The expanding scope of the metabolic syndrome and implications for the management of cardiovascular risk in type 2 diabetes with particular focus on the emerging role of the thiazolidinediones

Journal of Diabetes and its Complications

Volumn 17, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 218-228

  Greenberg, Andrew S ^a  

^a TUFTS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Atherosclerosis; Endothelial dysfunction; Plaque rupture; Vascular inflammation

Indexed keywords

ANTIDIABETIC AGENT; ANTIOXIDANT; COLLAGENASE 3; GELATINASE B; INSULIN; INTERLEUKIN 1; METFORMIN; PIOGLITAZONE; ROSIGLITAZONE; SULFONYLUREA DERIVATIVE; THIAZOLIDINE DERIVATIVE; TROGLITAZONE; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA;

ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BLOOD VESSEL REACTIVITY; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CELL PROLIFERATION; DEATH; DISEASE COURSE; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG TOLERABILITY; DYSLIPIDEMIA; EDEMA; ENDOTHELIUM CELL; ENZYME ACTIVITY; FLUID RETENTION; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERTENSION; INFLAMMATION; INSULIN RELEASE; INSULIN RESISTANCE; INSULIN SENSITIVITY; LIVER TOXICITY; METABOLIC DISORDER; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; OBESITY; PANCREAS ISLET BETA CELL; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SMOOTH MUSCLE FIBER; THROMBOGENICITY; TREATMENT OUTCOME; UMBILICAL VEIN; WEIGHT GAIN;

EID: 0142093012     PISSN: 10568727     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1056-8727(03)00002-3     Document Type: Article

References (125)

1. Albert M.A., Ridker P.M. The role of C-reactive protein in cardiovascular disease risk. Current Cardiology Reports. 1:1999;99-104.
2. Aljada A., Garg R., Ghanim H., Mohanty P., Hamouda W., Assian E., Dandona P. Nuclear factor-kappaB suppressive and inhibitor-kappaB stimulatory effects of troglitazone in obese patients with type 2 diabetes: evidence of an antiinflammatory action? Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 86:2001;3250-3256.
3. Management of dyslipidemia in adults with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 25(Suppl. 1):2002;S74-S77.
4. Standards of medical care for patients with diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 25(Suppl. 1):2002;S33-S49.
5. Aoki I., Shimoyama K., Aoki N., Homori M., Yanagisawa A., Nakahara K., Kawai Y., Kitamura S.I., Ishikawa K. Platelet-dependent thrombin generation in patients with diabetes mellitus: effects of glycemic control on coagulability in diabetes. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 27:1996;560-566.
6. Ardissino D., Merlini P.A., Arlens R., Coppola R., Bramucci E., Lucreziotti S., Repetto A., Fetiveau R., Mannucci P.M. Tissue factor in human coronary atherosclerotic plaques. Clinica Chimica Acta. 291:2000;235-240.
7. Aronoff S., Rosenblatt S., Braithwaite S., Egan J.W., Mathisen A.L., Schneider R.L. Pioglitazone hydrochloride monotherapy improves glycemic control in the treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes: a 6-month randomized placebo-controlled dose-response study. The Pioglitazone 001 Study Group. Diabetes Care. 23:2000;1605-1611.
8. Aubert J., Safonova I., Negrel R., Ailhaud G. Insulin down-regulates angiotensinogen gene expression and angiotensinogen secretion in cultured adipose cells. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 250:1998;77-82.
9. Bakris, G., Viberti, G., Weston, W., Heise, M., Porter, L. E., & Freed, M. I. (2003). Rosiglitazone reduces urinary albumin excretion in type 2 diabetes. Journal of Human Hypertension, 17, 7-12.
10. Barzilay J.I., Jones C.L., Davis B.R., Basile J.N., Goff D.C. Jr., Ciocon J.O., Sweeney M.E., Randall O.S. Baseline characteristics of the diabetic participants in the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). Diabetes Care. 24:2001;654-658.
