Therapeutic challenges in the obese diabetic patient with hypertension

American Journal of Medicine

Volumn 101, Issue 3 A, 1996, Pages 33S-46S

  Bakris, George L ^a,d   Weir, Matthew R ^b   Sowers, James R ^c  

^a RUSH MEDICAL COLLEGE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c WAYNE STATE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^d RUSH UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALPHA 2 ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; ALPHA 2 ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM ANTAGONIST; CAPTOPRIL; CLONIDINE; DILTIAZEM; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DOXAZOSIN; ENALAPRIL; FOSINOPRIL; GUANABENZ; GUANFACINE; LISINOPRIL; METHYLDOPA; MEVINOLIN; NIFEDIPINE; THIAZIDE DIURETIC AGENT; VERAPAMIL; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT;

ANTIHYPERTENSIVE THERAPY; CORONARY RISK; DIABETES MELLITUS; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DIURETIC THERAPY; DOSE RESPONSE; ELECTROLYTE DISTURBANCE; EXERCISE; FATIGUE; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; MEDICAL DECISION MAKING; NEPHROTOXICITY; NEUROPATHY; OBESITY; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; TREATMENT OUTCOME; TREATMENT PLANNING; WEIGHT REDUCTION; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; RISK FACTOR;

ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENTS; DIABETES COMPLICATIONS; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 2; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; OBESITY; RISK FACTORS; WEIGHT LOSS;

EID: 0030606966     PISSN: 00029343     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9343(96)00266-5     Document Type: Review

References (205)

