The role of moral utility in decision making: An interdisciplinary framework

Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral Neuroscience

Volumn 8, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 390-401

  Tobler, Philippe N ^a   Kalis, Annemarie ^b   Kalenscher, Tobias ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

^b UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^c UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DOPAMINE;

ALTRUISM; ANGER; COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT; COURAGE; DECISION MAKING; DECISION THEORY; DEONTOLOGY; DOPAMINERGIC NERVE CELL; EMPATHY; EMPIRICAL RESEARCH; ETHICAL THEORY; FORGIVENESS; INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING; INTUITION; JUSTICE; LEARNING STYLE; LEARNING THEORY; MAGNITUDE ESTIMATION METHOD; MORALITY; NEUROPSYCHOLOGY; PROBABILITY; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; REVIEW; REWARD; STIMULUS; THEORETICAL STUDY; COGNITION; CONDITIONING; ETHICS; HUMAN; PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; STATISTICAL MODEL;

CHOICE BEHAVIOR; COGNITION; CONDITIONING (PSYCHOLOGY); DECISION MAKING; ETHICAL THEORY; HUMANS; INTUITION; MODELS, ECONOMIC; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; MORALS; REWARD; SOCIAL VALUES;

EID: 60749108736     PISSN: 15307026     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3758/CABN.8.4.390     Document Type: Review

References (134)

1. ABLER, B., WALTER, H., ERK, S., KAMMERER, H., & SPITZER, M. (2006). Prediction error as a linear function of reward probability is coded in human nucleus accumbens. NeuroImage, 31, 790-795. (Pubitemid 43776671)
2. ALLAIS, M. (1953). Le comportement de l'homme rationnel devant le risque: Critique des postulats et axiomes de l'école Américaine. Econometrica, 21, 503-546.
3. ANSCOMBE, G. E. M. (1958). Modern moral philosophy. Philosophy, 33, 1-19.
4. ARISTOTLE (2002). Nicomachean ethics (S. Broadie, Ed., & C. Rowe, Trans.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
5. BALES, R. E. (1971). Act-utilitarianism: Account of right-making characteristics or decision-making procedures? American Philosophical Quarterly, 8, 257-265.
6. BARON, J. (in press). Parochialism as a result of cognitive biases. In R. Goodman, D. Jinks, & A. K. Woods (Eds.), Understanding social action, promoting human rights. New York: Oxford University Press.
7. BARON, J., & RITOV, I. (in press). Protected values and omission bias as deontological judgments. In D. M. Bartels, C. W. Bauman, L. J. Skitka, & D. L. Medin (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Moral judgment and decision making (Vol. 50). San Diego: Academic Press.
8. BERBER, S. M. (1962). Conditioning through vicarious instigation. Psychological Review, 69, 450-466.
9. BERNOULLI, D. (1738). Specimen theoriae novae de mensura sortis. Commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae, 5, 175-192.
10. BERNS, G. S., LAIBSON, D., & LOEWENSTEIN, G. (2007). Intertemporal choice - toward an integrative framework. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 482-488. (Pubitemid 350102313)
11. BERRIDGE, K. C., & ROBINSON, T. E. (2003). Parsing reward. Trends in Neurosciences, 26, 507-513. (Pubitemid 37025790)
12. BLAIR, R. J. (2007). The amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex in morality and psychopathy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 387-392. (Pubitemid 47332249)
13. BORNSTEIN, G., & BEN-YOSSEF, M. (1994). Cooperation in intergroup and single-group social dilemmas. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 30, 52-67. (Pubitemid 24761968)
14. BRANDT, R. B. (1967). Some merits of one form of rule-utilitarianism. University of Colorado Studies in Philosophy, 3, 39-65.
15. BRANDT, R. B. (1979). A theory of the good and the right. New York: Oxford University Press.
16. BROWN, J. W., & BRAVER, T. S. (2007). Risk prediction and aversion by anterior cingulate cortex. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 7, 266-277.