11. Björntorp P. Metabolic implications of body fat distribution. Diabetes Care. 14:1991;1132-1143.
12. Blackburn R., Giral P., Bruckert E., Andre J.M., Gonbert S., Bernard M., Chapman M.J., Turpin G. Elevated C-reactive protein constitutes an independent predictor of advanced carotid plaques in dyslipidemic subjects. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology. 21:2001;1962-1968.
13. Bonora E., Formentini G., Calcaterra F., Lombardi S., Marini F., Zenari L., Saggiani F., Poli M., Perbellini S., Raffaelli A., Cacciatori V., Santi L., Targher G., Bonadonna R., Muggeo M. HOMA-estimated insulin resistance is an independent predictor of cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetic subjects: prospective data from the Verona Diabetes Complications Study. Diabetes Care. 25:2002;1135-1141.
14. Bonora E., Kiechl S., Willeit J., Oberhollenzer F., Bonadonna R.C., Muggeo M. Prevalence rates, additional clinical features and risk of atherosclerosis in subjects with isolated insulin resistance and in subjects with the plurimetabolic syndrome. Diabetes. 49(Suppl. 1):2000;A385.
15. Bonora E., Kiechl S., Willeit J., Oberhollenzer F., Egger G., Targher G., Alberiche M., Bonadonna R.C., Muggeo M. Prevalence of insulin resistance in metabolic disorders: the Bruneck Study. Diabetes. 47:1998;1643-1649.
16. Bouloumié A., Bauersachs J., Linz W., Scholkens B.A., Wiemer G., Fleming I., Busse R. Endothelial dysfunction coincides with an enhanced nitric oxide synthase expression and superoxide anion production. Hypertension. 30:1997;934-941.
17. Buchanan T.A., Meehan W.P., Jeng Y.Y., Yang D., Chan T.M., Nadler J.L., Scott S., Rude R.K., Hsueh W.A. Blood pressure lowering by pioglitazone. Evidence for a direct vascular effect. Journal of Clinical Investigation. 96:1995;354-360.
18. Cai H., Harrison D.G. Endothelial dysfunction in cardiovascular diseases: the role of oxidant stress. Circulation Research. 87:2000;840-844.
19. Celentano D.C., Frishman W.H. Matrix metalloproteinases and coronary artery disease: a novel therapeutic target. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 37:1997;991-1000.
20. Collins A.R., Meehan W.P., Kintscher U., Jackson S., Wakino S., Noh G., Palinski W., Hsueh W.A., Law R.E. Troglitazone inhibits formation of early atherosclerotic lesions in diabetic and nondiabetic low density lipoprotein receptor-deficient mice. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology. 21:2001;365-371.
21. Cominacini L., Garbin U., Fratta P.A., Campagnola M., Davoli A., Foot E., Sighieri G., Sironi A.M., Lo C.V., Ferrannini E. Troglitazone reduces LDL oxidation and lowers plasma E-selectin concentration in NIDDM patients. Diabetes. 47:1998;130-133.
22. DeFronzo R.A. Lilly lecture 1987. The triumvirate: β-cell, muscle, liver. A collusion responsible for NIDDM. Diabetes. 37:1988;667-687.
23. Dubey R.K., Zhang H.Y., Reddy S.R., Boegehold M.A., Kotchen T.A. Pioglitazone attenuates hypertension and inhibits growth of renal arteriolar smooth muscle in rats. American Journal of Physiology. 265:1993;R726-R732.
24. Durante W., Sen A.K., Sunahara F.A. Impairment of endothelium-dependent relaxation in aortae from spontaneously diabetic rats. British Journal of Pharmacology. 94:1988;463-468.
25. Fahmi H., Di Battista J.A., Pelletier J.P., Mineau F., Ranger P., Martel-Pelletier J. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma activators inhibit interleukin-1 beta-induced nitric oxide and matrix metalloproteinase 13 production in human chondrocytes. Arthritis and Rheumatism. 44:2001;595-607.
