Regulation of the colonic vitamin D system for prevention of tumor progression: An update

Future Oncology

Volumn 5, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 493-507

  Cross, Heidi S ^a   Kallay, Enikoe ^a  

^a MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA   (Austria)

Author keywords

Calcitriol concentration; Colorectal cancer prevention; Folate; Insufficiency; Nutritional calcium; Nutritional epigenetics; Phytoestrogens; Vitamin D; Vitamin D hydroxylase; Vitamin D supplementation; Wnt pathway

Indexed keywords

5,10 METHYLENETETRAHYDROFOLATE REDUCTASE (FADH2); APC PROTEIN; CALCITRIOL; CALCIUM; CYTOCHROME P450; CYTOCHROME P450 24A1; CYTOCHROME P450 27B1; DAIDZEIN; EPIGALLOCATECHIN GALLATE; ESTRADIOL; ESTROGEN RECEPTOR BETA; FOLIC ACID; GENISTEIN; PHYTOESTROGEN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VITAMIN D; VITAMIN D RECEPTOR; WNT PROTEIN;

APOPTOSIS; AUTOCRINE EFFECT; CALCIUM DEFICIENCY; CANCER INCIDENCE; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL PROLIFERATION; CLINICAL TRIAL; COLITIS; COLON CANCER; COLON MUCOSA; COLON POLYP; COLORECTAL ADENOMA; COLORECTAL CANCER; CPG ISLAND; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DRUG DOSE COMPARISON; DRUG POTENCY; ENZYME ACTIVITY; GENETIC REGULATION; HUMAN; IN VIVO STUDY; NONHUMAN; PARACRINE SIGNALING; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; RECEPTOR BINDING; REVIEW; TREATMENT DURATION; TUMOR GROWTH; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY; VITAMIN D METABOLISM; CELL TRANSFORMATION; COLON; COLON TUMOR; DISEASE COURSE; FEMALE; MALE; METABOLISM; SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT;

CELL TRANSFORMATION, NEOPLASTIC; COLON; COLONIC NEOPLASMS; DISEASE PROGRESSION; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; SEX CHARACTERISTICS; VITAMIN D;

EID: 67651230914     PISSN: 14796694     EISSN: 17448301     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2217/fon.09.22     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. Garland C, Shekelle RB, Barrett-Connor E, Criqui MH, Rossof AH, Paul O: Dietary vitamin D and calcium and risk of colorectal cancer: a 19-year prospective study in men. Lancet 1, 307-309 (1985).
2. Garland CF, Garland FC, Gorham ED et al.: The role of vitamin D in cancer prevention. Am. J. Public Health 96, 252-261 (2006).
3. Cho E, Smith-Warner SA, Spiegelman D et al.: Dairy foods, calcium, and colorectal cancer: a pooled ana lysis of 10 cohort studies. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 96, 1015-1022 (2004).
4. Grant WB, Garland CF: A critical review of studies on vitamin D in relation to colorectal cancer. Nutr. Cancer 48, 115-123 (2004).
5. Holick MF: Vitamin D: A millenium perspective. J. Cell Biochem. 88, 296-307 (2003).
6. Gorham ED, Garland CF, Garland FC et al.: Vitamin D and prevention of colorectal cancer. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 97, 179-194 (2005).
7. MacLaughlin J, Holick MF: Aging decreases the capacity of human skin to produce vitamin D3. J. Clin. Invest. 76, 1536-1538 (1985).
8. Matsuoka LY, Ide L, Wortsman J, MacLaughlin JA, Holick MF: Sunscreens suppress cutaneous vitamin D3 synthesis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 64, 1165-1168 (1987).
9. Holick MF: Vitamin D: importance in the prevention of cancers, type 1 diabetes, heart disease, and osteoporosis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 79, 362-371 (2004).
10. Hewison M, Burke F, Evans KN et al.: Extra-renal 25-hydroxyvitamin D3-1α-hydroxylase in human health and disease. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 103, 316-321 (2007).
11. Tanaka H, Abe E, Miyaura C et al.: 1 a,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol and a human myeloid leukaemia cell line (HL-60). Biochem. J. 204, 713-719 (1982).
12. Lointier P, Wargovich MJ, Saez S et al.: The role of vitamin D3 in the proliferation of a human colon cancer cell line in vitro. Anticancer Res. 7, 817-821 (1987).
13. Cross HS, Pavelka M, Slavik J, Peterlik M: Growth control of human colon cancer cells by vitamin D and calcium in vitro. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 84, 1355-1357 (1992).
14. Eisman JA, Koga M, Sutherland RL, Barkla DH, Tutton PJ: 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 and the regulation of human cancer cell replication. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 191, 221-226 (1989).
15. Pols HA, Birkenhager JC, Foekens JA, van Leeuwen JP: Vitamin D: a modulator of cell proliferation and differentiation. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 37, 873-876 (1990).
16. Saez S, Falette N, Guillot C, Meggouh F et al.: 1,25(OH)2D3 modulation of mammary tumor cell growth in vitro and in vivo. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 27, 69-81 (1993).
17. Peehl DM, Skowronski RJ, Leung GK et al.: Antiproliferative effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on primary cultures of human prostatic cells. Cancer Res. 54, 805-810 (1994).
18. Adams JS, Clemens TL, Parrish JA, Holick MF: Vitamin-D synthesis and metabolism after ultraviolet irradiation of normal and vitamin-D-deficient subjects. N. Engl. J. Med. 306, 722-725 (1982).
19. Adams JS, Singer FR, Gacad MA et al.: Isolation and structural identification of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 produced by cultured alveolar macrophages in sarcoidosis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 60, 960-966 (1985).
20. Fu GK, Lin D, Zhang MY et al.: Cloning of human 25-hydroxyvitamin D-1 α-hydroxylase and mutations causing vitamin D-dependent rickets type 1. Mol. Endocrinol. 11, 1961-1970 (1997).
21. Smith SJ, Rucka AK, Berry JL et al.: Novel mutations in the 1α-hydroxylase (P450c1) gene in three families with pseudovitamin D-deficiency rickets resulting in loss of functional enzyme activity in blood-derived macrophages. J. Bone Miner. Res. 14, 730-739 (1999).
22. Reichel H, Koeffler HP, Barbers R, Norman AW: Regulation of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 production by cultured alveolar macrophages from normal human donors and from patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 65, 1201-1209 (1987).
23. Kallay E, Bises G, Bajna E et al.: Colon-specific regulation of vitamin D hydroxylases - a possible approach for tumor prevention. Carcinogenesis 26, 1581-1589 (2005).
24. Cross HS, Peterlik M, Reddy GS, Schuster I: Vitamin D metabolism in human colon adenocarcinoma-derived Caco-2 cells: expression of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3-1α-hydroxylase activity and regulation of side-chain metabolism. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 62, 21-28 (1997).
25. Rowling MJ, Kemmis CM, Taffany DA, Welsh J: Megalin-mediated endocytosis of vitamin d binding protein correlates with 25-hydroxycholecalciferol actions in human mammary cells. J. Nutr. 136, 2754-2759 (2006).
26. Lechner D, Kallay E, Cross HS: 1α,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D(3) downregulates CYP27B1 and induces CYP24A1 in colon cells. Mol. Cell Endocrinol. (2006).
27. Stumpf WE, Sar M, Reid FA, Tanaka Y, DeLuca HF: Target cells for 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in intestinal tract, stomach, kidney, skin, pituitary, and parathyroid. Science 206, 1188-1190 (1979).
28. Deeb KK, Trump DL, Johnson CS: Vitamin D signalling pathways in cancer: potential for anticancer therapeutics. Nat. Rev. Cancer 7, 684-700 (2007).
