Treating hypertension while protecting the vulnerable islet in the cardiometabolic syndrome

Journal of the American Society of Hypertension

Volumn 2, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 239-266

  Hayden, Melvin R ^a   Sowers, James R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI   (United States)

Author keywords

Antihypertensive treatment; insulin resistance; islet amyloid; renin inhibitor

Indexed keywords

ALDOSTERONE; ALPHA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; AMLODIPINE; ANGIOTENSIN; ATENOLOL; BENDROFLUMETHIAZIDE; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CANDESARTAN; CAPTOPRIL; CHLORTALIDONE; DIURETIC AGENT; ENALAPRIL; GLUCOSE; HYDROCHLOROTHIAZIDE; INSULIN; LISINOPRIL; LOSARTAN; METOPROLOL; PERINDOPRIL; PLACEBO; RAMIPRIL; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; REDUCED NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE PHOSPHATE OXIDASE; RENIN; RENIN INHIBITOR; THIAZIDE DIURETIC AGENT; TRANDOLAPRIL; TRANDOLAPRIL PLUS VERAPAMIL; UNINDEXED DRUG;

BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT; CARDIOVASCULAR FUNCTION; CLINICAL PRACTICE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE; GLYCEMIC CONTROL; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INSULIN RESISTANCE; LOW DRUG DOSE; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; MONOTHERAPY; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; NONHUMAN; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PANCREAS ISLET DISEASE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; RISK REDUCTION; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SYSTOLIC HYPERTENSION;

EID: 47249139438     PISSN: 19331711     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jash.2007.12.002     Document Type: Review

References (194)

1. Chobanian A.V., Bakris G.L., Black H.R., Cushman W.C., Green L.A., Izzo Jr. J.L., et al. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 Report. JAMA 289 (2003) 2560-2572
2. Klag M.J., Whelton P.K., Randall B.L., Neaton J.D., Brancati F.L., Ford C.E., et al. Blood pressure and end-stage renal disease in men. N Engl J Med 334 (1996) 13-18
3. Stamler J., Vaccaro O., Neaton J.D., and Wentworth D. Diabetes, other risk factors, and 12- year cardiovascular mortality for men screened in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Diabetes Care 16 (1993) 434-444
4. Hayden M.R., and Sowers J.R. Hypertension in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Insulin 1 (2006) 22-37
5. Sowers J.R. Insulin resistance and hypertension. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 286 (2004) H1597-H1602
6. Hayden M.R., and Tyagi S.C. Islet redox stress: the manifold toxicities of insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome and amylin derived islet amyloid in type 2 diabetes mellitus. JOP 3 (2002) 86-108
7. Stump C.S., Hamilton M.T., and Sowers J.R. Effect of antihypertensive agents on the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Mayo Clin Proc 81 (2006) 796-806
8. Aksnes T.A., Kjeldsen S.E., and Mancia G. The effect of antihypertensive agents on new-onset diabetes mellitus: time to amend the guidelines?. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs 6 (2006) 139-147
9. Abdeen M.B., Chowdhury N.A., Hayden M.R., and Ibdah J.A. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and the cardiometabolic syndrome. J Cardiometab Syndr 1 (2006) 36-40
10. Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults. Executive Summary of the Third Report of The National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 285 (2001) 2486-2497
11. Whaley-Connell A., and Sowers J.R. Chronic kidney disease and the cardiometabolic syndrome. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 8 (2006) 546-548
12. Reaven G.M., Lithell H., and Landsberg L. Hypertension and associated metabolic abnormalities-the role of insulin resistance and the sympathoadrenal system. N Engl J Med 334 (1996) 374-381
13. McFarlane S.I., Banerji M., and Sowers J.R. Insulin resistance and cardiovascular disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86 (2001) 713-718
14. Denker P.S., and Pollock V.E. Fasting serum insulin levels in essential hypertension. A meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med 152 (1992) 1649-1651
15. Grunfeld B., Balzareti M., Romo M., Gimenez M., and Gutman R. Hyperinsulinemia in normotensive offspring of hypertensive parents. Hypertension 23 (1994) I12-I15
16. Cheng Z.J., Vaskonen T., Tikkanen I., Nurminen K., Ruskoaho H., Vapaatalo H., et al. Endothelial dysfunction and salt-sensitive hypertension in spontaneously diabetic Goto-Kakizaki rats. Hypertension 37 (2001) 433-439
17. Standley P.R., Rose K.A., and Sowers J.R. Increased basal arterial smooth muscle glucose transport in the Zucker rat. Am J Hypertens 8 (1995) 48-52
18. Roche H.M., Phillips C., and Gibney M.J. The metabolic syndrome: the crossroads of diet and genetics. Proc Nutr Soc 64 (2005) 371-377
19. Groop L. Genetics of the metabolic syndrome. Br J Nutr 83 Suppl 1 (2000) S39-S48
20. Dandona P., Aljada A., Dhindsa S., and Garg R. Insulin as an anti-inflammatory and antiatherosclerotic hormone. Clin Cornerstone Suppl 4 (2003) S13-S20
21. Blendea M.C., Jacobs D., Stump C.S., McFarlane S.I., Ogrin C., Bahtyiar G., et al. Abrogation of oxidative stress improves insulin sensitivity in the Ren-2 rat model of tissue angiotensin II overexpression. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 288 (2005) E353-E359