26. Festa A., D'Agostino R., Howard G., Mykkanen L., Tracy R.P., Haffner S.M. Chronic subclinical inflammation as part of the insulin resistance syndrome: the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study (IRAS). Circulation. 102:2000;42-47.
27. Festa A., D'Agostino R. Jr., Tracy R.P., Haffner S.M. Elevated levels of acute-phase proteins and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 predict the development of type 2 diabetes: the insulin resistance atherosclerosis study. Diabetes. 51:2002;1131-1137.
28. Freed M., Fuell D., Menci L., Heise M., Goldstein B. Effect of combination therapy with rosiglitazone and glibenclamide on PAI-1 antigen, PAI-1 activity and tPA in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia. 43(Suppl. 1):2000;A267.
29. Freed M.I., Ratner R., Marcovina S.M., Kreider M.M., Biswas N., Cohen B.R., Brunzell J.D. Effects of rosiglitazone alone and in combination with atorvastatin on the metabolic abnormalities in type 2 diabetes mellitus. American Journal of Cardiology. 90:2002;947-952.
30. Frostegard J., Wu R., Giscombe R., Holm G., Lefvert A.K., Nilsson J. Induction of T-cell activation by oxidized low density lipoprotein. Arteriosclerosis and Thrombosis. 12:1992;461-467.
31. Fuster V. Elucidation of the role of plaque instability and rupture in acute coronary events. American Journal of Cardiology. 76:1995;24C-33C.
32. Galis Z.S., Sukhova G.K., Lark M.W., Libby P. Increased expression of matrix metalloproteinases and matrix degrading activity in vulnerable regions of human atherosclerotic plaques. Journal of Clinical Investigation. 94:1994;2493-2503.
33. Gan X., Wong B., Wright S.D., Cai T.Q. Production of matrix metalloproteinase-9 in CaCO-2 cells in response to inflammatory stimuli. Journal of Interferon and Cytokine Research. 21:2001;93-98.
34. Garg R., Kumbkami Y., Aljada A., Mohanty P., Ghanim H., Hamouda W., Dandona P. Troglitazone reduces reactive oxygen species generation by leukocytes and lipid peroxidation and improves flow-mediated vasodilatation in obese subjects. Hypertension. 36:2000;430-435.
35. Gerich J.E. Pathogenesis and treatment of type 2 (noninsulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). Hormone and Metabolic Research. 28:1996;404-412.
36. Ghanim H., Garg R., Aljada A., Mohanty P., Kumbkami Y., Assian E., Hamouda W., Dandona P. Suppression of nuclear factor-kappaB and stimulation of inhibitor kappaB by troglitazone: evidence for an anti-inflammatory effect and a potential antiatherosclerotic effect in the obese. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 86:2001;1306-1312.
37. Ghazzi M.N., Perez J.E., Antonucci T.K., Driscoll J.H., Huang S.M., Faja B.W., Whitcomb R.W. Cardiac and glycemic benefits of troglitazone treatment in NIDDM. The Troglitazone Study Group. Diabetes. 46:1997;433-439.
38. Goetze S., Xi X.P., Kawano H., Gotlibowski T., Fleck E., Hsueh W.A., Law R.E. PPAR gamma-ligands inhibit migration mediated by multiple chemoattractants in vascular smooth muscle cells. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology. 33:1999;798-806.
39. Gosset P., Charbonnier A.S., Delerive P., Fontaine J., Staels B., Pestel J., Tonnel A.B., Trottein F. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma activators affect the maturation of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells. European Journal of Immunology. 31:2001;2857-2865.
40. Gray R.P., Yudkin J.S. Chapter 57. Cardiovascular disease in diabetes mellitus. Pickup J.C., Williams G. Textbook of diabetes. 1997;1-57 Blackwell, Oxford.
41. Greenberg A., Haffner S., Weston W., Fuell D., Christal J., Jones N.P., Chen H., Freed M.I. Rosiglitazone reduces C-reactive protein, a marker of systemic inflammation in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetologia. 44(Suppl. 1):2001;A222.
42. Groop L., Ekstrand A., Forsblom C., Widen E., Groop P.H., Teppo A.M., Eriksson J. Insulin resistance, hypertension and microalbuminuria in patients with type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia. 36:1993;642-647.
43. Groop L.C. Insulin resistance: the fundamental trigger of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism. 1(Suppl. 1):1999;S1-S7.
44. Gutstein D.E., Fuster V. Pathophysiology and clinical significance of atherosclerotic plaque rupture. Cardiovascular Research. 41:1999;323-333.
45. Haffner S., Greenberg A.S., Weston W.M., Chen H., Williams K., Freed M.I. Effect of rosiglitazone treatment on nontraditional markers of cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Circulation. 106:2002;679-684.
46. Hamsten A., de Faire U., Walldius G., Dahlen G., Szamosi A., Landou C., Blomback M., Wiman B. Plasminogen activator inhibitor in plasma: risk factor for recurrent myocardial infarction. Lancet. 2:1987;3-9.
47. Hanefeld M. Pharmacokinetics and clinical efficacy of pioglitazone. International Journal of Clinical Practice Supplement. 121:2001;19-25.
48. Hanefeld M., Goke B. Combining pioglitazone with a sulphonylurea or metformin in the management of type 2 diabetes. Experimental and Clinical Endocrinology and Diabetes. 108:2000;S256-S266.
49. Heinecke J.W., Baker L., Rosen H., Chait A. Superoxide-mediated modification of low density lipoprotein by arterial smooth muscle cells. Journal of Clinical Investigation. 77:1986;757-761.
50. Held C., Hjemdahl P., Rehnqvist N., Wallen N.H., Jorkander I., Riksson S.V., Orslund L., Iman B. Fibrinolytic variables and cardiovascular prognosis in patients with stable angina pectoris treated with verapamil or metoprolol. Results from the Angina Prognosis Study in Stockholm. Circulation. 95:1997;2380-2386.
51. Hundal R.S., Petersen K.F., Mayerson A.B., Randhawa P.S., Inzucchi S., Shoelson S.E., Shulman G.I. Mechanism by which high-dose aspirin improves glucose metabolism in type 2 diabetes. Journal of Clinical Investigation. 109:2002;1321-1326.
52. Inokubo Y., Hanada H., Ishizaka H., Fukushi T., Kamada T., Okumura K. Plasma levels of matrix metalloproteinase-9 and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 are increased in the coronary circulation in patients with acute coronary syndrome. American Heart Journal. 141:2001;211-217.
53. Inoue I., Katayama S., Takahashi K., Negishi K., Miyazaki T., Sonoda M., Komoda T. Troglitazone has a scavenging effect on the reactive oxygen species. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 235:1997;113-116.
54. Iwamoto Y., Kosaka K., Kuzuya T., Akanuma Y., Shigeta Y., Kaneko T. Effects of troglitazone: a new hypoglycemic agent in patients with NIDDM poorly controlled by diet therapy. Diabetes Care. 19:1996;151-156.
55. Jones N.P., Charbonnel B., Lönnqvist F., Owen S. Rosiglitazone reduces plasma insulin and its precursors while decreasing glycaemia in type 2 diabetics. Diabetologia. 42(Suppl. 1):1999;A229.
56. Jones N.P., Mather R., Owen S., Porter L.E., Patwardhan R. Long-term efficacy of rosiglitazone as monotherapy or in combination with metformin. Diabetologia. 43(Suppl. 1):2000;A192.
57. Juhan-Vague I., Alessi M.C., Morange P.E. Hypofibrinolysis and increased PAI-1 are linked to atherothrombosis via insulin resistance and obesity. Annals of Medicine. 32(Suppl. 1):2000;78-84.