29. Scaglione-Sewell BA, Bissonnette M, Skarosi S, Abraham C, Brasitus TA: A vitamin D3 analog induces a G1-phase arrest in CaCo-2 cells by inhibiting cdk2 and cdk6: roles of cyclin E, p21Waf1, and p27Kip1. Endocrinology 141, 3931-3939 (2000).
30. Yang WC, Mathew J, Velcich A et al.: Targeted inactivation of the p21(WAF1/cip1) gene enhances Apc-initiated tumor formation and the tumor-promoting activity of a Western-style high-risk diet by altering cell maturation in the intestinal mucosal. Cancer Res. 61, 565-569 (2001).
31. Cross HS, Hulla W, Tong WM, Peterlik M: Growth regulation of human colon adenocarcinoma-derived cells by calcium, vitamin D and epidermal growth factor. J. Nutr. 125, 2004S-2008S (1995).
32. Hulla W, Kallay E, Krugluger W, Peterlik M, Cross HS: Growth control of human colon-adenocarcinoma-derived Caco-2 cells by vitamin-D compounds and extracellular calcium in vitro: relation to c- myc-oncogene and vitamin-D-receptor expression. Int. J. Cancer 62, 711-716 (1995).
33. Tong WM, Hofer H, Ellinger A, Peterlik M, Cross HS: Mechanism of antimitogenic action of vitamin D in human colon carcinoma cells: relevance for suppression of epidermal growth factor-stimulated cell growth. Oncol Res 11, 77-84 (1999).
34. Tong WM, Kallay E, Hofer H et al.: Growth regulation of human colon cancer cells by epidermal growth factor and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 is mediated by mutual modulation of receptor expression. Eur. J. Cancer 34, 2119-2125 (1998).
35. Hulla W, Kallay E, Krugluger W, Peterlik M, Cross HS: Growth control of human colon-adenocarcinoma-derived Caco-2 cells by vitamin-D compounds and extracellular calcium in vitro: relation to c-myc-oncogene and vitamin-D-receptor expression. Int. J. Cancer 62, 711-716 (1995).
36. Palmer HG, JM Gonzalez-Sancho, Espada J et al.: Vitamin D(3) promotes the differentiation of colon carcinoma cells by the induction of E-cadherin and the inhibition of beta-catenin signaling. J. Cell Biol. 154, 369-387 (2001).
37. Kallay E, Pietschmann P, Toyokuni S et al.: Characterization of a vitamin D receptor knockout mouse as a model of colorectal hyperproliferation and DNA damage. Carcinogenesis 22, 1429-1435 (2001).
38. Froicu M, Cantorna MT: Vitamin D and the vitamin D receptor are critical for control of the innate immune response to colonic injury. BMC Immunol. 8, 5 (2007).
39. Liu N, Nguyen L, Chun RF et al.: Altered endocrine and autocrine metabolism of vitamin D in a mouse model of gastrointestinal inflammation. Endocrinology 149, 4799-4808 (2008).
40. Cross HS, Bareis P, Hofer H et al.: 25-Hydroxyvitamin D(3)-1α-hydroxylase and vitamin D receptor gene expression in human colonic mucosa is elevated during early cancerogenesis. Steroids 66, 287-292 (2001).
41. Cross HS, Bajna E, Bises G et al.: Vitamin D receptor and cytokeratin expression may be progression indicators in human colon cancer. Anticancer Res. 16, 2333-2337 (1996).
42. Bises G, Kallay E, Weiland T et al.: 25-hydroxyvitamin D3-1α-hydroxylase expression in normal and malignant human colon. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 52, 985-989 (2004).
43. Sheinin Y, Kaserer K, Wrba F et al.: In situ mRNA hybridization analysis and immunolocalization of the vitamin D receptor in normal and carcinomatous human colonic mucosa: relation to epidermal growth factor receptor expression. Virchows Arch. 437, 501-507 (2000).
44. Bareis P, Kallay E, Bischof MG et al.: Clonal differences in expression of 25-hydroxyvitamin D(3)-1α-hydroxylase, of 25-hydroxyvitamin D(3)-24-hydroxylase, and of the vitamin D receptor in human colon carcinoma cells: effects of epidermal growth factor and 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3). Exp. Cell Res. 276, 320-327 (2002).