22. Lavoie J.L., Bianco R.A., Sakai K., Keen H.L., Ryan M.J., and Sigmund C.D. Transgenic mice for studies of the renin-angiotensin system in hypertension. Acta Physiol Scand 181 (2004) 571-577
23. 1 receptor gene expression by posttranscriptional mechanisms. Circulation 98 (1998) 2453-2460
24. DeFronzo R.A., Ferrannini E., Hendler R., Felig P., and Wahren J. Regulation of splanchnic and peripheral glucose uptake by insulin and hyperglycemia in man. Diabetes 32 (1983) 35-45
25. McFarlane S.I., Kumar A., and Sowers J.R. Mechanisms by which angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors prevent diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Am J Cardiol 91 (2003) 30H-37H
26. Strazzullo P., and Galletti F. Impact of the renin-angiotensin system on lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 13 (2004) 325-332
27. Furuhashi M., Ura N., Takizawa H., Yoshida D., Moniwa N., Murakami H., et al. Blockade of the renin-angiotensin system decreases adipocyte size with improvement in insulin sensitivity. J Hypertens 22 (2004) 1977-1982
28. Ailhaud G., Fukamizu A., Massiera F., Negrel R., Saint-Marc P., and Teboul M. Angiotensinogen, angiotensin II and adipose tissue development. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 24 Suppl 4 (2000) S33-S35
29. Janke J., Engeli S., Gorzelniak K., Luft F.C., and Sharma A.M. Mature adipocytes inhibit in vitro differentiation of human preadipocytes via angiotensin type 1 receptors. Diabetes 51 (2002) 1699-1707
30. Ritov V.B., Menshikova E.V., He J., Ferrell R.E., Goodpaster B.H., and Kelley D.E. Deficiency of subsarcolemmal mitochondria in obesity and type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 54 (2005) 8-14
31. Wu D.-A., Bu X., Warden C.H., Shen D.D.C., Jeng C.-Y., Sheu W.H.H., et al. Quantitative trait locus mapping of human blood pressure to a genetic region at or near the lipoprotein lipase gene locus on chromosome 8p22. J Clin Invest 97 (1996) 2111-2118
32. Liu E., Kitajima S., Higaki Y., Morimoto M., Sun H., Watanabe T., et al. High lipoprotein lipase activity increases insulin sensitivity in transgenic rabbits. Metabolism 54 (2005) 132-138
33. Bey L., Areiqat E., Sano A., and Hamilton M.T. Reduced lipoprotein lipase activity in postural skeletal muscle during aging. J Appl Physiol 91 (2001) 687-692
34. Hamilton M.T., Etienne J., McClure W.C., Pavey B.S., and Holloway A.K. Role of local contractile activity and muscle fiber type on LPL regulation during exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 275 (1998) E1016-E1022
35. Bey L., and Hamilton M.T. Suppression of skeletal muscle lipoprotein lipase activity during physical inactivity: a molecular reason to maintain daily low-intensity activity. J Physiol 551 (2003) 673-682
36. DECODE Study Group, European Diabetes Epidemiology Group. Is the current definition for diabetes relevant to mortality risk from all causes and cardiovascular and noncardiovascular diseases?. Diabetes Care 26 (2003) 688-696
37. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Hypertension, insulin, and proinsulin in participants with impaired glucose tolerance. Hypertension 40 (2002) 679-686
38. Hayden M.R., Whaley-Connell A., Chowdhury N., and Sowers J.R. Role of angiotensin II in diabetic cardiovascular and renal disease. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 13 (2006) 135-140
39. Hayden M.R., Stump C.S., and Sowers J.R. Introduction: organ involvement in the cardiometabolic syndrome. J Cardiometab Syndr 1 (2006) 16-24
40. Poitout V., and Robertson R.P. Mini-review: secondary β-cell failure in type 2 diabetes-a convergence of glucotoxicity and lipotoxicity. Endocrinology 143 (2002) 339-342
41. Leung P.S., and Carlsson P.O. Tissue renin-angiotensin system: its expression, localization, regulation and potential role in the pancreas. J Mol Endocrinol 26 (2001) 155-164
42. Leung P.S., and Chappell M.C. A local pancreatic renin-angiotensin system: endocrine and exocrine roles. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 35 (2003) 838-846
43. Lau T., Carlsson P.O., and Leung P.S. Evidence for a local angiotensin-generating system and dose-dependent inhibition of glucose-stimulated insulin release by angiotensin II in isolated pancreatic islets. Diabetologia 47 (2004) 240-248
44. Carlsson P.O. The renin-angiotensin system in the endocrine pancreas. JOP 2 (2001) 26-32
45. Carlsson P.O., Berne C., and Jansson L. Angiotensin II and the endocrine pancreas: effects on islet blood flow and insulin secretion in rats. Diabetologia 41 (1998) 127-133
46. Fliser D., Schaefer F., Schmid D., Veldhuis J.D., and Ritz E. Angiotensin II affects basal, pulsatile, and glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in humans. Hypertension 30 (1997) 1156-1161
47. Zhao H.-L., Lai F.M.M., Tong P.C., Zhong D.-R., Yang D., Tomlinson B., et al. Prevalence and clinicopathological characteristics of islet amyloid in Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 52 (2003) 2759-2766
48. Hayden M.R. Islet amyloid and fibrosis in the cardiometabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Cardiometab Syndr 2 (2007) 70-75
49. Tikellis C., Wookey P.J., Candido R., Andrikopoulos S., Thomas M.C., and Cooper M.E. Improved islet morphology after blockade of the renin-angiotensin system in the ZDF rat. Diabetes 53 (2004) 989-997
50. Hayden M.R., Karuparthi P.R., Habibi J., Wasekar C., Lastra G., Manrique C., et al. Ultra-structural islet study of early fibrosis in the Ren2 rat model of hypertension. Emerging role of the islet pancreatic pericyte-stellate cell. JOP 8 (2007) 725-738
51. Hayden M.R., Karuparthi P.R., Manrique C.M., Lastra G., Habibi J., and Sowers J.R. Longitudinal ultrastructure study of islet amyloid in the HIP rat model of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 232 (2007) 772-779
52. Hayden M.R., and Sowers J.R. Redox imbalance in diabetes. Antioxid Redox Signal 9 (2007) 865-867
53. Hayden M.R., and Sowers J.R. Isletopathy in type 2 diabetes mellitus: implications of islet RAS, islet fibrosis, islet amyloid, remodeling, and oxidative stress. Antioxid Redox Signal 9 (2007) 891-910
54. Hayden M.R., and Tyagi S.C. "A" is for amylin and amyloid in type 2 diabetes mellitus. JOP 2 (2001) 124-139
55. Hayden M.R., Tyagi S.C., Kerklo M.M., and Nicolls M.R. Type 2 diabetes mellitus as a conformational disease. JOP 6 (2005) 287-302
56. Cooper G.J.S., Willis A.C., Clark A., Turner R.C., Sim R.B., and Reid K.B.M. Purification and characterization of a peptide from amyloid-rich pancreases of type 2 diabetic patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 84 (1987) 8628-8632
57. Reda T.K., Geliebter A., and Pi-Sunyer F.X. Amylin, food intake, and obesity. Obes Res 10 (2002) 1087-1091
58. Lutz T.A., Althaus J., Rossi R., and Scharrer E. Anorectic effect of amylin is not transmitted by capsaicin-sensitive nerve fibers. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 274 (1998) R1777-R1782
59. Wookey P.J., Tikellis C., Du H.-C., Qin H.-F., Sexton P.M., and Cooper M.E. Amylin binding in rat renal cortex, stimulation of adenylyl cyclase, and activation of plasma renin. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 270 (1996) F289-F294
60. Cooper M.E., McNally P.G., Phillips P.A., and Johnston C.I. Amylin stimulates plasma renin concentration in humans. Hypertension 26 (1995) 460-464
61. Butler A.E., Janson J., Soeller W.C., and Butler P.C. Increased β-cell apoptosis prevents adaptive increase in β-cell mass in mouse model of type 2 diabetes: evidence for role of islet amyloid formation rather than direct action of amyloid. Diabetes 52 (2003) 2304-2314
62. Kailasam M.T., Parmer R.J., Tyrell E.A., Henry R.R., and O'Connor D.T. Circulating amylin in human essential hypertension: heritability and early increase in individuals at genetic risk. J Hypertens 18 (2000) 1611-1620
63. Dahlof B., Sever P.S., Poulter N.R., Wedel H., Beevers D.G., Caulfield M., et al. Prevention of cardiovascular events with an antihypertensive regimen of amlodipine adding perindopril as required versus atenolol adding bendroflumethiazide as required, in the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial-Blood Pressure Lowering Arm (ASCOT-BPLA): a multicentre randomized controlled trial. Lancet 366 (2005) 895-906
64. Pepine C.J., Handberg E.M., Cooper-DeHoff R.M., Marks R.G., Kowey P., Messerli F.H., et al. A calcium antagonist vs. a non-calcium antagonist hypertension treatment strategy for patients with coronary artery disease. The International Verapamil-Trandolapril Study (INVEST): a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 290 (2003) 2805-2816
65. Hansson L., Lindholm L.H., Niskanen L., Lanke J., Hedner T., Niklason A., et al. Effect of angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibition compared with conventional therapy on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in hypertension: the Captopril Prevention Project (CAPPP) randomized trial. Lancet 353 (1999) 611-616
66. Yusuf S., Sleight P., Pogue J., Bosch J., Davies R., Dagenais G., et al. Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med 342 (2000) 145-153
67. The ALLHAT Officers and Coordinators for the ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group. Major outcomes in high-risk hypertensive patients randomized to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or calcium channel blocker vs. diuretic: The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT) [Errata in: 2003;289:178; 2004;291:2196]. JAMA 288 (2002) 2981-2997
68. Vermes E., Ducharme A., Bourassa M.G., Lessard M., White M., and Tardif J.-C. Enalapril reduces the incidence of diabetes in patients with chronic heart failure: insight from the Studies Of Left Ventricular Dysfunction (SOLVD). Circulation 107 (2003) 1291-1296
69. Braunwald E., Domanski M.J., Fowler S.E., Geller N.L., Gersh B.J., Hsia J., et al., PEACE Trial Investigators. Angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibition in stable coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 351 (2004) 2058-2068
70. Thornley-Brown D., Wang X., Wright Jr. J.T., Randall O.S., Miller E.R., Lash J.P., et al. Differing effects of antihypertensive drugs on the incidence of diabetes mellitus among patients with hypertensive kidney disease. Arch Intern Med 166 (2006) 797-805
71. Lindholm L.H., Ibsen H., Borch-Johnsen K., Olsen M.H., Wachtell K., Dahlof B., et al. Risk of new-onset diabetes in the Losartan Intervention For Endpoint reduction in hypertension study. J Hypertens 20 (2002) 1879-1886
72. Pfeffer M.A., Swedberg K., Granger C.B., Held P., McMurray J.J.V., Michelson E.L., et al. Effects of candesartan on mortality and morbidity in patients with chronic heart failure: the CHARM-Overall programme. Lancet 362 (2003) 759-766
