. See Iriye, "Culture and International History," in Michael J. Hogan and Thomas S. Paterson, eds., Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations (Cambridge, Eng., 1991), 214-225; Iriye, Across the Pacific: An Inner History of American-East Asian Relations (New York, 1967), 53-110; Iriye, Paafic Estrangement: Japanese and American Expansionism, 1897-1911 (Cambridge, Mass., 1972).
95. Frank Ninkovich, "Interests and Discourse in Diplomatic History," Diplomatic History, XIII (1989), 157-158. Both DeSantis and Ninkovich are students of Akira Iriye, the most well-known practitioner of the "cultural" approach. See Iriye, "Culture and International History," in Michael J. Hogan and Thomas S. Paterson, eds., Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations (Cambridge, Eng., 1991), 214-225; Iriye, Across the Pacific: An Inner History of American-East Asian Relations (New York, 1967), 53-110; Iriye, Paafic Estrangement: Japanese and American Expansionism, 1897-1911 (Cambridge, Mass., 1972).
96. Richard H. Collin, Theodore Roosevelt, Culture, Diplomacy, and Expansion: A New View of American Imperialism (Baton Rouge, 1985), 8, 103, 198; Collin, Theodore Roosevelt's Caribbean: The Panama Canal, the Monroe Doctrine, and the Latin American Context (Baton Rouge, 1991).
97. Richard H. Collin, Theodore Roosevelt, Culture, Diplomacy, and Expansion: A New View of American Imperialism (Baton Rouge, 1985), 8, 103, 198; Collin, Theodore Roosevelt's Caribbean: The Panama Canal, the Monroe Doctrine, and the Latin American Context (Baton Rouge, 1991).
98. Steve J. Stern, "Feudalism, Capitalism, and the World System in the Perspective of Latin America and the Caribbean," American Historical Review, XCIII (1988), 829-872, 886-897, (quotation on 896).
99. Tony Smith, The Pattern of Imperialism: The United States, Great Britain and the Late-Industrializing World since 1815 (Cambridge, Eng., 1981), 59-84, (quotation on, 78); see also Cristóbal Kay, Latin American Theories of Development and Underdevelapment (New York, 1989), 174-195; Wolfgang J. Mommsen, Theories of Imperialism (New York, 1982), 121-137; Charles Ragin and Daniel Chirot, "The World System of Immanuel Wallerstein: Sociology and Politics as History," in Theda Skopol, ed., Vision and Method in Historical Sociology (Cambridge, Eng., 1984), 276-312; Anthony Brewer, "Theories of Imperialism in Perspective," in Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Jüßrgen Osterhammel, eds., Imperialism and After: Continuities and Discontinuities (London, 1986), 328; William B. Taylor, "Between Global Process and Local Knowledge: An Inquiry into Early Latin American Social History, 1500-1900," in Oliver Zunz, ed., Reliving the Past: The World of Social History (Chapel Hill, 1985), 123-172; Louis A. Pérez, "Dependency," in Hogan and Paterson, eds., Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations, 99-110; Thomas J. McCormick, "World Systems," in ibid., 89-98.
100. Tony Smith, The Pattern of Imperialism: The United States, Great Britain and the Late-Industrializing World since 1815 (Cambridge, Eng., 1981), 59-84, (quotation on, 78); see also Cristóbal Kay, Latin American Theories of Development and Underdevelapment (New York, 1989), 174-195; Wolfgang J. Mommsen, Theories of Imperialism (New York, 1982), 121-137; Charles Ragin and Daniel Chirot, "The World System of Immanuel Wallerstein: Sociology and Politics as History," in Theda Skopol, ed., Vision and Method in Historical Sociology (Cambridge, Eng., 1984), 276-312; Anthony Brewer, "Theories of Imperialism in Perspective," in Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Jüßrgen Osterhammel, eds., Imperialism and After: Continuities and Discontinuities (London, 1986), 328; William B. Taylor, "Between Global Process and Local Knowledge: An Inquiry into Early Latin American Social History, 1500-1900," in Oliver Zunz, ed., Reliving the Past: The World of Social History (Chapel Hill, 1985), 123-172; Louis A. Pérez, "Dependency," in Hogan and Paterson, eds., Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations, 99-110; Thomas J. McCormick, "World Systems," in ibid., 89-98.