45. Grau MV, Baron JA, Sandler RS et al.: Vitamin D, calcium supplementation, and colorectal adenomas: results of a randomized trial. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 95, 1765-1771 (2003).
46. Holt PR, Bresalier RS, Ma CK et al.: Calcium plus vitamin D alters preneoplastic features of colorectal adenomas and rectal mucosa. Cancer 106, 287-296 (2006).
47. Newmark H, Yang K, Kurihara N, Fan K, Augenlicht L, Lipkin M: Western-style diet-induced colonic tumors and their modulation by calcium and vitamin D in C57Bl/6 mice: A preclinical model for human sporadic colon cancer. Carcinogenesis 30(1), 88-92 (2009).
48. Yang K, Kurihara N, Fan K et al.: Dietary induction of colonic tumors in a mouse model of sporadic colon cancer. Cancer Res. 68, 7803-7810 (2008).
49. Yang K, Lamprecht SA, Shinozaki H et al.: Dietary calcium and cholecalciferol modulate cyclin D1 expression, apoptosis, and tumorigenesis in intestine of adenomatous polyposis coli1638N/+ mice. J. Nutr. 138, 1658-1663 (2008).
50. Wargovich MJ, Eng VW, Newmark HL, Bruce WR: Calcium ameliorates the toxic effect of deoxycholic acid on colonic epithelium. Carcinogenesis 4, 1205-1207 (1983).
51. Nehring JA, Zierold C, DeLuca HF: Lithocholic acid can carry out in vivo functions of vitamin D. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 104, 10006-10009 (2007).
52. Nittke T, Selig S, Kallay E, Cross HS: Nutritional calcium modulates colonic expression of vitamin D receptor and pregnane X receptor target genes. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 52(Suppl. 1), S45-S51 (2008).
53. Burke CA, Bauer WM, Lashner B: Chemoprevention of colorectal cancer: slow, steady progress. Cleve. Clin. J. Med. 70, 346-350 (2003).
54. Kallay E, Bajna E, Wrba F, Kriwanek S, Peterlik M, Cross HS: Dietary calcium and growth modulation of human colon cancer cells: role of the extracellular calcium-sensing receptor. Cancer Detect. Prev 24, 127-136 (2000).
55. Sheinin Y, Kallay E, Wrba F, Kriwanek S, Peterlik M, Cross HS: Immunocytochemical localization of the extracellular calcium-sensing receptor in normal and malignant human large intestinal mucosa. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 48, 595-602 (2000).
56. Kallay E, Bonner E, Wrba F, Thakker RV, Peterlik M, Cross HS: Molecular and functional characterization of the extracellular calcium-sensing receptor in human colon cancer cells. Oncol Res 13, 551-559 (2003).
57. 2+)-sensing receptor from bovine parathyroid. Nature 366, 575-580 (1993).
58. Chakrabarty S, Radjendirane V, Appelman H, Varani J: Extracellular calcium and calcium sensing receptor function in human colon carcinomas: promotion of E-cadherin expression and suppression of β-catenin/TCF activation. Cancer Res. 63, 67-71 (2003).
59. Canaff L, Hendy GN: Human calcium-sensing receptor gene. Vitamin D response elements in promoters P1 and P2 confer transcriptional responsiveness to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. J. Biol. Chem. 277, 30337-30350 (2002).
60. Whitfield JF: Calcium, calcium-sensing receptor and colon cancer. Cancer Lett. (2008).
61. 2+) and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3). Cancer Res. 65, 493-498 (2005).
62. Zhuang L, Peng JB, Tou L et al.: Calcium-selective ion channel, CaT1, is apically localized in gastrointestinal tract epithelia and is aberrantly expressed in human malignancies. Lab. Invest. 82, 1755-1764 (2002).