73. Yusuf S., Ostergren J.B., Gerstein H.C., Pfeffer M.A., Swedberg K., Granger C.B., et al. Effects of candesartan on the development of a new diagnosis of diabetes mellitus in patients with heart failure. Circulation 112 (2005) 48-53
74. Lindholm L.H., Persson M., Alaupovic P., Carlberg B., Svensson A., and Samuelsson O. Metabolic outcome during 1 year in newly detected hypertensives: results of the Antihypertensive Treatment and Lipid Profile in a North of Sweden Efficacy Evaluation (ALPINE Study). J Hypertens 21 (2003) 1563-1574
75. Julius S., Kjeldsen S.E., Weber M., Brunner H.R., Ekman S., Hansson L., et al. Outcomes in hypertensive patients at high cardiovascular risk treated with regimens based on valsartan or amlodipine: the VALUE randomized trial. Lancet 363 (2004) 2022-2031
76. Julius S., Weber M.A., Kjeldsen S.E., McInnes G.T., Zanchetti A., Brunner H.R., et al. The Valsartan Antihypertensive Long-term Use Evaluation (VALUE) trial: outcomes in patients receiving monotherapy. Hypertension 48 (2006) 385-391
77. Harper R., Ennis C.N., Sheridan B., Atkinson A.B., Johnston G.D., and Bell P.M. Effects of low-dose versus conventional dose thiazide diuretic on insulin action in essential hypertension. BMJ 309 (1994) 226-230
78. Taylor E.N., Hu F.B., and Curhan G.C. Antihypertensive medications and the risk of incident type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 29 (2006) 1065-1070
79. Mogensen C.E. New concepts in blood pressure-lowering management in diabetic patients: the case for early ACE inhibitor combination therapy with diuretics. J Hum Hypertens 19 (2005) S15-S20
80. Kjeldsen S.E., Os I., Hoieggen A., Beckey K., Gleim G.W., and Oparil S. Fixed-dose combinations in the management of hypertension: defining the place of angiotensin receptor antagonists and hydrochlorothiazide. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs 5 (2005) 17-22
81. Mimran A., and Weir M.R. Angiotensin-receptor blockers and diuretics-advantages of combination. Blood Press 14 (2005) 6-11
82. Sarafidis P.A., and Bakris G.L. Antihypertensive treatment with beta-blockers and the spectrum of glycaemic control. QJM 99 (2006) 431-436
83. Pessina A.C., Ciccariello L., Perrone F., Stoico V., Gussoni G., Scotti A., et al. Clinical efficacy and tolerability of alpha-blocker doxazosin as add-on therapy in patients with hypertension and impaired glucose metabolism. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 16 (2006) 137-147
84. Weber M.A. Hypertension, the metabolic syndrome, and the risk of developing diabetes: is it time to change the guidelines?. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 6 (2004) 425-427 460
85. Nussberger J., Wuerzner G., Jensen C., and Brunner H.R. Angiotensin II suppression in humans by the orally active renin inhibitor Aliskiren (SPP100): comparison with enalapril. Hypertension 39 (2002) e1-e8
86. Elliott W.J., and Meyer P.M. Incident diabetes in clinical trials of antihypertensive drugs: a network meta-analysis. Lancet 369 (2007) 201-207
87. Perez-Stable E., and Caralis P.V. Thiazide-induced disturbances in carbohydrate, lipid, and potassium metabolism. Am Heart J 106 (1983) 245-251
88. Lithell H.O. Effect of antihypertensive drugs on insulin, glucose, and lipid metabolism. Diabetes Care 14 (1991) 203-209
89. Fletcher A., Amery A., Birkenhager W., Bulpitt C., Clement D., De Leeuw P., et al. Risks and benefits in the trial of the European Working Party on High Blood Pressure in the Elderly. J Hypertens 9 (1991) 225-230
90. Savage P.J., Pressel S.L., Curb J.D., Schron E.B., Applegate W.B., Black H.R., et al. Influence of long-term, low-dose, diuretic-based, antihypertensive therapy on glucose, lipid, uric acid, and potassium levels in older men and women with isolated systolic hypertension: The Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program. SHEP Cooperative Research Group. Arch Intern Med 158 (1998) 741-751
91. Verdecchia P., Reboldi G., Angeli F., Borgioni C., Gattobigio R., Filippucci L., et al. Adverse prognostic significance of new diabetes in treated hypertensive subjects. Hypertension 43 (2004) 963-969
92. Samuelsson O., Hedner T., Berglund G., Persson B., Andersson O.K., and Wilhelmsen L. Diabetes mellitus in treated hypertension: incidence, predictive factors and the impact of non-selective beta-blockers and thiazide diuretics during 15 years treatment of middle-aged hypertensive men in the Primary Prevention Trial Goteborg, Sweden. J Hum Hypertens 8 (1994) 257-263
93. Sowers J.R., and Bakris G.L. Antihypertensive therapy and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 342 (2000) 969-970
94. Barzilay J.I., Davis B.R., Cutler J.A., Pressel S.L., Whelton P.K., Basile J., et al. Fasting glucose levels and incident diabetes mellitus in older nondiabetic adults randomized to receive 3 different classes of antihypertensive treatment: a report from the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). Arch Intern Med 166 (2006) 2191-2201
95. Mason J.M., Dickinson H.O., Nicolson D.J., Campbell F., Ford G.A., and Williams B. The diabetogenic potential of thiazide-type diuretic and beta-blocker combinations in patients with hypertension. J Hypertens 23 (2005) 1777-1781