17. BRUENING, W. H. (1971). Moore and "is-ought." Ethics, 81, 143-149.
18. CAMPBELL, R. L., & CHRISTOPHER, J. C. (1996). Moral development theory: A critique of its Kantian presuppositions. Developmental Review, 16, 1-47. (Pubitemid 126352230)
19. COLBY, A., & KOHLBERG, L. (1987). The measurement of moral judgment: Vol.1. Theoretical foundations and research validation. New York: Cambridge University Press.
20. COPP, D. (1997). Defending the principle of alternative possibilities: Blameworthiness and moral responsibility. Nous, 31, 441-456.
21. COPP, D. (2008). "Ought" implies "can" and the derivation of the principle of alternative possibilities. Analysis, 68, 67-75.
22. CROMWELL, H. C., & SCHULTZ, W. (2003). Effects of expectations for different reward magnitudes on neuronal activity in primate striatum. Journal of Neurophysiology, 89, 2823-2838. (Pubitemid 36570241)
23. D'ACREMONT, M., & BOSSAERTS, P. (2008). Neurobiological studies of risk assessment: A comparison of expected utility and mean-variance approaches. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 8, 363-374.
24. DARLEY, J. M., & SHULTZ, T. R. (1990). Moral rules: Their content and acquisition. Annual Review of Psychology, 41, 525-556.
25. DELGADO, M. R., FRANK, R. H., & PHELPS, E. A. (2005). Perceptions of moral character modulate the neural systems of reward during the trust game. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 1611-1618. (Pubitemid 41573677)
26. DELGADO, M. R., LABOULIERE, C. D., & PHELPS, E. A. (2006). Fear of losing money? Aversive conditioning with secondary reinforcers. Social Cognitive & Affective Neuroscience, 1, 250-259.
27. DE MARTINO, B., KUMARAN, D., SEYMOUR, B., & DOLAN, R. J. (2006). Frames, biases, and rational decision making in the human brain. Science, 313, 684-687. (Pubitemid 44201149)
28. DE QUERVAIN, D. J.-F., FISCHBACHER, U., TREYER, V., SCHELLHAMMER, M., SCHNYDER, U., BUCK, A., ET AL. (2004). The neural basis of altruistic punishment. Science, 305, 1254-1258. (Pubitemid 39129223)
29. DICKINSON, A. (1980). Contemporary animal learning theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
30. DUNCAN, J., & OWEN, A. M. (2000). Common regions of the human frontal lobe recruited by diverse cognitive demands. Trends in Neurosciences, 23, 475-483. (Pubitemid 30690295)
31. DUPOUX, E., & JACOB, P. (2007). Universal moral grammar: A critical appraisal. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 373-378. (Pubitemid 47337064)
32. ELLSBERG, D. (1961). Risk, ambiguity, and the Savage axioms. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 75, 643-669.
33. FEHR, E., & CAMERER, C. F. (2007). Social neuroeconomics: The neural circuitry of social preferences. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 419-427. (Pubitemid 47588992)
34. FEHR, E., & GÄCHTER, S. (2002). Altruistic punishment in humans. Nature, 415, 137-140. (Pubitemid 34059509)
35. FEHR, E., & SCHMIDT, K. M. (1999). A theory of fairness, competition and cooperation. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 114, 817-868.
36. FISHBURN, P. C. (1982). Nontransitive measurable utility. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 26, 31-67.
37. FLIESSBACH, K., WEBER, B., TRAUTNER, P., DOHMEN, T., SUNDE, U., ELGER, C. E., & FALK, A. (2007). Social comparison affects reward-related brain activity in the human ventral striatum. Science, 318, 1305-1308. (Pubitemid 350172896)
38. FOOT, P. (2001). Natural goodness. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Clarendon Press.
39. FRITH, C. D. (2007). The social brain? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 362, 671-678. (Pubitemid 47056834)
40. FUSTER, J. M. (1997). The prefrontal cortex. Anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven.
41. GASPAR, P., STEPNIEWSKA, I., & KAAS, J. H. (1992). Topography and collateralization of the dopaminergic projections to motor and lateral prefrontal cortex in owl monkeys. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 325, 1-21.
42. GEWIRTH, A. (1998). Self-fulfillment. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
43. GIGERENZER, G., & GOLDSTEIN, D. G. (1996). Reasoning the fast and frugal way: Models of bounded rationality. Psychological Review, 103, 650-669. (Pubitemid 126664717)
44. GLIMCHER, P. W., KABLE, J., & LOUIE, K. (2007). Neuroeconomic studies of impulsivity: Now or just as soon as possible? American Economic Review, 97, 142-147.
45. GOLDSTEIN, D. G., & GIGERENZER, G. (2002). Models of ecological rationality: The recognition heuristic. Psychological Review, 109, 75-90.
46. GREENE, J. D. (2003). From neural "is" to moral "ought": What are the moral implications of neuroscientific moral psychology? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4, 846-849. (Pubitemid 37314407)
47. GREENE, J. D. (2007). Why are VMPFC patients more utilitarian? A dual-process theory of moral judgment explains. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 322-323. (Pubitemid 47077914)
48. GREENE, J. D., NYSTROM, L. E., ENGELL, A. D., DARLEY, J. M., & COHEN, J. D. (2004). The neural bases of cognitive conflict and control in moral judgment. Neuron, 44, 389-400. (Pubitemid 39346260)
49. GREENE, J. D., SOMMERVILLE, R. B., NYSTROM, L. E., DARLEY, J. M., & COHEN, J. D. (2001). An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgment. Science, 293, 2105-2108. (Pubitemid 32848061)
50. HARE, R. M. (1981). Moral thinking. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Clarendon Press.
51. HARMAN, G. (2000). Explaining value and other essays in moral philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
52. HARSANYI, J. (1953). Cardinal utility in welfare economics and in the theory of risk-taking. Journal of Political Economy, 61, 434-435.
53. HARSANYI, J. (1955). Cardinal welfare, individualistic ethics, and the interpersonal comparison of utility. Journal of Political Economy, 63, 309-321.
54. HAUSER, M. D. (2007). What's fair? The unconscious calculus of our moral faculty. Novartis Foundation Symposium, 278, 41-50.
55. HOOKER, B. (2000). Ideal code, real world: A rule-consequentialist theory of morality. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
56. HSU, M., BHATT, M., ADOLPHS, R., TRANEL, D., & CAMERER, C. F. (2005). Neural systems responding to degrees of uncertainty in human decision making. Science, 310, 1680-1683. (Pubitemid 41780790)
57. HUETTEL, S. A., STOWE, C. J., GORDON, E. M., WARNER, B. T., & PLATT, M. L. (2006). Neural signatures of economic preferences for risk and ambiguity. Neuron, 49, 765-775. (Pubitemid 43290135)
58. HUME, D. (1739). A treatise of human nature: Being an attempt to introduce the experimental method of reasoning into moral subjects. London: Noon.
59. KABLE, J. W., & GLIMCHER, P. W. (2007). The neural correlates of subjective value during intertemporal choice. Nature Neuroscience, 10, 1625-1633. (Pubitemid 350175876)
60. KAHNEMAN, D., & TVERSKY, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47, 263-291.
61. KALENSCHER, T., & PENNARTZ, C. M. A. (2008). Is a bird in the hand worth two in the future? The neuroeconomics of intertemporal decision making. Progress in Neurobiology, 84, 284-315.
62. KAMM, F. M. (2007). Intricate ethics: Rights, responsibilities, and permissible harms. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
63. KANT, I. (1788). Critik der practischen Vernunft. Riga: Johann Friedrich Hartknoch.
64. KANT, I. (1797). Die Metaphysik der Sitten in 2 Theilen. Königsberg: Nicolovius.
65. KAUER, J. A., & MALENKA, R. C. (2007). Synaptic plasticity and addiction. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 8, 844-858. (Pubitemid 350006216)
66. KING-CASAS, B., TOMLIN, D., ANEN, C., CAMERER, C. F., QUARTZ, S. R., & MONTAGUE, P. R. (2005). Getting to know you: Reputation and trust in a two-person economic exchange. Science, 308, 78-83. (Pubitemid 40471001)
67. KNOCH, D., PASCUAL-LEONE, A., MEYER, K., TREYER, V., & FEHR, E. (2006). Diminishing reciprocal fairness by disrupting the right prefrontal cortex. Science, 314, 829-832. (Pubitemid 44706651)
68. KNUTSON, B., & BOSSAERTS, P. (2007). Neural antecedents of financial decisions. Journal of Neuroscience, 27, 8174-8177. (Pubitemid 47219600)
69. KNUTSON, B., TAYLOR, J., KAUFMAN, M., PETERSON, R., & GLOVER, G. (2005). Distributed neural representation of expected value. Journal of Neuroscience, 25, 4806-4812. (Pubitemid 40664129)
70. KOBAYASHI, S., LAUWEREYNS, J., KOIZUMI, M., SAKAGAMI, M., & HIKOSAKA, O. (2002). Influence of reward expectation on visuospatial processing in macaque lateral prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neurophysiology, 87, 1488-1498. (Pubitemid 34670814)
71. KOENIGS, M., & TRANEL, D. (2007). Irrational economic decision making after ventromedial prefrontal damage: Evidence from the ultimatum game. Journal of Neuroscience, 27, 951-956. (Pubitemid 46174516)
72. KOENIGS, M., YOUNG, L., ADOLPHS, R., TRANEL, D., CUSHMAN, F., HAUSER, M., & DAMASIO, A. (2007). Damage to the prefrontal cortex increases utilitarian moral judgments. Nature, 446, 908-911. (Pubitemid 46633159)
73. KUHBERGER, A. (1998). The influence of framing on risky decision: A meta-analysis. Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 75, 23-55. (Pubitemid 128343587)
74. LANZETTA, J. T., & ORR, S. P. (1980). Influence of facial expressions on the classical conditioning of fear. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 39, 1081-1087.
75. LAU, B., & GLIMCHER, P. W. (2008). Value representations in the primate striatum during matching behavior. Neuron, 58, 451-463. (Pubitemid 351615183)
76. LOOMES, G., STARMER, C., & SUGDEN, R. (1991). Observing violations of transitivity by experimental methods. Econometrica, 59, 425-439.
77. MACHINA, M. J. (1982). "Expected utility" analysis without the independence axiom. Econometrica, 50, 277-323.
78. MACINTYRE, A. (1985). After virtue. London: Duckworth.
79. MARSCHAK, J. (1950). Rational behavior, uncertain prospects, and measurable utility. Econometrica, 18, 111-141.
80. MCCLURE, S. M., BERNS, G. S., & MONTAGUE, P. R. (2003). Temporal prediction errors in a passive learning task activate human striatum. Neuron, 38, 339-346. (Pubitemid 36555658)
81. MCCLURE, S. M., ERICSON, K. M., LAIBSON, D. I., LOEWENSTEIN, G., & COHEN, J. D. (2007). Time discounting for primary rewards. Journal of Neuroscience, 27, 5796-5804. (Pubitemid 350021085)
82. MCCLURE, S. M., LAIBSON, D. I., LOEWENSTEIN, G., & COHEN, J. D. (2004). Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards. Science, 306, 503-507. (Pubitemid 39372453)
83. MIKHAIL, J. (2007). Universal moral grammar: Theory, evidence and the future. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 143-152. (Pubitemid 46467491)
84. MILL, J. S. (1861). Utilitarianism. Fraser's Magazine for Town & Country, 64, 391-406.
85. MILLER, E. K., & COHEN, J. D. (2001). An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annual Reviews in Neuroscience, 24, 167-202. (Pubitemid 32695227)
86. MINEKA, S., & COOK, M. (1993). Mechanisms involved in the observational conditioning of fear. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 122, 23-38.