63. Song Y, Peng X, Porta A et al.: Calcium transporter 1 and epithelial calcium channel messenger ribonucleic acid are differentially regulated by 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 in the intestine and kidney of mice. Endocrinology 144, 3885-3894 (2003).
64. 2+. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 89-90, 303-308 (2004).
65. Van Cromphaut SJ, Dewerchin M, Hoenderop JG et al.: Duodenal calcium absorption in vitamin D receptor-knockout mice: functional and molecular aspects. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 98, 13324-13329 (2001).
66. Shah S, Islam MN, Dakshanamurthy S et al.: The molecular basis of vitamin D receptor and β-catenin crossregulation. Mol. Cell 21, 799-809 (2006).
67. Clevers H: Wnt breakers in colon cancer. Cancer Cell 5, 5-6 (2004).
68. Ordonez-Moran P, Larriba MJ, Palmer HG et al.: RhoA-ROCK and p38MAPK-MSK1 mediate vitamin D effects on gene expression, phenotype, and Wnt pathway in colon cancer cells. J. Cell Biol. 183, 697-710 (2008).
69. Morelli A, Squecco R, Failli P et al.: The vitamin D receptor agonist elocalcitol upregulates L-type calcium channel activity in human and rat bladder. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. 294, C1206-C1214 (2008).
70. MacLeod RJ, Hayes M, Pacheco I: Wnt5a secretion stimulated by the extracellular calcium-sensing receptor inhibits defective Wnt signaling in colon cancer cells. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 293, G403-G411 (2007).
71. Dejmek J, Dejmek A, Safholm A, Sjolander A, Andersson T: Wnt-5a protein expression in primary dukes B colon cancers identifies a subgroup of patients with good prognosis. Cancer Res. 65, 9142-9146 (2005).
72. Cross H, Bises G, Lechner D, Manhardt T, Kallay E: The vitamin D endocrine system of the gut - its possible role in colorectal cancer prevention. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 97, 121-128 (2005).
73. Cross HS, Kallay E: Nutritional regulation of extrarenal vitamin D hydroxylase expression - potential application in tumor prevention and therapy. Future Oncol. 1, 415-424 (2005).
74. Calle EE, Miracle-McMahill HL, Thun MJ, Heath CW Jr: Estrogen replacement therapy and risk of fatal colon cancer in a prospective cohort of postmenopausal women. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 87, 517-523 (1995).
75. Grodstein F, Martinez ME, Platz EA et al.: Postmenopausal hormone use and risk for colorectal cancer and adenoma. Ann. Intern. Med. 128, 705-712 (1998).
76. McMichael AJ, Potter JD: Reproduction, endogenous and exogenous sex hormones, and colon cancer: a review and hypothesis. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 65, 1201-1207 (1980).
77. Chlebowski RT, Wactawski-Wende J, Ritenbaugh C et al.: Estrogen plus progestin and colorectal cancer in postmenopausal women. N. Engl. J. Med. 350, 991-1004 (2004).
78. Campbell-Thompson M, Lynch IJ, Bhardwaj B: Expression of estrogen receptor (ER) subtypes and ERβ isoforms in colon cancer. Cancer Res. 61, 632-640 (2001).
79. Foley EF, Jazaeri AA, Shupnik MA, Jazaeri O, Rice LW: Selective loss of estrogen receptor β in malignant human colon. Cancer Res. 60, 245-248 (2000).
80. Jassam N, Bell SM, Speirs V, Quirke P: Loss of expression of oestrogen receptor b in colon cancer and its association with Dukes' staging. Oncol. Rep. 14, 17-21 (2005).
81. Eads CA, Lord RV, Kurumboor SK et al.: Fields of aberrant CpG island hypermethylation in Barrett's esophagus and associated adenocarcinoma. Cancer Res. 60, 5021-5026 (2000).
82. Protiva P, Cross HS, Hopkins ME et al.: Chemoprevention of colorectal neoplasia by estrogen: potential role of vitamin D activity. Cancer Prev. Res. (Phila. Pa) 2, 43-51 (2009).