58. Juhan-Vague I., Alessi M.C., Vague P. Increased plasma plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 levels. A possible link between insulin resistance and atherothrombosis. Diabetologia. 34:1991;457-462.
59. Kato K., Satoh H., Endo Y., Yamada D., Midorikawa S., Sato W., Mizuno K., Fujita T., Tsukamoto K., Watanabe T. Thiazolidinediones down-regulate plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 expression in human vascular endothelial cells: a possible role for PPARgamma in endothelial function. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 258:1999;431-435.
60. Kern P.A., Ranganathan S., Li C., Wood L., Ranganathan G. Adipose tissue tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-6 expression in human obesity and insulin resistance. American Journal of Physiology, Endocrinology and Metabolism. 280:2001;E745-E751.
61. King A.B., Armstrong D.U. Lipid response to pioglitazone in diabetic patients: clinical observations from a retrospective chart review. Diabetes Technology and Therapeutics. 4:2002;145-151.
62. King H., Aubert R.E., Herman W.H. Global burden of diabetes, 1995-2025: prevalence, numerical estimates, and projections. Diabetes Care. 21:1998;1414-1431.
63. Kobayashi M. Effects of current therapeutic interventions on insulin resistance. Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism. 1(Suppl. 1):1999;S32-S40.
64. Kohler H.P., Grant P.J. Plasminogen-activator inhibitor type 1 and coronary artery disease. New England Journal of Medicine. 342:2000;1792-1801.
65. Koshiyama H., Shimono D., Kuwamura N., Minamikawa J., Nakamura Y. Rapid communication: inhibitory effect of pioglitazone on carotid arterial wall thickness in type 2 diabetes. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 86:2001;3452-3456.
66. Kotchen T.A., Zhang H.Y., Reddy S., Hoffmann R.G. Effect of pioglitazone on vascular reactivity in vivo and in vitro. American Journal of Physiology. 270:1996;R660-R666.
67. Kylin E. Studien ueber das Hypertonie-Hyperlglykämie- Hyperurikämiesyndrom. Zentralblatt fuer Innere Medizin. 44:1923;105-127.
68. Law R.E., Goetze S., Xi X.P., Jackson S., Kawano Y., Demer L., Fishbein M.C., Meehan W.P., Hsueh W.A. Expression and function of PPARγ in rat and human vascular smooth muscle cells. Circulation. 101:2000;1311-1318.
69. Lebovitz H.E., Dole J.F., Patwardhan R., Rappaport E.B., Freed M.I. Rosiglitazone monotherapy is effective in patients with type 2 diabetes. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 86:2001;280-288.
70. Lee R.T., Schoen F.J., Loree H.M., Lark M.W., Libby P. Circumferential stress and matrix metalloproteinase 1 in human coronary atherosclerosis. Implications for plaque rupture. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology. 16:1996;1070-1073.
71. Lehr H.A., Becker M., Marklund S.L., Hubner C., Arfors K.E., Kohlschutter A., Messmer K. Superoxide-dependent stimulation of leukocyte adhesion by oxidatively modified LDL in vivo. Arteriosclerosis and Thrombosis. 12:1992;824-829.
72. Li A.C., Brown K.K., Silvestre M.J., Willson T.M., Palinski W., Glass C.K. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma ligands inhibit development of atherosclerosis in LDL receptor-deficient mice. Journal of Clinical Investigation. 106:2000;523-531.
73. Lingohr M.K., Buettner R., Rhodes C.J. Pancreatic beta-cell growth and survival - a role in obesity-linked type 2 diabetes? Trends in Molecular Medicine. 8:2002;375-384.
74. Loftus I.M., Naylor A.R., Goodall S., Crowther M., Jones L., Bell P.R., Thompson M.M. Increased matrix metalloproteinase-9 activity in unstable carotid plaques. A potential role in acute plaque disruption. Stroke. 31:2000;40-47.
75. Lyons T.J., Li W., Wells-Knecht M.C., Jokl R. Toxicity of mildly modified low-density lipoproteins to cultured retinal capillary endothelial cells and pericytes. Diabetes. 43:1994;1090-1095.
76. Mao D., Lee J.K., VanVickle S.J., Thompson R.W. Expression of collagenase-3 (MMP-13) in human abdominal aortic aneurysms and vascular smooth muscle cells in culture. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 261:1999;904-910.
77. Margaglione M., Di Minno G., Grandone E., Vecchione G., Celentano E., Cappucci G., Grilli M., Simone P., Panico S., Mancini M. Abnormally high circulation levels of tissue plasminogen activator and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 in patients with a history of ischemic stroke. Arteriosclerosis and Thrombosis. 14:1994;1741-1745.
78. Marx N., Bourcier T., Sukhova G.K., Libby P., Plutzky J. PPARγ activation in human endothelial cells increases plasminogen activator inhibitor type-1 expression: PPARγ as a potential mediator in vascular disease. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology. 19:1999;546-551.
79. Marx N., Sukhova G., Murphy C., Libby P., Plutzky J. Macrophages in human atheroma contain PPARγ: differentiation-dependent peroxisomal proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) expression and reduction of MMP-9 activity through PPARγ activation in mononuclear phagocytes in vitro. American Journal of Pathology. 153:1998;17-23.
80. Mason D.P., Kenagy R.D., Hasenstab D., Bowen-Pope D.F., Seifert R.A., Coats S., Hawkins S.M., Clowes A.W. Matrix metalloproteinase-9 overexpression enhances vascular smooth muscle cell migration and alters remodelling in the injured rat carotid artery. Circulation Research. 85:1999;1179-1185.
81. Miyazaki Y., Mahankali A., Matsuda M., Mahankali S., Hardies J., Cusi K., Mandarino L.J., DeFronzo R.A. Effect of pioglitazone on abdominal fat distribution and insulin sensitivity in type 2 diabetic patients. Journal of Clinical Endocrinolgy and Metabolism. 87:2002;2784-2791.
82. phox subunit expression in mononuclear cells (MNC) and and reduces C reactive protein (CRP) and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1): evidence of a potent anti-inflammatory effect. Diabetes. 50(Suppl. 2):2001;A68.
83. Murao K., Ohyama T., Imachi H., Ishida T., Cao W.M., Namihira H., Sato M., Wong N.C., Takahara J. TNF-alpha stimulation of MCP-1 expression is mediated by the Akt/PKB signal transduction pathway in vascular endothelial cells. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 276:2000;791-796.
84. Nakamura T., Ushiyama C., Shimada N., Hayashi K., Ebihara I., Koide H. Comparative effects of pioglitazone, glibenclamide, and voglibose on urinary endothelin-1 and albumin excretion in diabetes patients. Journal of Diabetes and Its Complications. 14:2000;250-254.
85. Nakamura T., Ushiyama C., Suzuki S., Shimada N., Sekizuka K., Ebihara L., Koide H. Effect of troglitazone on urinary albumin excretion and serum type IV collagen concentrations in type 2 diabetic patients with microalbuminuria or macroalbuminuria. Diabetic Medicine. 18:2001;308-313.
86. Executive Summary of the Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). Journal of the American Medical Association. 285:2001;2486-2497.
87. Ogihara T., Rakugi H., Ikegami H., Mikami H., Masuo K. Enhancement of insulin sensitivity by troglitazone lowers blood pressure in diabetic hypertensives. American Journal of Hypertension. 8:1995;316-320.
88. Panza J.A. Endothelial dysfunction in essential hypertension. Clinical Cardiology. 20:1997;26-33.
89. Pasceri V., Willerson J.T., Yeh E.T. Direct proinflammatory effect of C-reactive protein on human endothelial cells. Circulation. 102:2000;2165-2168.
90. Pradhan A.D., Manson J.E., Rifai N., Buring J.E., Ridker P.M. C-reactive protein, interleukin 6, and risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus. Journal of the American Medical Association. 286:2001;327-334.