87. MOLL, J., & DE OLIVEIRA-SOUZA, R. (2007). Moral judgments, emotions and the utilitarian brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 319-321. (Pubitemid 47077910)
88. MOLL, J., ZAHN, R., DE OLIVEIRA-SOUZA, R., KRUEGER, F., & GRAFMAN, J. (2005). Opinion: The neural basis of human moral cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 6, 799-809. (Pubitemid 41679242)
89. MONTAGUE, P. R., & LOHRENZ, T. (2007). To detect and correct: Norm violations and their enforcement. Neuron, 56, 14-18. (Pubitemid 47484184)
90. MOORE, G. E. (1903). Principia ethica. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
91. NICHOLS, S., & MALLON, R. (2006). Moral dilemmas and moral rules. Cognition, 100, 530-542. (Pubitemid 43902764)
92. NUSSBAUM, M. C. (2000). Women and human development: The capabilities approach. New York: Cambridge University Press.
93. O'DOHERTY, J. P., DAYAN, P., FRISTON, K., CRITCHLEY, H., & DOLAN, R. J. (2003). Temporal difference models and reward-related learning in the human brain. Neuron, 38, 329-337. (Pubitemid 36555657)
94. OLSSON, A., & PHELPS, E. A. (2007). Social learning of fear. Nature Neuroscience, 10, 1095-1102. (Pubitemid 47339959)
95. PADOA-SCHIOPPA, C., & ASSAD, J. A. (2006). Neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex encode economic value. Nature, 441, 223-226.
96. PHELPS, E. A., O'CONNOR, K. J., GATENBY, J. C., GORE, J. C., GRILLON, C., & DAVIS, M. (2001). Activation of the left amygdala to a cognitive representation of fear. Nature Neuroscience, 4, 437-441. (Pubitemid 32260122)
97. PIAGET, J. (1932). The moral judgment of the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
98. RAWLS, J. (1971). A theory of justice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
99. RESCORLA, R. A. (1980). Pavlovian second-order conditioning: Studies in associative learning. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
100. RESCORLA, R. A., & WAGNER, A. R. (1972). A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement. In A. H. Black & W. F. Prokasy (Eds.), Classical conditioning II: Current research and theory (pp. 64-99). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
101. RILLING, J., GUTMAN, D., ZEH, T., PAGNONI, G., BERNS, G., & KILTS, C. (2002). A neural basis for social cooperation. Neuron, 35, 395-405. (Pubitemid 34876740)
102. ROSS, W. D. (1930). The right and the good. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Clarendon Press.
103. RUSHWORTH, M. F., & BEHRENS, T. E. (2008). Choice, uncertainty and value in prefrontal and cingulate cortex. Nature Neuroscience, 11, 389-397.
104. RUSTICHINI, A. (2008). Dual or unitary system? Two alternative models of decision making. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 8, 355-362.
105. SAKAGAMI, M., & WATANABE, M. (2007). Integration of cognitive and motivational information in the primate lateral prefrontal cortex. In B. W. Balleine, K. Doya, J. O'Doherty, & M. Sakagami (Eds.), Reward and decision making in corticobasal ganglia networks (Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 1104, pp. 89-107). New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
106. SAMEJIMA, K., UEDA, Y., DOYA, K., & KIMURA, M. (2005). Representation of action-specific reward values in the striatum. Science, 310, 1337-1340. (Pubitemid 41698867)
107. SANFEY, A. G., LOEWENSTEIN, G., MCCLURE, S. M., & COHEN, J. D. (2006). Neuroeconomics: Cross-currents in research on decision making. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10, 108-116. (Pubitemid 43306864)
108. SANFEY, A. G., RILLING, J. K., ARONSON, J. A., NYSTROM, L. E., & COHEN, J. D. (2003). The neural basis of economic decision making in the ultimatum game. Science, 300, 1755-1758. (Pubitemid 36712573)
109. SCHULTZ, W. (2006). Behavioral theories and the neurophysiology of reward. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 87-115. (Pubitemid 43237228)
110. SEARLE, J. (1964). How to derive "ought" from "is." Philosophical Review, 73, 43-58.
111. SEN, A. (1985). Well-being, agency and freedom. Journal of Philosophy, 82, 169-221.
112. SEYMOUR, B., O'DOHERTY, J. P., DAYAN, P., KOLTZENBURG, M., JONES, A. K., DOLAN, R. J., ET AL. (2004). Temporal difference models describe higher-order learning in humans. Nature, 429, 664-667. (Pubitemid 38812318)
113. SIDGWICK, H. (1874). The methods of ethics. London: Macmillan.
114. SIMON, H. A. (1955). A behavioral model of rational choice. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 69, 99-118.