83. Lechner D, Bajna E, Adlercreutz H, Cross HS: Genistein and 17β-estradiol, but not equol, regulate vitamin D synthesis in human colon and breast cancer cells. Anticancer Res. 26, 2597-2603 (2006).
84. Kuiper GG, Lemmen JG, Carlsson B et al.: Interaction of estrogenic chemicals and phytoestrogens with estrogen receptor β. Endocrinology 139, 4252-4263 (1998).
85. Riggs BL, Hartmann LC: Selective estrogen-receptor modulators - mechanisms of action and application to clinical practice. N. Engl. J. Med. 348, 618-629 (2003).
86. An J, Tzagarakis-Foster C, Scharschmidt TC, Lomri N, Leitman DC: Estrogen receptor beta-selective transcriptional activity and recruitment of coregulators by phytoestrogens. J. Biol. Chem. 276, 17808-17814 (2001).
87. Cotterchio M, Boucher BA, Manno M et al.: Dietary phytoestrogen intake is associated with reduced colorectal cancer risk. J. Nutr. 136, 3046-3053 (2006).
88. Anderson JJ, Anthony M, Messina M, Garne SC: Effects of phyto-oestrogens on tissues. Nutr. Res. Rev. 12, 75-116 (1999).
89. Wijeratne SS, Cuppett SL: Soy isoflavones protect the intestine from lipid hydroperoxide mediated oxidative damage. J. Agric. Food Chem. 55, 9811-9816 (2007).
90. Djuric Z, Chen G, Doerge DR, Heilbrun LK, Kucuk O: Effect of soy isoflavone supplementation on markers of oxidative stress in men and women. Cancer Lett. 172, 1-6 (2001).
91. Yu Z, Tang Y, Hu D, Li J: Inhibitory effect of genistein on mouse colon cancer MC-26 cells involved TGF-β1/Smad pathway. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 333, 827-832 (2005).
92. Li M, Zhang Z, Hill DL, Chen X, Wang H, Zhang R: Genistein, a dietary isoflavone, down-regulates the MDM2 oncogene at both transcriptional and posttranslational levels. Cancer Res. 65, 8200-8208 (2005).
93. Kim EJ, Shin HK, Park JH: Genistein inhibits insulin-like growth factor-I receptor signaling in HT-29 human colon cancer cells: a possible mechanism of the growth inhibitory effect of genistein. J. Med. Food 8, 431-438 (2005).
94. Fang MZ, Chen D, Sun Y et al.: Reversal of hypermethylation and reactivation of p16INK4a, RARβ, and MGMT genes by genistein and other isoflavones from soy. Clin. Cancer Res. 11, 7033-7041 (2005).
95. Gilad LA, Tirosh O, Schwartz B: Phytoestrogens regulate transcription and translation of vitamin D receptor in colon cancer cells. J. Endocrinol. 191, 387-398 (2006).
96. Cross HS, Kallay E, Lechner D et al.: Phytoestrogens and vitamin D metabolism: a new concept for the prevention and therapy of colorectal, prostate, and mammary carcinomas. J. Nutr. 134, 1207S-1212S (2004).
97. Bises G, Bajna E, Manhardt T et al.: Gender-specific modulation of markers for premalignancy by nutritional soy and calcium in the mouse colon. J. Nutr. 137, 211S-215S (2007).
98. Seibel J, Molzberger AF, Hertrampf T et al.: In utero and postnatal exposure to a phytoestrogen-enriched diet increases parameters of acute inflammation in a rat model of TNBS-induced colitis. Arch. Toxicol. 82, 941-950 (2008).
99. Lambert JD, Kwon SJ, Ju J et al.: Effect of genistein on the bioavailability and intestinal cancer chemopreventive activity of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate. Carcinogenesis 29, 2019-2024 (2008).
100. Giovannucci E: Epidemiologic studies of folate and colorectal neoplasia: a review. J. Nutr. 132, 2350S-2355S (2002).
101. Yamaji T, Iwasaki M, Sasazuki S et al.: Methionine synthase A2756G polymorphism interacts with alcohol and folate intake to influence the risk of colorectal adenoma. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 18, 267-274 (2009).
102. Halsted CH, Villanueva JA, Devlin AM, Chandler CJ: Metabolic interactions of alcohol and folate. J. Nutr. 132, 2367S-2372S (2002).
103. Bailey, LB: Folate, methyl-related nutrients, alcohol, and the MTHFR 677C-->T polymorphism affect cancer risk: intake recommendations. J. Nutr. 133, 3748S-3753S (2003).
104. Ulrich CM, Kampman E, Bigler J et al.: Colorectal adenomas and the C677T MTHFR polymorphism: evidence for gene-environment interaction? Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 8, 659-668 (1999).
105. Giovannucci E, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA et al.: Folate, methionine, and alcohol intake and risk of colorectal adenoma. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 85, 875-884 (1993).
106. Sweeney MR, McPartlin J, Scott J: Folic acid fortification and public health: report on threshold doses above which unmetabolised folic acid appear in serum. BMC Public Health 7, 41 (2007).
107. Giovannucci E, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA et al.: Multivitamin use, folate, and colon cancer in women in the Nurses' Health Study. Ann. Intern. Med. 129, 517-524 (1998).
108. Fuchs CS, Willett WC, Colditz GA et al.: The influence of folate and multivitamin use on the familial risk of colon cancer in women. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 11, 227-234 (2002).
109. Kim YI: Folate, colorectal carcinogenesis, and DNA methylation: lessons from animal studies. Environ. Mol. Mutagen 44, 10-25 (2004).
110. Kim YI: Will mandatory folic acid fortification prevent or promote cancer? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 80, 1123-1128 (2004).
111. Novakovic P, Stempak JM, Sohn KJ, Kim YI: Effects of folate deficiency on gene expression in the apoptosis and cancer pathways in colon cancer cells. Carcinogenesis 27, 916-924 (2006).
112. Crott JW, Liu Z, Keyes MK et al.: Moderate folate depletion modulates the expression of selected genes involved in cell cycle, intracellular signaling and folate uptake in human colonic epithelial cell lines. J. Nutr. Biochem. 19, 328-335 (2008).
113. Newmark HL, Lipkin M: Calcium, vitamin D, and colon cancer. Cancer Res. 52, 2067S-2070S (1992).
114. Newmark HL, Yang K, Lipkin M et al.: A Western-style diet induces benign and malignant neoplasms in the colon of normal C57Bl/6 mice. Carcinogenesis 22, 1871-1875 (2001).
115. Cross HS, Lipkin M, Kallay E: Nutrients regulate the colonic vitamin D system in mice: relevance for human colon malignancy. J. Nutr. 136, 561-564 (2006).
116. Horii J, Hiraoka S, Kato J et al.: Age-related methylation in normal colon mucosa differs between the proximal and distal colon in patients who underwent colonoscopy. Clin. Biochem. 41(18), 1440-1448 (2008).
117. Kim MS, Fujiki R, Kitagawa H, Kato S: 1α,25(OH)2D3-induced DNA methylation suppresses the human CYP27B1 gene. Mol. Cell Endocrinol. 265-266, 168-173 (2007).
118. Khorchide M, Lechner D, Cross HS: Epigenetic regulation of vitamin D hydroxylase expression and activity in normal and malignant human prostate cells. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 93, 167-172 (2005).
119. Chung I, Karpf AR, Muindi JR et al.: Epigenetic silencing of CYP24 in tumor-derived endothelial cells contributes to selective growth inhibition by calcitriol. J. Biol. Chem. 282, 8704-8714 (2007).
120. Smirnoff P, Liel Y, Gnainsky J, Shany S, Schwartz B: The protective effect of estrogen against chemically induced murine colon carcinogenesis is associated with decreased CpG island methylation and increased mRNA and protein expression of the colonic vitamin D receptor. Oncol. Res. 11, 255-264 (1999).