101. Tony Smith, The Pattern of Imperialism: The United States, Great Britain and the Late-Industrializing World since 1815 (Cambridge, Eng., 1981), 59-84, (quotation on, 78); see also Cristóbal Kay, Latin American Theories of Development and Underdevelapment (New York, 1989), 174-195; Wolfgang J. Mommsen, Theories of Imperialism (New York, 1982), 121-137; Charles Ragin and Daniel Chirot, "The World System of Immanuel Wallerstein: Sociology and Politics as History," in Theda Skopol, ed., Vision and Method in Historical Sociology (Cambridge, Eng., 1984), 276-312; Anthony Brewer, "Theories of Imperialism in Perspective," in Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Jüßrgen Osterhammel, eds., Imperialism and After: Continuities and Discontinuities (London, 1986), 328; William B. Taylor, "Between Global Process and Local Knowledge: An Inquiry into Early Latin American Social History, 1500-1900," in Oliver Zunz, ed., Reliving the Past: The World of Social History (Chapel Hill, 1985), 123-172; Louis A. Pérez, "Dependency," in Hogan and Paterson, eds., Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations, 99-110; Thomas J. McCormick, "World Systems," in ibid., 89-98.
102. Tony Smith, The Pattern of Imperialism: The United States, Great Britain and the Late-Industrializing World since 1815 (Cambridge, Eng., 1981), 59-84, (quotation on, 78); see also Cristóbal Kay, Latin American Theories of Development and Underdevelapment (New York, 1989), 174-195; Wolfgang J. Mommsen, Theories of Imperialism (New York, 1982), 121-137; Charles Ragin and Daniel Chirot, "The World System of Immanuel Wallerstein: Sociology and Politics as History," in Theda Skopol, ed., Vision and Method in Historical Sociology (Cambridge, Eng., 1984), 276-312; Anthony Brewer, "Theories of Imperialism in Perspective," in Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Jüßrgen Osterhammel, eds., Imperialism and After: Continuities and Discontinuities (London, 1986), 328; William B. Taylor, "Between Global Process and Local Knowledge: An Inquiry into Early Latin American Social History, 1500-1900," in Oliver Zunz, ed., Reliving the Past: The World of Social History (Chapel Hill, 1985), 123-172; Louis A. Pérez, "Dependency," in Hogan and Paterson, eds., Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations, 99-110; Thomas J. McCormick, "World Systems," in ibid., 89-98.
103. Tony Smith, The Pattern of Imperialism: The United States, Great Britain and the Late-Industrializing World since 1815 (Cambridge, Eng., 1981), 59-84, (quotation on, 78); see also Cristóbal Kay, Latin American Theories of Development and Underdevelapment (New York, 1989), 174-195; Wolfgang J. Mommsen, Theories of Imperialism (New York, 1982), 121-137; Charles Ragin and Daniel Chirot, "The World System of Immanuel Wallerstein: Sociology and Politics as History," in Theda Skopol, ed., Vision and Method in Historical Sociology (Cambridge, Eng., 1984), 276-312; Anthony Brewer, "Theories of Imperialism in Perspective," in Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Jüßrgen Osterhammel, eds., Imperialism and After: Continuities and Discontinuities (London, 1986), 328; William B. Taylor, "Between Global Process and Local Knowledge: An Inquiry into Early Latin American Social History, 1500-1900," in Oliver Zunz, ed., Reliving the Past: The World of Social History (Chapel Hill, 1985), 123-172; Louis A. Pérez, "Dependency," in Hogan and Paterson, eds., Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations, 99-110; Thomas J. McCormick, "World Systems," in ibid., 89-98.