96. Bakris G., Molitch M., Hewkin A., Kipnes M., Sarafidis P., Fakouhi K., et al. Differences in glucose tolerance between fixed-dose antihypertensive drug combinations in people with metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Care 29 (2006) 2592-2597
97. Padwal R., and Laupacis A. Antihypertensive therapy and incidence of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review. Diabetes Care 27 (2004) 247-255
98. Gorden P., Sherman B.M., and Simopoulos A.P. Glucose intolerance with hypokalemia: an increased proportion of circulating proinsulin-like component. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 34 (1972) 235-240
99. Helderman J.H., Elahi D., Andersen D.K., Raizes G.S., Tobin J.D., Shocken D., et al. Prevention of the glucose intolerance of thiazide diuretics by maintenance of body potassium. Diabetes 32 (1983) 106-111
100. Papadakis J.A., Mikhailidis D.P., Vrentzos G.E., Kalikaki A., Kazakou I., and Ganotakis E.S. Effect of antihypertensive treatment on plasma fibrinogen and serum HDL levels in patients with essential hypertension. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 11 (2005) 139-146
101. Skalska A., Gasowski J., Stepniewski M., and Grodzicki T. Antioxidative protection in hypertensive patients treated with diuretics. Am J Hypertens 18 (2005) 1130-1132
102. ALLHAT Officers and Coordinators for the ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group. Major cardiovascular events in hypertensive patients randomized to doxazosin vs. chlorthalidone: the antihypertensive and lipid-lowering treatment to prevent heart attack trial (ALLHAT). JAMA 283 (2000) 1967-1975
103. Pollare T., Lithell H., Selinus I., and Berne C. Sensitivity to insulin during treatment with atenolol and metoprolol: a randomized, double-blind study of effects on carbohydrate and lipoprotein metabolism in hypertensive patients. BMJ 298 (1989) 1152-1157
104. Lithell H., Pollare T., and Vessby B. Metabolic effects of pindolol and propranolol in a double-blind cross-over study in hypertensive patients. Blood Press 1 (1992) 92-101
105. Gress T.W., Nieto F.J., Shahar E., Wofford M.R., and Brancati F.L. Hypertension and antihypertensive therapy as risk factors for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. N Engl J Med 342 (2000) 905-912
106. Jacob S., Rett K., and Henriksen E.J. Antihypertensive therapy and insulin sensitivity: do we have to redefine the role of β-blocking agents?. Am J Hypertens 11 (1998) 1258-1265
107. Wright A.D., Barber S.G., Kendall M.J., and Poole P.H. Beta-adrenoceptor-blocking drugs and blood sugar control in diabetes mellitus. BMJ 1 (1979) 159-161
108. Toda N. Vasodilating β-adrenoceptor blockers as cardiovascular therapeutics. Pharmacol Ther 100 (2003) 215-234
109. Kuroedov A., Cosentino F., and Lüscher T.F. Pharmacological mechanisms of clinically favorable properties of a selective beta1-adrenoceptor antagonist, nebivolol. Cardiovasc Drug Rev 22 (2004) 155-168
110. Poirier L., Cleroux J., Nadeau A., and Lacourciere Y. Effects of nebivolol and atenolol on insulin sensitivity and hemodynamics in hypertensive patients. J Hypertens 19 (2001) 1429-1435
111. Celik T., Iyisoy A., Kursaklioglu H., Kardesoglu E., Kilic S., Turhan H., et al. Comparative effects of nebivolol and metoprolol on oxidative stress, insulin resistance, plasma adiponectin and soluble P-selectin levels in hypertensive patients. J Hypertens 24 (2006) 591-596
112. Oelze M., Daiber A., Brandes R.P., Hortmann M., Wenzel P., Hink U., et al. Nebivolol inhibits superoxide formation by NADPH oxidase and endothelial dysfunction in angiotensin II-treated rats. Hypertension 48 (2006) 677-684
113. Mason R.P., Kalinowski L., Jacob R.F., Jacoby A.M., and Malinski T. Nebivolol reduces nitroxidative stress and restores nitric oxide bioavailability in endothelium of black Americans. Circulation 112 (2005) 3795-3801
114. Gomes A., Costa D., Lima J.L., and Fernandes E. Antioxidant activity of β-blockers: an effect mediated by scavenging reactive oxygen and nitrogen species?. Bioorg Med Chem 14 (2006) 4568-4577
115. Horani M.H., Haas M.J., and Mooradian A.D. Suppression of hyperglycemia-induced superoxide formation and endothelin-1 gene expression by carvedilol. Am J Ther 13 (2006) 2-7
116. Fratta Pasini A., Garbin U., Nava M.C., Stranieri C., Davoli A., Sawamura T., et al. Nebivolol decreases oxidative stress in essential hypertensive patients and increases nitric oxide by reducing its oxidative inactivation. J Hypertens 23 (2005) 589-596
117. Koyama Y., Kodama K., Suzuki M., and Harano Y. Improvement of insulin sensitivity by a long-acting nifedipine preparation (nifedipine-CR) in patients with essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens 15 (2002) 927-931
118. Yagi S., Goto S., Yamamoto T., Kurihara S., and Katayama S. Effect of cilnidipine on insulin sensitivity in patients with essential hypertension. Hypertens Res 26 (2003) 383-387
119. McKeage K., and Scott L.J. Manidipine: a review of its use in the management of hypertension. Drugs 64 (2004) 1923-1940
120. Lob H., Rosenkranz A.C., Breitenbach T., Berkels R., Drummond G., and Roesen R. Antioxidant and nitric oxide-sparing actions of dihydropyridines and ACE inhibitors differ in human endothelial cells. Pharmacology 76 (2006) 8-18
121. Rosenkranz A.C., Lob H., Breitenbach T., Berkels R., and Roesen R. Endothelial antioxidant actions of dihydropyridines and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors. Eur J Pharmacol 529 (2006) 55-62
122. Martinez M.L.L., Lopes L.F., Coelho E.B., Nobre F., Rocha J.B.T., Gerlach R.F., et al. Lercanidipine reduces matrix metalloproteinase-9 activity in patients with hypertension. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 47 (2006) 117-122
123. Yasunari K., Maeda K., Nakamura M., Watanabe T., and Yoshikawa J. Benidipine, a long-acting calcium channel blocker, inhibits oxidative stress in polymorphonuclear cells in patients with essential hypertension. Hypertens Res 28 (2005) 107-112
124. Poulter N.R., Wedel H., Dahlof B., Sever P.S., Beevers D.G., Caulfield M., et al. Role of blood pressure and other variables in the differential cardiovascular event rates noted in the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial-Blood Pressure Lowering Arm (ASCOT-BPLA). Lancet 366 (2005) 907-913
125. Zanella M.T., Kohlmann Jr. O., and Ribeiro A.B. Treatment of obesity hypertension and diabetes syndrome. Hypertension 38 (2001) 705-708
126. Materson B.J., Reda D.J., Cushman W.C., Massie B.M., Freis E.D., Kochar M.S., et al. Single-drug therapy for hypertension in men: a comparison of six antihypertensive agents with placebo. N Engl J Med 328 (1993) 914-921
127. Hobbs F.R., Khan T., and Collins B. Doxazosin versus bendrofluazide: a comparison of the metabolic effects in British South Asians with hypertension. Br J Gen Pract 55 (2005) 437-443
128. Andersson P.-E., and Lithell H. Metabolic effects of doxazosin and enalapril in hypertriglyceridemic, hypertensive men: relationship to changes in skeletal muscle blood flow. Am J Hypertens 9 (1996) 323-333
129. Bakris G.L., Weir M.R., and Sowers J.R. Therapeutic challenges in the obese diabetic patient with hypertension. Am J Med 101 (1996) 33S-46S
130. Dell'Omo G., Penno G., Pucci L., Pellegrini G., Scotti A., Del Prato S., et al. The vascular effects of doxazosin in hypertension complicated by metabolic syndrome. Coron Artery Dis 16 (2005) 67-73
131. Lithell H.O. Hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance, and the treatment of hypertension. Am J Hypertens 9 (1996) 150S-154S
132. Calo L.A., Bertipaglia L., Pagnin E., Davis P.A., Sartori M., Semplicini A., et al. Effect of doxazosin on oxidative stress related proteins in essential hypertensive patients. Clin Exp Hypertens 28 (2006) 181-188
133. Henriksen E.J., and Jacob S. Modulation of metabolic control by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibition. J Cell Physiol 196 (2003) 171-179
134. Zaman M.A., Oparil S., and Calhoun D.A. Drugs targeting the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Nature Rev Drug Disc 1 (2002) 621-636
135. Fisher N.D.L., and Hollenberg N.K. Renin inhibition: what are the therapeutic opportunities?. J Am Soc Nephrol 16 (2005) 592-599
136. Rahuel J., Rasetti V., Maibaum J., Rüeger H., Göschke R., Cohen N.C., et al. Structure-based drug design: the discovery of novel nonpeptide orally active inhibitors of human renin. Chem Biol 7 (2000) 493-504
137. Abuissa H., Jones P.G., Marso S.P., and O'Keefe Jr. J.H. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers for prevention of type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. J Am Coll Cardiol 46 (2005) 821-826
138. Gillespie E.L., White C.M., Kardas M., Lindberg M., and Coleman C.I. The impact of ACE inhibitors or angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockers on the development of new-onset type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 28 (2005) 2261-2266
139. Gerstein H.C., Yusuf S., Holman R., Bosch J., Pogue J., and The DREAM Trial Investigators. Rationale, design and recruitment characteristics of a large, simple international trial of diabetes prevention: the DREAM trial. Diabetologia 47 (2004) 1519-1527
140. Bosch J., Yusuf S., Gerstein H.C., Pogue J., Sheridan P., Dagenais G., et al., DREAM Trial Investigators. Effect of ramipril on the incidence of diabetes. N Engl J Med 355 (2006) 1551-1562
141. Higashiura K., Ura N., Takada T., Li Y., Torii T., Togashi N., et al. The effects of an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor and an angiotensin II receptor antagonist on insulin resistance in fructose-fed rats. Am J Hypertens 13 (2000) 290-297
142. Nawano M., Anai M., Funaki M., Kobayashi H., Kanda A., Fukushima Y., et al. Imidapril, an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, improves insulin sensitivity by enhancing signal transduction via insulin receptor substrate proteins and improving vascular resistance in the Zucker fatty rat. Metabolism 48 (1999) 1248-1255
143. Ekelund U. Effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition on arterial, venous and capillary functions in cat skeletal muscle in vivo. Acta Physiol Scand 158 (1996) 29-37
144. Henriksen E.J., Jacob S., Kinnick T.R., Youngblood E.B., Schmit M.B., and Dietze G.J. ACE inhibition and glucose transport in insulin-resistant muscle: roles of bradykinin and nitric oxide. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 277 (1999) R332-R336
145. Feldman R.D., and Schmidt N.D. Quinapril treatment enhances vascular sensitivity to insulin. J Hypertens 19 (2001) 113-118
146. Watanabe S., Tagawa T., Yamakawa K., Shimabukuro M., and Ueda S. Inhibition of the renin-angiotensin system prevents free fatty acid-induced acute endothelial dysfunction in humans. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 25 (2005) 2376-2380
147. Steen M.S., Foianini K.R., Youngblood E.B., Kinnick T.R., Jacob S., and Henriksen E.J. Interactions of exercise training and ACE inhibition on insulin action in obese Zucker rats. J Appl Physiol 86 (1999) 2044-2051
148. Bolterman R.J., Manriquez M.C., Ortiz Ruiz M.C., Juncos L.A., and Romero J.C. Effects of captopril on the renin-angiotensin system, oxidative stress, and endothelin in normal and hypertensive rats. Hypertension 46 (2005) 943-947
149. Yu W., Akishita M., Xi H., Nagai K., Sudoh N., Hasegawa H., et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor attenuates oxidative stress-induced endothelial cell apoptosis via p38 MAP kinase inhibition. Clin Chim Acta 364 (2006) 328-334
150. Huang Z., Jansson L., and Sjöholm A. Pancreatic islet blood flow is selectively enhanced by captopril, irbesartan and pravastatin, and suppressed by palmitate. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 346 (2006) 26-32
151. Lupi R., Del Guerra S., Bugliani M., Boggi U., Mosca F., Torri S., et al. The direct effects of the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, zofenoprilat and enalaprilat, on isolated human pancreatic islets. Eur J Endocrinol 154 (2006) 355-361
152. Cheung B.M.Y., Cheung G.T.Y., Lauder I.J., Lau C.-P., and Kumana C.R. Meta-analysis of large outcome trials of angiotensin receptor blockers in hypertension. J Hum Hypertens 20 (2006) 37-43
153. Bergstrom G., Johansson I., Wickman A., Gan L., and Thorup C. Brief losartan treatment in young spontaneously hypertensive rats abates long-term blood pressure elevation by effects on renal vascular structure. J Hypertens 20 (2002) 1413-1421
154. Olsen M.H., Fossum E., Hoieggen A., Wachtell K., Hjerkinn E., Nesbitt S.D., et al. Long-term treatment with losartan versus atenolol improves insulin sensitivity in hypertension: ICARUS, a LIFE Substudy. J Hypertens 23 (2005) 891-898
155. Zandbergen A.A.M., Lamberts S.W.J., Janssen J.A.M.J.L., and Bootsma A.H. Short-term administration of an angiotensin-receptor antagonist in patients with impaired fasting glucose improves insulin sensitivity and increases free IGF-I. Eur J Endocrinol 155 (2006) 293-296
156. Benndorf R.A., Rudolph T., Appel D., Schwedhelm E., Maas R., Schulze F., et al. Telmisartan improves insulin sensitivity in nondiabetic patients with essential hypertension. Metabolism 55 (2006) 1159-1164
157. Schupp M., Janke J., Clasen R., Unger T., and Kintscher U. Angiotensin type 1 receptor blockers induce peroxisome proliferators-activated receptor-g activity. Circulation 109 (2004) 2054-2057
158. Schupp M., Clemenz M., Gineste R., Witt H., Janke J., Helleboid S., et al. Molecular characterization of new selective peroxisome proliferators-activated receptor-g modulators with angiotensin receptor blocking activity. Diabetes 54 (2005) 3442-3452
159. Benson S.C., Pershadsingh H.A., Ho C.I., Chittiboyina A., Desai P., Pravenec M., et al. Identification of telmisartan as a unique angiotensin II receptor antagonist with selective PPARγ-modulating activity. Hypertension 43 (2004) 993-1002
160. Nagel J.M., Tietz A.B., Goke B., and Parhofer K.G. The effect of telmisartan on glucose and lipid metabolism in nondiabetic, insulin-resistant subjects. Metabolism 55 (2006) 1149-1154
161. Clasen R., Schupp M., Foryst-Ludwig A., Sprang C., Clemenz M., Krikov M., et al. PPARγ-activating angiotensin type-1 receptor blockers induce adiponectin. Hypertension 46 (2005) 137-143
162. Okada K., Hirano T., Ran J., and Adachi M. Olmesartan medoxomil, an angiotensin II receptor blocker ameliorates insulin resistance and decreases triglyceride production in fructose-fed rats. Hypertens Res 27 (2004) 293-299
163. Shiuchi T., Iwai M., Li H.-S., Wu L., Min L.-J., Li J.-M., et al. Angiotensin II type-1 receptor blocker valsartan enhances insulin sensitivity in skeletal muscles of diabetic mice. Hypertension 43 (2004) 1003-1010
164. Bayorh M.A., Ganafa A.A., Eatman D., Walton M., and Feuerstein G.Z. Simvastatin and losartan enhance nitric oxide and reduce oxidative stress in salt-induced hypertension. Am J Hypertens 18 (2005) 1496-1502
165. Yusuf S. From the HOPE to the ONTARGET and the TRANSCEND studies: challenges in improving prognosis. Am J Cardiol 89 (2002) 18-25
166. Teo K., Yusuf S., Sleight P., Anderson C., Mookadam F., Ramos B., et al. Rationale, design, and baseline characteristics of 2 large, simple, randomized trials evaluating telmisartan, ramipril, and their combination in high-risk patients: the Ongoing Telmisartan Alone and in Combination with Ramipril Global Endpoint Trial/Telmisartan Randomized Assessment Study in ACE Intolerant Subjects with Cardiovascular Disease (ONTARGET/TRANSCEND) trials. Am Heart J 148 (2004) 52-61
167. Yusuf S., Pfeffer M.A., Swedberg K., Granger C.B., Held P., McMurray J.J., et al. Effects of candesartan in patients with chronic heart failure and preserved left-ventricular ejection fraction: the CHARM-Preserved Trial. Lancet 362 (2003) 777-781
168. Pitt B., Zannad F., Remme W.J., Cody R., Castaigne A., Perez A., et al. The effect of spironolactone on morbidity and mortality in patients with severe heart failure. Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med 341 (1999) 709-717
169. Pitt B., Remme W., Zannad F., Neaton J., Martinez F., Roniker B., et al. Eplerenone, a selective aldosterone blocker, in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 348 (2003) 1309-1321