115. SIMON, H. A. (1956). Rational choice and the structure of the environment. Psychological Review, 63, 129-138.
116. SINGER, T., KIEBEL, S. J., WINSTON, J. S., DOLAN, R. J., & FRITH, C. D. (2004). Brain responses to the acquired moral status of faces. Neuron, 41, 653-662. (Pubitemid 38253075)
117. SINGER, T., SEYMOUR, B., O'DOHERTY, J., KAUBE, H., DOLAN, R. J., & FRITH, C. D. (2004). Empathy for pain involves the affective but not sensory components of pain. Science, 303, 1157-1162. (Pubitemid 38233574)
118. SLOTE, M. (1984). Satisficing consequentialism. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 58, 139-163.
119. SUNSTEIN, C. R. (2005). Moral heuristics. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 28, 531-542. (Pubitemid 41440118)
120. SUTTON, R. S., & BARTO, A. G. (1981). Toward a modern theory of adaptive networks: Expectation and prediction. Psychological Review, 88, 135-170.
121. SUTTON, R. S., & BARTO, A. G. (1990). Time-derivative models of Pavlovian reinforcement. In M. Gabriel & J. Moore (Eds.), Learning and computational neuroscience: Foundations of adaptive networks (pp. 497-537). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
122. TABIBNIA, G., & LIEBERMAN, M. D. (2007). Fairness and cooperation are rewarding: Evidence from social cognitive neuroscience. In C. Senior & M. J. R. Butler (Eds.), The social cognitive neuroscience of organizations (Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 1118, pp. 90-101). New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
123. TANNER, C., & MEDIN, D. L. (2004). Protected values: No omission bias and no framing effects. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 11, 185-191.
124. THOMSON, J. J. (1985). The trolley problem. Yale Law Journal, 94, 1395-1415.
125. TOBLER, P. N., FIORILLO, C. D., & SCHULTZ, W. (2005). Adaptive coding of reward value by dopamine neurons. Science, 307, 1642-1645. (Pubitemid 40354749)
126. TOBLER, P. N., O'DOHERTY, J. P., DOLAN, R. J., & SCHULTZ, W. (2007). Reward value coding distinct from risk attitude-related uncertainty coding in human reward systems. Journal of Neurophysiology, 97, 1621-1632. (Pubitemid 46239533)
127. TOM, S. M., FOX, C. R., TREPEL, C., & POLDRACK, R. A. (2007). The neural basis of loss aversion in decision making under risk. Science, 315, 515-518. (Pubitemid 46175755)
128. TVERSKY, A., & KAHNEMAN, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185, 1124-1131.
129. VON NEUMANN, J., & MORGENSTERN, O. (1944). Theory of games and economic behavior. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
130. WAELTI, P., DICKINSON, A., & SCHULTZ, W. (2001). Dopamine responses comply with basic assumptions of formal learning theory. Nature, 412, 43-48. (Pubitemid 32851502)
131. WALLIS, J. D., & MILLER, E. K. (2003). Neuronal activity in primate dorsolateral and orbital prefrontal cortex during performance of a reward preference task. European Journal of Neuroscience, 18, 2069-2081. (Pubitemid 37372389)
132. WIDERKER, D. (1991). Frankfurt on "ought implies can" and alternative possibilities. Analysis, 51, 222-224.
133. WIKSTRÖM, P.-O. (2007). In search of causes and explanations of crime. In R. King & E. Wincup (Eds.), Doing research on crime and justice (pp. 117-139). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
134. YACUBIAN, J., GLÄSCHER, J., SCHROEDER, K., SOMMER, T., BRAUS, D. F., & BÜCHEL, C. (2006). Dissociable systems for gain- and loss-related value predictions and errors of prediction in the human brain. Journal of Neuroscience, 26, 9530-9537. (Pubitemid 44396866)