91. Pueyo M.E., Gonzalez W., Nicoletti A., Savoie F., Arnal J.F., Michel J.B. Angiotensin II stimulates endothelial vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 via nuclear factor-kappaB activation induced by intracellular oxidative stress. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology. 20:2000;645-651.
92. Quinn M.T., Parthasarathy S., Fong L.G., Steinberg D. Oxidatively modified low density lipoproteins: a potential role in recruitment and retention of monocyte/macrophages during atherogenesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 84:1987;2995-2998.
93. Quinones M.J., Pampaloni M.H., Juarez B.E., Wang Y., Carmona G.C., Van Herle K., Saad M.F., Schelbert H.R., Hsueh W.A. Insulin resistance in healthy Mexican Americans is associated with coronary artery endothelial dysfunction. Diabetes. 49(Suppl. 1):2000;A146.
94. Randolph G.J., Furie M.B. A soluble gradient of endogenous monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 promotes the transendothelial migration of monocytes in vitro. Journal of Immunology. 155:1995;3610-3618.
95. Reaven G.M. Banting lecture 1988. Role of insulin resistance in human disease. Diabetes. 37:1988;1595-1607.
96. Rhodes C.J., White M.F. Molecular insights into insullin action and secretion. European Journal of Clinical Investigation. 32(Suppl. 3):2002;3-13.
97. Ricote M., Li A.C., Willson T.M., Kelly C.J., Glass C.K. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ is a negative regulator of macrophage activation. Nature. 391:1998;79-82.
98. Sakai M., Miyazaki A., Hakamata H., Sato Y., Matsumura T., Kobori S., Shichiri M., Horiuchi S. Lysophosphatidycholine potentiates the mitogenic activity of modified LDL for human monocyte-derived macrophages. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology. 16:1996;600-605.
99. Scheen A.J. Hepatotoxicity with thiazolidinediones: is it a class effect? Drug Safety. 24:2001;873-888.
100. Scheidegger K.J., Butler S., Witztum J.L. Angiotensin II increases macrophage-mediated modification of low density lipoprotein via a lipoxygenase-dependent pathway. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 272:1997;21609-21615.
101. Schneiderman J., Sawdey M.S., Keeton M.R., Bordin G.M., Bernstein E.F., Dilley R.B., Loskutoff D.J. Increased type 1 plasminogen activator inhibitor gene expression in atherosclerotic human arteries. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 89:1992;6998-7002.
102. Shimono D., Kuwamura N., Nakamura Y., Koshiyama H. Lack of effect of pioglitazone on postprandial triglyceride levels in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 24:2001;971.
103. Sobel B.E., Woodcock-Mitchell J., Schneider D.J., Holt R.E., Marutsuka K., Gold H. Increased plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 in coronary artery atherectomy specimens from type 2 diabetic compared with nondiabetic patients: a potential factor predisposing to thrombosis and its persistence. Circulation. 97:1998;2213-2221.
104. St. John Sutton M.S., Dole J.F., Rappaport E.B. Rosiglitazone does not adversely affect cardiac structure or function in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 48(Suppl. 1):1999;A102.
105. Stamler J., Vaccaro O., Neaton J.D., Wentworth D. Diabetes, other risk factors, and 12-yr cardiovascular mortality for men screened in the Multiple Risk Intervention Trial. Diabetes Care. 16:1993;434-444.
106. Steinberg H.O., Chaker H., Leaming R., Johnson A., Brechtel G., Baron A.D. Obesity/insulin resistance is associated with endothelial dysfunction. Implications for the syndrome of insulin resistance. Journal of Clinical Investigation. 97:1996;2601-2610.
107. Tack C.J., Smits P., Demacker P.N., Stalenhoef A.F. Troglitazone decreases the proportion of small, dense LDL and increases the resistance of LDL to oxidation in obese subjects. Diabetes Care. 21:1998;796-799.