170. Soberman J.E., and Weber K.T. Spironolactone in congestive heart failure. Curr Hypertens Rep 2 (2000) 451-456
171. Pitt B. Effect of aldosterone blockade in patients with systolic left ventricular dysfunction: implications of the RALES and EPHESUS studies. Mol Cell Endocrinol 217 (2004) 53-58
172. Epstein M., and Calhoun D.A. The role of aldosterone in resistant hypertension: implications for pathogenesis and therapy. Curr Hypertens Rep 9 (2007) 98-105
173. Weinberger M.H., White W.B., Ruilope L.-M., MacDonald T.M., Davidson R.C., Roniker B., et al. Effects of eplerenone versus losartan in patients with low-renin hypertension. Am Heart J 150 (2005) 426-433
174. Fallo F., Federspil G., Veglio F., and Mulatero P. The metabolic syndrome in primary aldosteronism. Curr Hypertens Rep 9 (2007) 106-111
175. Fallo F., Veglio F., Bertello C., Sonino N., Della Mea P., Ermani M., et al. Prevalence and characteristics of the metabolic syndrome in primary aldosteronism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91 (2006) 454-459
176. Stas S., Whaley-Connell A., Habibi J., Appesh L., Hayden M.R., Karuparthi P.R., et al. Mineralocorticoid receptor blockade attenuates chronic overexpression of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system stimulation of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase and cardiac remodeling. Endocrinology 148 (2007) 3773-3780
177. Stanton A. Potential of renin inhibition in cardiovascular disease. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst 4 (2003) 6-10
178. Villamil A., Chrysant S.G., Calhoun D., Schober B., Hsu H., Matrisciano-Dimichino L., et al. Renin inhibition with aliskiren provides additive antihypertensive efficacy when used in combination with hydrochlorothiazide. J Hypertens 25 (2007) 217-226
179. Oh B.-H., Mitchell J., Herron J.R., Chung J., Khan M., and Keefe D.L. Aliskiren, an oral renin inhibitor, provides dose-dependent efficacy and sustained 24-hour blood pressure control in patients with hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 49 (2007) 1157-1163
180. Strasser R.H., Puig J.G., Farsang C., Croket M., Li J., and van Ingen H. A comparison of the tolerability of the direct renin inhibitor aliskiren and lisinopril in patients with severe hypertension. J Hum Hypertens 21 (2007) 780-787
181. Stanton A., Jensen C., Nussberger J., and O'Brien E. Blood pressure lowering in essential hypertension with an oral renin inhibitor, aliskiren. Hypertension 42 (2003) 1137-1143
182. Gradman A.H., Schmieder R.E., Lins R.L., Nussberger J., Chiang Y., and Bedigian M.P. Aliskiren, a novel orally effective renin inhibitor, provides dose-dependent antihypertensive efficacy and placebo-like tolerability in hypertensive patients. Circulation 111 (2005) 1012-1018
183. Drummond W., Munger M.A., Essop M.R., Maboudian M., Khan M., and Keefe D.L. Antihypertensive efficacy of the oral direct renin inhibitor aliskiren as add-on therapy in patients not responding to amlodipine monotherapy. J Clin Hypertens 9 (2007) 742-750
184. Jordan J., Engeli S., Boye S.W., Le Breton S., and Keefe D.L. Direct renin inhibition with aliskiren in obese patients with arterial hypertension. Hypertension 49 (2007) 1047-1055
185. Oparil S., Yarows S.A., Patel S., Fang H., Zhang J., and Satlin A. Efficacy and safety of combined use of aliskiren and valsartan in patients with hypertension: a randomized, double-blind trial. Lancet 370 (2007) 221-229
186. Uresin Y., Taylor A.A., Kilo C., Tschope D., Santonastaso M., Ibram G., et al. Efficacy and safety of the direct renin inhibitor aliskiren and ramipril alone or in combination in patients with diabetes and hypertension. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst 8 (2007) 190-198
187. Wood J.M., Maibaum J., Rahuel J., Grutter M.G., Cohen N.-C., Rasetti V., et al. Structure-based design of aliskiren, a novel orally effective renin inhibitor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 308 (2003) 698-705
188. Wood J.M., Schnell C.R., Cumin F., Menard J., and Webb R.L. Aliskiren, a novel, orally effective renin inhibitor, lowers blood pressure in marmosets and spontaneously hypertensive rats. J Hypertens 23 (2005) 417-426
189. Fogari R., Zoppi A., Preti P., Fogari E., Malamani G., and Mugellini A. Differential effects of ACE-inhibition and angiotensin II antagonism on fibrinolysis and insulin sensitivity in hypertensive postmenopausal women. Am J Hypertens 14 (2001) 921-926
190. Karlberg B.E. Cough and inhibition of the renin-angiotensin system. J Hypertens Suppl 11 (1993) S49-S52
191. Fisher N.D.L., Allan D., Kifor I., Gaboury C.L., Williams G.H., Moore T.J., et al. Responses to converting enzyme and renin inhibition: role of angiotensin II in humans. Hypertension 23 (1994) 44-51
192. Lindstrom J., Ilanne-Parikka P., Peltonen M., Aunola S., Eriksson J.G., Hemio K., et al. Sustained reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes by lifestyle intervention: follow-up of the Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study. Lancet 368 (2006) 1673-1679
193. Hayden M.R., and Tyagi S.C. Isolated low high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C): implications of global risk reduction. Case report and systematic scientific review. Cardiovasc Diabet 4 (2005) 1
194. Burke L.E., Dunbar-Jacob J.M., and Hill M.N. Compliance with cardiovascular disease prevention strategies: a review of the research. Ann Behav Med 19 (1997) 239-263