104. Tony Smith, The Pattern of Imperialism: The United States, Great Britain and the Late-Industrializing World since 1815 (Cambridge, Eng., 1981), 59-84, (quotation on, 78); see also Cristóbal Kay, Latin American Theories of Development and Underdevelapment (New York, 1989), 174-195; Wolfgang J. Mommsen, Theories of Imperialism (New York, 1982), 121-137; Charles Ragin and Daniel Chirot, "The World System of Immanuel Wallerstein: Sociology and Politics as History," in Theda Skopol, ed., Vision and Method in Historical Sociology (Cambridge, Eng., 1984), 276-312; Anthony Brewer, "Theories of Imperialism in Perspective," in Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Jüßrgen Osterhammel, eds., Imperialism and After: Continuities and Discontinuities (London, 1986), 328; William B. Taylor, "Between Global Process and Local Knowledge: An Inquiry into Early Latin American Social History, 1500-1900," in Oliver Zunz, ed., Reliving the Past: The World of Social History (Chapel Hill, 1985), 123-172; Louis A. Pérez, "Dependency," in Hogan and Paterson, eds., Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations, 99-110; Thomas J. McCormick, "World Systems," in ibid., 89-98.
105. Tony Smith, The Pattern of Imperialism: The United States, Great Britain and the Late-Industrializing World since 1815 (Cambridge, Eng., 1981), 59-84, (quotation on, 78); see also Cristóbal Kay, Latin American Theories of Development and Underdevelapment (New York, 1989), 174-195; Wolfgang J. Mommsen, Theories of Imperialism (New York, 1982), 121-137; Charles Ragin and Daniel Chirot, "The World System of Immanuel Wallerstein: Sociology and Politics as History," in Theda Skopol, ed., Vision and Method in Historical Sociology (Cambridge, Eng., 1984), 276-312; Anthony Brewer, "Theories of Imperialism in Perspective," in Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Jüßrgen Osterhammel, eds., Imperialism and After: Continuities and Discontinuities (London, 1986), 328; William B. Taylor, "Between Global Process and Local Knowledge: An Inquiry into Early Latin American Social History, 1500-1900," in Oliver Zunz, ed., Reliving the Past: The World of Social History (Chapel Hill, 1985), 123-172; Louis A. Pérez, "Dependency," in Hogan and Paterson, eds., Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations, 99-110; Thomas J. McCormick, "World Systems," in ibid., 89-98.
106. Tony Smith, The Pattern of Imperialism: The United States, Great Britain and the Late-Industrializing World since 1815 (Cambridge, Eng., 1981), 59-84, (quotation on, 78); see also Cristóbal Kay, Latin American Theories of Development and Underdevelapment (New York, 1989), 174-195; Wolfgang J. Mommsen, Theories of Imperialism (New York, 1982), 121-137; Charles Ragin and Daniel Chirot, "The World System of Immanuel Wallerstein: Sociology and Politics as History," in Theda Skopol, ed., Vision and Method in Historical Sociology (Cambridge, Eng., 1984), 276-312; Anthony Brewer, "Theories of Imperialism in Perspective," in Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Jüßrgen Osterhammel, eds., Imperialism and After: Continuities and Discontinuities (London, 1986), 328; William B. Taylor, "Between Global Process and Local Knowledge: An Inquiry into Early Latin American Social History, 1500-1900," in Oliver Zunz, ed., Reliving the Past: The World of Social History (Chapel Hill, 1985), 123-172; Louis A. Pérez, "Dependency," in Hogan and Paterson, eds., Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations, 99-110; Thomas J. McCormick, "World Systems," in ibid., 89-98.
107. LaFeber, American Search for Opportunity, 28, 30, 39-40, 134, 144, 156.
108. Ibid., 41.
109. LaFeber, "Comment" on Field, "American Imperialism," American Historical Review, 672.
110. LaFeber, American Search for Opportunity, 79, 102, 177, 234-239. For his use of dependency theory, see LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (2nd ed., New York, 1993); for a succinct statement of the "order and stability" thesis, see Joseph A. Fry, "In Search of an Orderly World: U.S. Imperialism, 1898-1912," in John M. Carroll and George C. Herring, eds., Modern American Diplomacy (rev. and enlarged ed., Wilmington, Del., 1996), 1-23.
111. LaFeber, American Search for Opportunity, 79, 102, 177, 234-239. For his use of dependency theory, see LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (2nd ed., New York, 1993); for a succinct statement of the "order and stability" thesis, see Joseph A. Fry, "In Search of an Orderly World: U.S. Imperialism, 1898-1912," in John M. Carroll and George C. Herring, eds., Modern American Diplomacy (rev. and enlarged ed., Wilmington, Del., 1996), 1-23.