1. Pollare T, Lithell H, Berne C. Insulin resistance is a characteristic feature of primary hypertension independent of obesity. Metabolism. 1990;39:167-174.
2. Falkner B, Hulman S, Tannenbaum J, Kushner H. Insulin resistance and blood pressure in young black men. Hypertension. 1990;16:706-711.
3. Sowers JR, Standley PR, Ram JL, Jacober S, Simpson L, Rose K. Hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance, and hyperglycemia: contributing factors in the pathogenesis of hypertension and atherosclerosis. Am J Hypertens. 1993;6(suppl):260-270.
4. Monolio TA, Savage PJ, Burke GL, et al. Association of fasting insulin with blood pressure and lipids in young adults: the Cardia Study. Atherosclerosis. 1990;10:430-436.
5. Flack JM, Sowers JR. Epidemiologic and clinical aspects of insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia. Am J Med. 1991;91(suppl 1A):115-205.
6. Horan M. Diabetes in hypertension. In: Harris MI, Hamman RF, eds. Diabetes in America. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, NIH publication 85-1468; 1985:17-18, diabetes data compiled 1984.
7. Fournier AM, Gadia MT, Kubrusly DB, Skyler JS, Sosenko JM. Blood pressure, insulin, and glycemia in nondiabetic subjects. Am J Med. 1986;80:861-864.
8. Manicardi V, Camellini L, Bellodi G, Coscelli C, Ferrannini E. Evidence for an association of high blood pressure and hyperinsulinemia in obese man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1986;62:1302-1304.
9. Zavaroni I, Bonora E, Pagliara M, et al. Risk factors for coronary artery disease in healthy persons with hyperinsulinemia and normal glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:702-706.
10. Singer P, Wolfgang G, Siegfried V, Hajdu I, Weiss M. Postprandial hyperinsulinemia inpatients with mild essential hypertension. Hypertension. 1985;7:182-186.
11. Ferrannini E, Buzzigoli G, Bonadonna R, et al. Insulin resistance in essential hypertension. N Engl J Med. 1987;317:3500-3507.
12. Shen DC, Shieh SM, Fuh MT, Wu DA, Chen YDI, Reaven GM. Resistance to insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in patients with hypertension. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1988;66:580-583.
13. Swislocki ALM, Hoffman BB, Reaven GM. Insulin resistance, glucose intolerance and hyperinsulinemia in patients with hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 1989;2:419-423.
14. Kaplan NM. The deadly quartet: upper body obesity, glucose intolerance, hypertriglyceridemia, and hypertension. Arch Intern Med. 1989;149:1514-1520.
15. Julius S, Jamerson K, Mejia A, Krause L, Schark MA, Jones K. The association of borderline hypertension with target organ changes and higher coronary risk: Tecumseh Blood Pressure Study. JAMA. 1990;264:354-358.
16. Landin K, Tengborn L, Smith U. Elevated fibrinogen and plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI-1) in hypertensive are related to metabolic risk factors for cardiovascular disease. J Intern Med. 1990;227:273-278.
17. Baron AD, Brechtel-Hook G, Johnson A, Hardin D. Skeletal muscle blood flow: a possible link between insulin resistance and blood pressure. Hypertension. 1993;21:129-135.
18. National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on Hypertension in Diabetes. Hypertension. 1994;23:145-158.
19. Sowers JR, Sowers PS, Peuler JD. Role of insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia in development of hypertension and atherosclerosis. J Lab Clin Med. 1994;123:647-652.
20. Sowers JR, Epstein M. Diabetes mellitus and associated hypertension, vascular disease, and nephropathy: an update. Hypertension. 1995;26(part 1):869-879.
21. Bonham GS, Brock DB. The relationship of diabetes with race, sex and obesity. Am J Clin Nutr. 1985;41:776-783.
22. Holbrook TL, Barrett-Connor E, Wingard DL. The association of lifetime weight and weight control patterns with diabetes among men and women in an adult community, Int J Obesity. 1989;13:723-729.
23. Bray GA. Obesity increases risk of diabetes. Int J Obesity. 1992;16(suppl 4):513-517.
24. Pi-Sunyer FX. Medical hazards of obesity. Ann Intern Med. 1993;119:655-660.
25. Colditz GA, Willet WC, Rotsnitzky A, Manson JE. Weight gain as a risk factor for clinical diabetes in women. Ann Int Med. 1995;122:481-486.
26. Sowers JR. Modest weight gain and the development of diabetes: another perspective. Ann Int Med. 1995;122:548-549.
27. Kuczmarski RJ, Flegal KM, Campbell SM, Johnson CL. Increasing prevalence of overweight among US adults: the National Health and Nutrition Examination surveys, 1960 to 1991. JAMA. 1994;272:205-211.
28. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Report of the Crudelines Advisory Committee of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 1990, to the Secretary of Agriculture and the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990.
29. Berger M, Bannoff E, Gries FA. Effect of weight reduction on glucose tolerance in obesity. A follow-up study of five years. In: Howard AN, ed. Recent Advances in Obesity Research. London: Newman Publishers, 1975:128-133.
30. Haffner SM. Hyperinsulinemia as a possible etiology for the high prevalence of non-insulin dependent diabetes in Mexican Americans. Diabetes Metab. 1987;13:337-344.
31. Depres JP, Moorjani S, Lupien PJ, Tremblay A, Nadeau A, Bouchard C. Regional distribution of body fat, plasma lipoproteins, and cardiovascular disease. Arteriosclerosis. 1990;10:497-511.
32. Krotkiewski M, Bjorntorp P, Sjastrom L, Smith U. Impact of obesity on metabolism in men and women. Importance of regional adipose distribution. J Clin Invest. 1983;72:1150-1162.
33. Spiegelman D, Issail RG, Bouchard C, Willett WC. Absolute fat mass, percent body fat, and body-fat distribution: which is the real determinant of blood pressure and serum glucose? Am J Clin Nutr. 1992;55:1033-1044.
34. Haffner SM, Karhapää P, Mykkanen L, Laakso M. Insulin resistance, body fat distribution, and sex hormones in men. Diabetes. 1994;43:212-219.
35. Modan M, Halkin H, Almog S, et al. Hyperinsulinemia: a link between hypertension, obesity and glucose intolerance. J Clin Invest. 1985;75:809-817.
36. Genuth SM, Castro JH, Verteo V. Weight reduction in obesity by outpatient semi-starvation. JAMA. 1974;230:987-991.
37. Reisen E, Abel R, Modan M, Silverberg DS, Eliahon HE, Modan B. Effect of weight loss without salt restriction on the reduction of blood pressure in overweight hypertensive patients. N Engl J Med. 1978;298:1-296.
38. Jung RT, Shelby PS, Barrand MA, Callingham BA, James WPT. Role of catecholamines in hypotensive response to dieting. Br Med J. 1979;1:12-13.
39. Tuck ML, Sowers JR, Dornfeld L, Kledzik G, Maxwell M. The effect of weight reduction on blood pressure, plasma renin activity, and plasma aldosterone levels in obese patients. N Engl J Med. 1981;298:1-6.
40. Sowers JR, Nyby M, Stern N, et al. Blood pressure and hormone changes associated with weight reduction in the obese. Hypertension. 1982;4:686-691.
41. + adenosine triphosphate activity in maintenance of elevated blood pressure in obesity: effects of weight loss. Clin Sci. 1982;63:121-124.
42. Reisen E, Frohlich ED, Messerli FH, et al. Cardiovascular changes alter weight reduction in obesity hypertension. Ann Intern Med. 1983;98:315-319.
43. Tuck ML, Sowers JR, Dornfeld L, Whitfield L, Maxwell M. Reductions in plasma catecholamines and blood pressure during weight loss in obese subjects. Acta Endocrinol. 1983;102:252-257.
44. Eggena P, Sowers JR, Maxwell MH, Barrett JD, Golub MS. Hormonal correlates of weight loss associated with blood pressure reduction. Clin Exp Hypertens A. 1991;13:1447-1456.
45. Scherrer U, Nussberger J, Torriani S, et al. Effect of weight reduction in moderately overweight patients on recorded ambulatory blood pressure and free cytosolic platelet calcium. Circulation. 1991;83:552-558.
46. Bonora E, Zavaroni I, Alpi O, et al. Relationship between blood pressure and plasma insulin in non-obese and obese non-diabetic subjects. Diabetoligia. 1987;30:719-723.
47. Landsberg L. Obesity and hypertension: experimental data. J Hypertens. 1992;10(suppl 7):S195-201.
48. Istfan NW, Plaisted CS, Bistrian BR, Blackburn GL. Insulin resistance versus insulin secretion in the hypertension of obesity. Hypertension. 1992;19:385-392.
49. Jacobs DB, Sowers JR, Hmeidan A, Niyogi T, Simpson L, Standley PR. Effects of weight reduction and cellular cation metabolism and vascular resistance. Hypertension. 1993;21:308-314.
50. Sinagru D, Greco D, Scarpitta AM, Bonaventura V. Blood pressure, insulin secretion and resistance in non-hypertensive and hypertensive obese female subjects. Intern J Obesity. 1995;19:610-613.
51. Ikeda T, Gomi T, Hirawa N, Sakurai J, Yoshikawa N. Improvement of insulin sensitivity contributes to blood pressure reduction after weight loss in hypertensive subjects with obesity. Hypertension. 1996;27:1180-1186.
52. Modan M, Halkin H, Lusky A, Segal P, Fuchs Z, Chetrit A. Hyperinsulinemia is characterized by jointly disturbed plasma VLDL, LDL, and HDL levels. Arteriosclerosis. 1988;8:227-236.
53. Landin D, Krotkiewski M, Smith U. Importance of obesity for the metabolic abnormalities associated with an abdominal fat distribution. Metabolism. 1989;38:572-576.
54. Jensen M, Haymond M, Rizza R, