Hepatitis C virus entry: Possible targets for therapy

Gut

Volumn 57, Issue 12, 2008, Pages 1728-1737

  Timpe, J M ^a   McKeating, J A ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

^b Medical School   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTILIPEMIC AGENT; CD81 ANTIGEN; CICAVIR; CLAUDIN; ENFUVIRTIDE; GLYCOPROTEIN E1; GLYCOPROTEIN E2; HEPATITIS B ANTIBODY; HEPATITIS C ANTIBODY; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; INTERFERON; LAMIVUDINE; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY AB XLT68; PEGINTERFERON; RECOMBINANT GLYCOPROTEIN E1; RECOMBINANT PROTEIN; RIBAVIRIN; SCAVENGER RECEPTOR BI; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

CLINICAL TRIAL; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG POTENTIATION; HEPATITIS C; HEPATITIS C VIRUS; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNOTHERAPY; INTRAVENOUS DRUG ABUSE; LIPOPROTEIN METABOLISM; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; LIVER FIBROSIS; LIVER TOXICITY; NONHUMAN; POSTTRANSFUSION HEPATITIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; TIGHT JUNCTION; VIROGENESIS; VIRUS ATTACHMENT; VIRUS ENTRY; VIRUS REPLICATION; VIRUS TRANSMISSION;

ANIMALS; ANTIGENS, CD; ANTIVIRAL AGENTS; GENOME, VIRAL; HEPACIVIRUS; HEPATITIS C; HUMANS; IMMUNIZATION, PASSIVE; LIPOPROTEINS; MEMBRANE PROTEINS; PHOSPHOPROTEINS; SCAVENGER RECEPTORS, CLASS B; VIRION; VIRUS ATTACHMENT; VIRUS INTEGRATION; VIRUS REPLICATION;

EID: 56549094529     PISSN: 00175749     EISSN: 14683288     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1136/gut.2007.141630     Document Type: Review

References (128)

1. Choo QL, Kuo G, Weiner AJ, et al. Isolation of a cDNA clone derived from a blood-bome non-A, non-B viral hepatitis genome. Science 1989;244:359-62.
2. WHO. Global surveillance and control of hepatitis C. Report of a WHO Consultation organized in collaboration with the Viral Hepatitis Prevention Board, Antwerp, Belgium. J Viral Hepat 1999;6:35-47.
3. Touzet S, Kraemer L, Colin C, et al. Epidemiology of hepatitis C virus infection in seven European Union countries: a critical analysis of the literature. HENCORE Group. (Hepatitis C European Network for Co-operative Research. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2000;12:667-78.
4. Donahue JG, Munoz A, Ness PM, et al. The declining risk of post-transfusion hepatitis C virus infection. N Engl J Med 1992;327:369-73.
5. Manns MP, Foster GR, Rockstroh JK, et al. The way forward in HCV treatment - finding the right path. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2007;6:991-1000.
6. WHO. Hepatitis C Fact Sheet. No. 164. Revised October 2000. WHO website: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs164/en/ (accessed 12 Sep 2008).
7. Shepard CW, Finelli L, Alter MJ. Global epidemiology of hepatitis C virus infection. Lancet Infect Dis 2005;5:558-67.
8. Frank C, Mohamed MK, Strickland GT, et al. The role of parenteral antischistosomal therapy in the spread of hepatitis C virus in Egypt. Lancet 2000;355:887-91.
9. Saeed AA, al-Admawi AM, al-Rasheed A, et al. Hepatitis C virus infection in Egyptian volunteer blood donors in Riyadh. Lancet 1991;338:459-60.
10. Darwish MA, Raouf TA. Rushdy P, et al. Risk factors associated with a high seroprevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in Egyptian blood donors. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1993;49:440-7.
11. Fried MW, Shiffman ML, Reddy KR, et al. Peginterferon alfa-2a plus ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C virus infection. N Engl J Med 2002;347:975-82.
12. Manns MP, McHutchison JG, Gordon SC, et al. Peginterferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin compared with interferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin for initial treatment of chronic hepatitis C: a randomised trial. Lancet 2001;358:958-65.
13. Lindsay KL, Trepo C, Heintges T, et al. A randomized, double-blind trial comparing pegylated interferon alfa-2b to interferon alfa-2b as initial treatment for chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 2001;34:395-403.
14. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommendations for prevention and control of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and HCV-related chronic disease. MMWR Recomm Rep 1998;47:1-39.
15. Hoofnagle JH. Course and outcome of hepatitis C. Hepatology 2002;36:S21-9.
16. Villano SA, Vlahov D, Nelson KE, et al. Persistence of viremia and the importance of long-term follow-up after acute hepatitis C infection. Hepatology 1999;29:908-14.
17. Goffard A, Dubuisson J. Glycosylation of hepatitis C virus envelope proteins. Biochimie 2003;85:295-301.
18. Fournier C, Sureau C, Coste J, et al. In vitro infection of adult normal human hepatocytes in primary culture by hepatitis C virus. J Gen Virol 1998;79:2367-74.
19. Castet V, Fournier C, Soulier A, et al. Alpha interferon inhibits hepatitis C virus replication in primary human hepatocytes infected in vitro. J Virol 2002;76:8189-99.
20. Kolykhalov AA, Agapov EV, Blight KJ, et al. Transmission of hepatitis C by intrahepatic inoculation with transcribed RNA. Science 1997;277:570-4.
21. Lohmann V, Korner F, Koch J, et al. Replication of subgenomic hepatitis C virus RNAs in a hepatoma cell line. Science 1999;285:110-3.
22. Blight KJ, Kolykhalov AA, Rice CM. Efficient initiation of HCV RNA replication in cell culture. Science 2000;290:1972-4.
23. Blight KJ, McKeating JA, Marcotrigiano J, et al. Efficient replication of hepatitis C virus genotype 1a RNAs in cell culture. J Virol 2003;77:3181-90.
24. Blight KJ, McKeating JA, Rice CM. Highly permissive cell lines for subgenomic and genomic hepatitis C virus RNA replication. J Virol 2002;76:13001-14.
25. Pietschmann T, Lohmann V, Kaul A, et al. Persistent and transient replication of full-length hepatitis C virus genomes in cell culture. J Virol 2002;76:4008-21.
26. Bartenschlager R. Hepatitis C virus molecular clones: from cDNA to infectious virus particles in cell culture. Curr Opin Microbiol 2006;9:416-22.
27. Bukh J, Pietschmann T, Lohmann V, et al. Mutations that permit efficient replication of hepatitis C virus RNA in Huh-7 cells prevent productive replication in chimpanzees. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99:14416-21.
28. Flint M, Thomas JM, Maidens CM, et al. Functional analysis of cell surface-expressed hepatitis C virus E2 glycoprotein. J Virol 1999;73:6782-90.
29. Cocquerel L, Duvet S, Meunier JC, et al. The transmembrane domain of hepatitis C virus glycoprotein E1 is a signal for static retention in the endoplasmic reticulum. J Virol 1999;73:2641-9.
30. Cocquerel L, Meunier JC, Pillez A, et al. A retention signal necessary and sufficient for endoplasmic reticulum localization maps to the transmembrane domain of hepatitis C virus glycoprotein E2. J Virol 1998;72:2183-91.
31. Cocquerel L, Wychowski C, Minner F, et al. Charged residues in the transmembrane domains of hepatitis C virus glycoproteins play a major role in the processing, subcellular localization, and assembly of these envelope proteins. J Virol 2000;74:3623-33.
32. Choukhi A, Pillez A, Drobecq H, et al. Characterization of aggregates of hepatitis C vims glycoproteins. J Gen Virol 1999;80:3099-107.
33. Matsuura Y, Tani H, Suzuki K, et al. Characterization of pseudotype VSV possessing HCV envelope proteins. Virology 2001;286:263-75.
34. Lagging LM, Meyer K, Owens RJ, et al. Functional role of hepatitis C virus chimeric glycoproteins in the infectivity of pseudotyped virus. J Virol 1998;72:3539-46.
35. Flint M, Maidens C, Loomis-Price LD, et al. Characterization of hepatitis C virus E2 glycoprotein interaction with a putative cellular receptor, CD81. J Virol 1999;73:6235-44.
36. Yagnik AT, Lahm A, Meola A, et al. A model for the hepatitis C virus envelope glycoprotein E2. Proteins 2000;40:355- 66.
37. Michalak JP, Wychowski C, Choukhi A, et al. Characterization of truncated forms of hepatitis C virus glycoproteins. J Gen Virol 1997;78:2299-306.
38. Flint M, Dubuisson J, Maidens C, et al. Functional characterization of intracellular and secreted forms of a truncated hepatitis C virus E2 glycoprotein. J Virol 2000;74:702-9.
39. Hsu M, Zhang J, Flint M, et al. Hepatitis C virus glycoproteins mediate pH-dependent cell entry of pseudotyped retroviral particles. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003;100:7271-6.
40. Drummer HE, Maerz A, Poumbourios P. Cell surface expression of functional hepatitis C virus E1 and E2 glycoproteins. FEBS Lett 2003;546:385-90.
41. Bartosch B, Dubuisson J, Cosset FL. Infectious hepatitis C virus pseudo-particles containing functional E1-E2 envelope protein complexes. J Exp Med 2003;197:633-42.
42. Op De Beeck A, Voisset C, Bartosch B, et al. Characterization of functional hepatitis C virus envelope glycoproteins. J Virol 2004;78:2994-3002.
43. Lavillette D, Pecheur EI, Donot P, et al. Characterization of fusion determinants points to the involvement of three discrete regions of both E1 and E2 glycoproteins in the membrane fusion process of hepatitis C virus. J Virol 2007;81:8752-65.
44. Lavie M, Goffard A, Dubuisson J. Assembly of a functional HCV glycoprotein heterodimer. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2007;9:71-86.
45. Deleersnyder V, Pillez A, Wychowski C, et al. Formation of native hepatitis C virus glycoprotein complexes. J Virol 1997;71:697-704.
46. Bartosch B, Ciczora Y, Montigny C, et al. E1 envelope glycoprotein from hepatitis C virus particles exists as a transmembrane domain-dependent trimer. 14th International Symposium on Hepatitis C Virus and Related Viruses 2007;0-54.
47. Blanchard E, Belouzard S, Goueslain L, et al. Hepatitis C virus entry depends on clathrin-mediated endocytosis. J Virol 2006;80:6964-72.
48. Tscherne DM, Jones CT, Evans MJ, et al. Time- and temperature-dependent activation of hepatitis C virus for low-pH-triggered entry. J Virol 2006;80:1734-41.
49. Meertens L, Bertaux C, Dragic T. Hepatitis C virus entry requires a critical postinternalization step and delivery to early endosomes via clathrin-coated vesicles. J Virol 2006;80:11571-8.
50. Koutsoudakis G, Kaul A, Steinmann E, et al. Characterization of the early steps of hepatitis C virus infection by using luciferase reporter viruses. J Virol 2006;80:5308-20.
51. Zhong J, Gastaminza P, Cheng G, et al. Robust hepatitis C virus infection in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005;102:9294-9.
52. Lindenbach B, Evans M, Syder A, et al. Complete replication of hepatitis C virus in cell culture. Science 2005;309:623-6.
53. Wakita T, Pietschmann T, Kato T, et al. Production of infectious hepatitis C virus in tissue culture from a cloned viral genome. Nat Med 2005;11:791-6.
54. Lindenbach BD, Meuleman P, Ploss A, et al. Cell culture-grown hepatitis C virus is infectious in vivo and can be recultured in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006;103:3805-9.
55. Kielian M, Rey FA. Virus membrane-fusion proteins: more than one way to make a hairpin. Nat Rev Microbiol 2006;4:67-76.
56. Lavillette D, Bartosch B, Nourrisson D, et al. Hepatitis C virus glycoproteins mediate low pH-dependent membrane fusion with liposomes. J Biol Chem 2006;281:3909-17.
57. Evans M, von Hahn T, Tscherne D, et al. Claudin-1 is a hepatitis C virus co-receptor required for a late step in entry. Nature 2007;446:801-5.
58. Kobayashi M, Bennett MC, Bercot T, et al. Functional analysis of hepatitis C virus envelope proteins, using a cell-cell fusion assay. J Virol 2006;80:1817-25.
59. Pileri P, Uematsu Y, Compagnoli S, et al. Binding of hepatitis C virus to CD81. Science 1998;282:938-41.
60. Shoham T, Rajapaksa R, Kuo CC, et al. Building of the tetraspanin web: distinct structural domains of CD81 function in different cellular compartments. Mol Cell Biol 2006;26:1373-85.
61. Owsianka A, Clayton RF, Loomis-Price LD, et al. Functional analysis of hepatitis C virus E2 glycoproteins and virus-like particles reveals structural dissimilarities between different forms of E2. J Gen Virol 2001;82:1877-83.
62. Lavillette D, Tarr AW, Voisset C, et al. Characterization of host-range and cell entry properties of the major genotypes and subtypes of hepatitis C virus. Hepatology 2005;41:265-74.
63. Zhang J, Randall G, Higginbottom A, et al. CD81 is required for hepatitis C virus glycoprotein-mediated viral infection. J Virol 2004;78:1448-55.
64. Flint M, von Hahn T, Zhang J, et al. Diverse CD81 proteins support hepatitis C virus infection. J Virol 2006;80:11331-42.
65. Koutsoudakis G, Herrmann E, Kallis S, et al. The level of CD81 cell surface expression is a key determinant for productive entry of hepatitis C virus into host cells. J Virol 2007;81:588-98.
66. von Hahn T, Lindenbach B, Boullier A, et al. Oxidized low-density lipoprotein inhibits hepatitis C virus cell entry in human hepatoma cells. Hepatology 2006;43:932-42.
67. McKeating JA, Zhang LQ, Logvinoff C, et al. Diverse hepatitis C virus glycoproteins mediate viral infection in a CD81-dependent manner. J Virol 2004;78:8496-505.
68. Molina S, Castet V, Pichard-Garcia L, et al. Serum-derived hepatitis C virus infection of primary human hepatocytes is tetraspanin CD81 dependent. J Virol 2008;82:569-74.
69. Pearson AM. Scavenger receptors in innate immunity. Curr Opin Immunol 1996;8:20-8.
70. Acton S, Rigotti A, Landschulz KT, et al. Identification of scavenger receptor SR-BI as a high density lipoprotein receptor. Science 1996;271:518-20.
71. Acton SL, Scherer PE, Lodish HF, et al. Expression cloning of SR-BI, a CD36-related class B scavenger receptor. J Biol Chem 1994;269:21003-9.
72. Rhainds D, Brissette L. The role of scavenger receptor class B type I (SR-BI) in lipid trafficking. Defining the rules for lipid traders. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2004;36:39-77.
73. Scarselli E, Ansuini H, Cerino R, et al. The human scavenger receptor class B type I is a novel candidate receptor for the hepatitis C virus. EMBO J 2002;21:5017-25.
74. Dreux M, Pietschmann T, Granier C, et al. High density lipoprotein inhibits hepatitis C virus-neutralizing antibodies by stimulating cell entry via activation of the scavenger receptor BI. J Biol Chem 2006;281:18285-95.
75. Voisset C, de Beeck AO, Horellou P, et al. High-density lipoproteins reduce the neutralizing effect of hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infected patient antibodies by promoting HCV entry. J Gen Virol 2006;87:2577-81.
76. Dreux M, Cosset FL. The scavenger receptor BI and its ligand, HDL: partners in crime against HCV neutralizing antibodies. J Viral Hepat 2007;14(Suppl 1):68-76.
77. Catanese M, Graziani R, von Hahn T, et al. High-avidity monoclonal antibodies against the human scavenger class B type I receptor efficiently block hepatitis C virus infection in the presence of high-density lipoprotein. J Virol 2007;81:8063-71.
78. Lavie M, Voisset C, Vu-Dac N, et al. Serum amyloid A has antiviral activity against hepatitis C virus by inhibiting virus entry in a cell culture system. Hepatology 2006;44:1626-34.
79. Cai Z, Cai L, Jiang J, et al. Human serum amyloid A protein inhibits hepatitis C virus entry into cells. J Virol 2007;81:6128-33.
80. Dreux M, Boson B, Ricard-Blum S, et al. The exchangeable apolipoprotein APOC-I promotes membrane fusion of hepatitis C virus. J Biol Chem 2007;282:32357-69.
81. Bartosch B, Vitelli A, Granier C, et al. Cell entry of hepatitis C virus requires a set of co-receptors that include the CD81 tetraspanin and the SR-B1 scavenger receptor. J Biol Chem 2003;278:41624-30.
82. Grove J, Huby T, Stamataki Z, et al. Scavenger receptor BI and BII expression levels modulate hepatitis C virus infectivity. J Virol 2007;81:3162-9.
83. Kapadia SB, Barth H, Baumert T, et al. Initiation of hepatitis C virus infection is dependent on cholesterol and cooperativity between CD81 and scavenger receptor B type I. J Virol 2007;81:374-83.
84. Zeisel MB, Fafi-Kremer S. Fofana I, et al. Neutralizing antibodies in hepatitis C virus infection. World J Gastroenterol 2007;13:4824-30.
85. Andre P, Komurian-Pradel F, Deforges S, et al. Characterization of low- and very-low-density hepatitis C virus RNA-containing particles. J Virol 2002;76:6919-28.
86. Maillard P, Huby T, Andreo U, et al. The interaction of natural hepatitis C virus with human scavenger receptor SR-BI/Cla1 is mediated by ApoB-containing lipoproteins. FASEB J 2006;20:735-7.
87. Nielsen S, Bassendine M, Burt A, et al. Association between hepatitis C virus and very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL)/LDL analyzed in iodixanol density gradients. J Virol 2006;80:2418-28.
88. Thomssen R, Bonk S, Thiele A. Density heterogeneities of hepatitis C virus in human sera due to the binding of beta-lipoproteins and immunoglobulins. Med Microbiol Immunol 1993;182:329-34.
89. Andreo U, Maillard P, Kalinina O, et al. Lipoprotein lipase mediates hepatitis C virus (HCV) cell entry and inhibits HCV infection. Cell Microbiol 2007;9:2445-56.
90. Thomssen R, Bonk S. Virolytic action of lipoprotein lipase on hepatitis C virus in human sera. Med Microbiol Immunol 2002;191:17-24.
91. Anonymous. Statins demonstrated to have benefit in treatment of hepatitis C virus. Formulary 2007;42:455.
92. Ikeda M, Abe K, Yamada M, et al. Different anti-HCV profiles of statins and their potential for combination therapy with interferon. Hepatology 2006;44:117-25.
93. Ye J, Wang C, Sumpter R Jr, et al. Disruption of hepatitis C virus RNA replication through inhibition of host protein geranylgeranylation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003; 100:15865-70.
94. Meertens L, Bertaux C, Cukierman L, et al. Tight junction proteins claudin-1, -6 and -9 are entry cofactors for hepatitis C virus. J Virol 2008;82:3555-60.
95. Zheng A, Yuan F, Li Y, et al. Claudin-6 and claudin-9 function as additional coreceptors for hepatitis C virus. J Virol 2007;81:12465-71.
96. Krause G, Winkler L, Mueller SL, et al. Structure and function of claudins. Biochim Biophys Acta 2008;1778:631-45.
97. Piontek J, Winkler L, Wolburg H, et al. Formation of tight junction: determinants of hemophilic interaction between classic claudins. FASEB J 2008;22:146-58.
98. Reynolds GM, Harris HJ, Jennings A, et al. Hepatitis C virus receptor expression in normal and diseased liver tissue. Hepatology 2008;47:418-27.
99. Mee CJ, Grove J, Harris HJ, et al. Effect of cell polarization on hepatitis C virus entry. J Virol 2008;82:461-70.
100. Kovalenko OV, Yang XH, Hemler ME. A novel cysteine cross-linking method reveals a direct association between claudin-1 and tetraspanin CD9. Mol Cell Proteomics 2007;6:1855-67.
101. Harris HJ, Farquhar MJ, Mee CJ, et al. CD81 and claudin 1 coreceptor association: role in hepatitis C virus entry. J Virol 2008;82:5007-20.
102. Kitadokoro K, Bordo D, Galli G, et al. CD81 extracellular domain 3D structure: insight into the tetraspanin superfamily structural motifs. EMBO J 2001;20:12-8.
103. Liu C, Coco D, Dong H, et al. Novel antiviral small molecules that block hepatitis C virus cellular entry through the CD81 receptor. 14th International Symposium on Hepatitis C and Related Viruses 2007;0-59.
104. Jamshad M, Rajesh S, Stamataki Z, et al. Structural characterization of recombinant human CD81 produced in Pichia pastoris. Protein Expr Purif 2008;57:206-16.
105. Rocha-Perugini V, Montpellier C, Wychowski C, et al. The CD81 partner EWI-2wint inhibits hepatitis C virus entry. PLoS ONE 2008;3:e1866.
106. Jolly C, Kashefi K, Hollinshead M, et al. HIV-1 cell to cell transfer across an Env-induced, actin-dependent synapse. J Exp Med 2004;199:283-93.
107. Bangham CR. The immune control and cell-to-cell spread of human T-lymphotropic virus type 1. J Gen Virol 2003;84:3177-89.
108. Vassalli JD, Lombardi T, Wohlwend A, et al. Direct cell-to-cell transmission of vesicular stomatitis virus. J Cell Sci 1986;85:125-31.
109. Timpe JM, Stamataki Z, Jennings A, et al. Hepatitis C virus cell-cell transmission in hepatoma cells in the presence of neutralizing antibodies. Hepatology 2008;47:17-24.
110. Dubuisson J, Helle F, Cocquerel L. Early steps of the hepatitis C virus life cycle. Call Microbiol 2008;10:821-7.
111. Callens N, Ciczora Y, Bartosch B, et al. Basic residues in hypervariable region 1 of hepatitis C virus envelope glycoprotein e2 contribute to virus entry. J Virol 2005;79:15331-41.
112. Cervia JS, Smith MA. Enfuvirtide (T-20): a novel human immunodeficiency virus type 1 fusion inhibitor. Clin Infect Dis 2003;37:1102-6.
113. Este JA, Telenti A. HIV entry inhibitors, iancef 2007;370:81-8.
114. Burton DR. Antibodies, viruses and vaccines. Nat Rev Immunol 2002;2:706-13.
115. Pestka JM, Zeisel MB, Blaser E, et al. Rapid induction of virus-neutralizing antibodies and viral clearance in a single-source outbreak of hepatitis C. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2007;104:6025-30.
116. Lavillette D, Morice Y, Germanidis G, et al. Human serum facilitates hepatitis C virus infection, and neutralizing responses inversely correlate with viral replication kinetics at the acute phase of hepatitis C virus infection. J Virol 2005;79:6023-34.
117. Youn J, Park S, Lavillette D, et al. Sustained E2 antibody response correlates with reduced peak viremia after hepatitis C virus infection in the chimpanzee. Hepatology 2005;42:1429-36.
118. Logvinoff C, Major M, Oldach D, et al. Neutralizing antibody response during acute and chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004;101:10149-54.
119. Kaplan D, Sugimoto K, Newton K, et al. Discordant role of CD4 T-cell response relative to neutralizing antibody and CD8 T-cell responses in acute hepatitis C. Gastroenterology 2007;132:654-66.
120. Houghton M, Abrignani S. Prospects for a vaccine against the hepatitis C virus. Nature 2005;436:961-6.
121. Choo QL, Kuo G, Ralston R, et al. Vaccination of chimpanzees against infection by the hepatitis C virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994;91:1294-8.
122. Leroux-Roels G, Depla E, Hulstaert F, et al. A candidate vaccine based on the hepatitis C E1 protein: tolerability and immunogenicity in healthy volunteers. Vaccine 2004;22:3080-6.
123. Teixeira R, Menezes EG, Schiano TD. Therapeutic management of recurrent hepatitis C after liver transplantation. Liver Int 2007;27:302-12.
124. Vanwolleghem T, Bukh J, Meuleman P, et al. Polyclonal immunoglobulins from a ceramic hepatitis C virus patient protect human liver-chimeric mice from infection with a homologous hepatitis C virus strain. Hepatology 2008;47:1846-55.
125. Law M, Maruyama T, Lewis J, et al. Broadly neutralizing antibodies protect against hepatitis C virus quasispecies challenge. Nat Med 2008;14:25-7.
126. Schiano TD, Charlton M, Younossi Z, et al. Monoclonal antibody HCV-AbXTL68 in patients undergoing liver transplantation for HCV: results of a phase 2 randomized study. Liver Transpl 2006;12:1381- 9.
127. Davis GL, Nelson DR, Terrault N, et al. A randomized, open-label study to evaluate the safety and pharmacokinetics of human hepatitis C immune globulin (Civacir) in liver transplant recipients. Liver Transpl 2005;11:941-9.
128. Honaker MR, Shokouh-Amiri MH, Vera SR, et al. Evolving experience of hepatitis B virus prophylaxis in liver transplantation. Transpl Infect Dis 2002;4:137-43.