112. LaFeber, American Search for Opportunity, 79, 102, 177, 234-239. For his use of dependency theory, see LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (2nd ed., New York, 1993); for a succinct statement of the "order and stability" thesis, see Joseph A. Fry, "In Search of an Orderly World: U.S. Imperialism, 1898-1912," in John M. Carroll and George C. Herring, eds., Modern American Diplomacy (rev. and enlarged ed., Wilmington, Del., 1996), 1-23.
113. LaFeber, American Search for Opportunity, 53-54; for the linkage of U.S.-Native American relations to American imperialism, see especially Walter L. Williams, "United States Indian Policy and the Debate over Philippine Annexation: Implications for the Origins of American Imperialism," Journal of American History, LVI (1980), 810-831; and James O. Gump, The Dust Rose Like Smoke: The Subjugation of the Zulu and the Sioux (Lincoln, 1994).
114. LaFeber, American Search for Opportunity, 53-54; for the linkage of U.S.-Native American relations to American imperialism, see especially Walter L. Williams, "United States Indian Policy and the Debate over Philippine Annexation: Implications for the Origins of American Imperialism," Journal of American History, LVI (1980), 810-831; and James O. Gump, The Dust Rose Like Smoke: The Subjugation of the Zulu and the Sioux (Lincoln, 1994).
115. LaFeber, American Search for Opportunity, 53-54; for the linkage of U.S.-Native American relations to American imperialism, see especially Walter L. Williams, "United States Indian Policy and the Debate over Philippine Annexation: Implications for the Origins of American Imperialism," Journal of American History, LVI (1980), 810-831; and James O. Gump, The Dust Rose Like Smoke: The Subjugation of the Zulu and the Sioux (Lincoln, 1994).
116. Crapol, "Coming to Terms with Empire," 593-594, 597.
117. In constructing their imperial models, both LaFeber and Crapol draw on Charles Vevier, "American Continentalism: An Idea of Expansion, 1845-1910," American Historical Review, LXV (1960), 323-335.
118. For nonstate actors, see Charles R. Lilley and Michael H. Hunt, "On Social History, the State, and Foreign Relations: Commentary on 'The Cosmopolitan Connection,'" Diplomatic History, XI (1987), 243-250. Missionaries, teachers, and doctors may not have consciously sought to advance U.S. sales, but their efforts to alter indigenous cultures could do so. See Paul W. Harris, "Cultural Imperialism and American Protestant Missionaries: Collaboration and Dependency in Mid-Nineteenth-Century China," Paafic Historical Review, LX (1991), 309-338; Jane Hunter, The Gospel of Gentility: American Missionaries in Turn-of-the-Century China (New Haven, 1984); Kenton J. Clymer, Protestant Missionaries in the Philippines, 1898-1916: An Inquiry into the American Colonial Mentality (Urbana, 1986); David Arnold, ed., Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies (Manchester., Eng., 1988).
119. For nonstate actors, see Charles R. Lilley and Michael H. Hunt, "On Social History, the State, and Foreign Relations: Commentary on 'The Cosmopolitan Connection,'" Diplomatic History, XI (1987), 243-250. Missionaries, teachers, and doctors may not have consciously sought to advance U.S. sales, but their efforts to alter indigenous cultures could do so. See Paul W. Harris, "Cultural Imperialism and American Protestant Missionaries: Collaboration and Dependency in Mid-Nineteenth-Century China," Paafic Historical Review, LX (1991), 309-338; Jane Hunter, The Gospel of Gentility: American Missionaries in Turn-of-the-Century China (New Haven, 1984); Kenton J. Clymer, Protestant Missionaries in the Philippines, 1898-1916: An Inquiry into the American Colonial Mentality (Urbana, 1986); David Arnold, ed., Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies (Manchester., Eng., 1988).
120. For nonstate actors, see Charles R. Lilley and Michael H. Hunt, "On Social History, the State, and Foreign Relations: Commentary on 'The Cosmopolitan Connection,'" Diplomatic History, XI (1987), 243-250.
121. For nonstate actors, see Charles R. Lilley and Michael H. Hunt, "On Social History, the State, and Foreign Relations: Commentary on 'The Cosmopolitan Connection,'" Diplomatic History, XI (1987), 243-250. Missionaries, teachers, and doctors may not have consciously sought to advance U.S. sales, but their efforts to alter indigenous cultures could do so. See Paul W. Harris, "Cultural Imperialism and American Protestant Missionaries: Collaboration and Dependency in Mid-Nineteenth-Century China," Paafic Historical Review, LX (1991), 309-338; Jane Hunter, The Gospel of Gentility: American Missionaries in Turn-of-the-Century China (New Haven, 1984); Kenton J. Clymer, Protestant Missionaries in the Philippines, 1898-1916: An Inquiry into the American Colonial Mentality (Urbana, 1986); David Arnold, ed., Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies (Manchester., Eng., 1988).
122. For nonstate actors, see Charles R. Lilley and Michael H. Hunt, "On Social History, the State, and Foreign Relations: Commentary on 'The Cosmopolitan Connection,'" Diplomatic History, XI (1987), 243-250. Missionaries, teachers, and doctors may not have consciously sought to advance U.S. sales, but their efforts to alter indigenous cultures could do so. See Paul W. Harris, "Cultural Imperialism and American Protestant Missionaries: Collaboration and Dependency in Mid-Nineteenth-Century China," Paafic Historical Review, LX (1991), 309-338; Jane Hunter, The Gospel of Gentility: American Missionaries in Turn-of-the-Century China (New Haven, 1984); Kenton J. Clymer, Protestant Missionaries in the Philippines, 1898-1916: An Inquiry into the American Colonial Mentality (Urbana, 1986); David Arnold, ed., Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies (Manchester., Eng., 1988).
123. Joseph A. Fry, "Phases of Empire: Late Nineteenth Century United States Foreign Relations," in Charles W. Calhoun, ed., The Gilded Age: Essays on the Origins of Modern America (Wilmington, Del., 1996), 261-288.
124. Akira Iriye, "The Internationalization of History," American Historical Review, XCIV (1989), 3; Ian Tyrrell, "American Exceptionalism in an Age of International History," American Historical Review, XCVI (1991), 1044; Schoonover, United States in Central America, 11; see also Michael H. Hunt, "Internationalizing U.S. Diplomatic History: A Practical Agenda," Diplomatic History, (1991), 1-11.
125. Akira Iriye, "The Internationalization of History," American Historical Review, XCIV (1989), 3; Ian Tyrrell, "American Exceptionalism in an Age of International History," American Historical Review, XCVI (1991), 1044; Schoonover, United States in Central America, 11; see also Michael H. Hunt, "Internationalizing U.S. Diplomatic History: A Practical Agenda," Diplomatic History, (1991), 1-11.
126. Akira Iriye, "The Internationalization of History," American Historical Review, XCIV (1989), 3; Ian Tyrrell, "American Exceptionalism in an Age of International History," American Historical Review, XCVI (1991), 1044; Schoonover, United States in Central America, 11; see also Michael H. Hunt, "Internationalizing U.S. Diplomatic History: A Practical Agenda," Diplomatic History, (1991), 1-11.
127. Akira Iriye, "The Internationalization of History," American Historical Review, XCIV (1989), 3; Ian Tyrrell, "American Exceptionalism in an Age of International History," American Historical Review, XCVI (1991), 1044; Schoonover, United States in Central America, 11; see also Michael H. Hunt, "Internationalizing U.S. Diplomatic History: A Practical Agenda," Diplomatic History, (1991), 1-11.
128. Thomas J. McCormick, America's Half-Century: United States Foreign Policy in the Cold War (Baltimore, 1989).
129. This is Iriye's term; see "Internationalization of History," 3.
130. LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions, 5-78; Healy, Drive to Hegemony: The United States in the Caribbean, 1898-1917 (Madison, 1988), 260-274 (for Puerto Rico); Glenn A. May, Social Engineering in the Philippines: The Aims, Execution, and Impact of American Colonial Policy, 1900-1913 (Westport, Conn., 1980), 142-143, 146, 150, 166, 175; David R. Headrick, The Tentacles of Progress: Technological Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988), 385-384.
131. LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions, 5-78; Healy, Drive to Hegemony: The United States in the Caribbean, 1898-1917 (Madison, 1988), 260-274 (for Puerto Rico); Glenn A. May, Social Engineering in the Philippines: The Aims, Execution, and Impact of American Colonial Policy, 1900-1913 (Westport, Conn., 1980), 142-143, 146, 150, 166, 175; David R. Headrick, The Tentacles of Progress: Technological Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988), 385-384.
132. LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions, 5-78; Healy, Drive to Hegemony: The United States in the Caribbean, 1898-1917 (Madison, 1988), 260-274 (for Puerto Rico); Glenn A. May, Social Engineering in the Philippines: The Aims, Execution, and Impact of American Colonial Policy, 1900-1913 (Westport, Conn., 1980), 142-143, 146, 150, 166, 175; David R. Headrick, The Tentacles of Progress: Technological Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988), 385-384.
133. LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions, 5-78; Healy, Drive to Hegemony: The United States in the Caribbean, 1898-1917 (Madison, 1988), 260-274 (for Puerto Rico); Glenn A. May, Social Engineering in the Philippines: The Aims, Execution, and Impact of American Colonial Policy, 1900-1913 (Westport, Conn., 1980), 142-143, 146, 150, 166, 175; David R. Headrick, The Tentacles of Progress: Technological Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988), 385-384.
134. See previous note for full citation.
135. Williams, Tragedy of American Diplomacy, 37.
136. Thompson, "William Appleman Williams and the 'American Empire,'" 96.
137. Joan Hoff Wilson, "Economic Foreign Policy," in Alexander DeConde, ed., Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy: Studies of the Principal Movements and Ideas (3 vols., New York, 1978), I, 284-285. In a more recent essay, Hoff refers to America's "maddeningly unselfconscious ideology" which included capitalist expansion abroad.
138. See Joan Hoff, "American Diplomacy: Retrospect and Prospect," in Martel, ed., American Foreign Relations Reconsidered, 212.
139. For a fine overview, see Emily S. Rosenberg, "Economic Interest and United States Foreign Policy," in ibid., 37-51.
140. Thompson, "William Appleman Williams and the 'American Empire,'" 99.
141. Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession (Cambridge, Eng., 1988), 410, 459; see, for example, the preface to Becker and Wells, Economics and World Power, ix-xvi.
142. Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession (Cambridge, Eng., 1988), 410, 459; see, for example, the preface to Becker and Wells, Economics and World Power, ix-xvi.
143. Ninkovich, "Interests and Discourse in Diplomatic History," 158.
144. Melvyn P. Leffler, "New Approaches, Old Interpretations, and Prospective Reconfigurations," Diplomatic History, XIX (1995), 184.
145. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream, 7-63; Michael H. Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven, 1987), 17-18, 36-42.
146. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream, 7-63; Michael H. Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven, 1987), 17-18, 36-42.
147. Kinley J. Brauer, "The United States and British Imperial Expansion, 1815-60," Diplomatic History, XII (1988), 19-37;
148. Brauer, "1821-1860: Economics and the Diplomacy of American Expansionism," in Becker and Wells, eds., Economics and World Power, 55-118;
149. John M. Belohlavek, "Let the Eagle Soar!" The Foreign Policy of Andrew Jackson (Lincoln, 1985);
150. Thomas R. Hietala, Manifest Design: Anxious Aggrandizement in Late Jacksonian America (Ithaca, 1985);
151. McCormick, China Market, 9.
152. Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy, 37.
153. Crapol, "Coming to Terms with Empire," 593-594.
154. Ibid.
155. Bradford Perkins, "'The Tragedy of American Diplomacy': Twenty Five Years After," in Lloyd C. Gardner, ed., Redefining the Past: Essays in Diplomatic History in Honor of William Appleman Williams (Corvallis, Ore., 1986), 34. This article was first published in Reviews in American History, XII (1984), 1-18.
156. Bradford Perkins, "'The Tragedy of American Diplomacy': Twenty Five Years After," in Lloyd C. Gardner, ed., Redefining the Past: Essays in Diplomatic History in Honor of William Appleman Williams (Corvallis, Ore., 1986), 34. This article was first published in Reviews in American History, XII (1984), 1-18..