108. Tanner F.C., Noll G., Boulanger C.M., Luscher T.F. Oxidized low density lipoproteins inhibit relaxations of porcine coronary arteries. Role of scavenger receptor and endothelium-derived nitric oxide. Circulation. 83:1991;2012-2020.
109. Thögersen A.M., Jansson J.H., Boman K., Nilsson T.K., Weinehall L., Huhtasaari F., Hallmans G. High plasminogen activator inhibitor and tissue plasminogen activator levels in plasma precede a first acute myocardial infarction in both men and women: evidence for the fibrinolytic system as an independent primary risk factor. Circulation. 98:1998;2241-2247.
110. Thompson S.G., Kienast J., Pyke S.D., Haverkate F., van de Loo J.C. Hemostatic factors and the risk of myocardial infarction or sudden death in patients with angina pectoris. European Concerted Action on Thrombosis and Disabilities Angina Pectoris Study Group. New England Journal of Medicine. 332:1995;635-641.
111. Title L.M., Cummings P.M., Giddens K., Nassar B.A. Oral glucose loading acutely attenuates endothelium-dependent vasodilation in healthy adults without diabetes: an effect prevented by vitamins C and E. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 36:2000;2185-2191.
112. Tooke J.E., Hannemann M.M. Adverse endothelial function and the insulin resistance syndrome. Journal of Internal Medicine. 247:2000;425-431.
113. Turner R., Cull C.A., Holman R. United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study 17: a 9-year update of a randomized, controlled trial on the effect of improved metabolic control on complications in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Annals of Internal Medicine. 124:1996;136-145.
114. Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34). Lancet. 352:1998;854-865.
115. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Lancet. 352:1998;837-853.
116. Watanabe T., Pakala R., Katagiri T., Benedict C.R. Mildly oxidized low-density lipoprotein acts synergistically with angiotensin II in inducing vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation. Journal of Hypertension. 19:2001;1065-1073.
117. Watanabe Y., Sunayama S., Shimada K., Sawano M., Hoshi S., Iwama Y., Mokuno H., Daida H., Yamaguchi H. Troglitazone improves endothelial dysfunction in patients with insulin resistance. Journal of Atherosclerosis and Thrombosis. 7:2000;159-163.
118. Weyer C., Yudkin J.S., Stehouwer C.D., Schalkwijk C.G., Pratley R.E., Tataranni P.A. Humoral markers of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction in relation to adiposity and in vivo insulin action in Pima Indians. Atherosclerosis. 161:2002;233-242.
119. Wiman B., Ljungberg B., Chmielewska J., Urden G., Blomback M., Johnsson H. The role of the fibrinolytic system in deep vein thrombosis. Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine. 105:1985;265-270.
120. Winquist R.J., Bunting P.B., Baskin E.P., Wallace A.A. Decreased endothelium-dependent relaxation in New Zealand genetic hypertensive rats. Journal of Hypertension. 2:1984;541-545.
121. Wu T., Dorn J.P., Donahue R.P., Sempos C.T., Trevisan M. Associations of serum C-reactive protein with fasting insulin, glucose, and glycosylated hemoglobin: The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. American Journal of Epidemiology. 155:2002;65-71.
122. Xin X., Yang S., Kowalski J., Gerritsen M.E. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma ligands are potent inhibitors of angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 274:1999;9116-9121.
123. Yuan M., Konstantopoulos N., Lee J., Hansen L., Li Z.W., Karin M., Shoelson S.E. Reversal of obesity- and diet-induced insulin resistance with salicylates or targeted disruption of Ikkbeta. Science. 293:2001;1673-1677.
124. Zhu E., Egan J.W. The effect of lipid reducing drugs on the serum lipid profile in pioglitazone-treated patients. Diabetes. 49(Suppl. 1):2000;A366.
125. Zinman B. PPARγ agonists in type 2 diabetes: how far have we come from "preventing the inevitable"? A review of the metabolic effects of rosiglitazone. Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism. 3(Suppl. 1):2001;S34-S43.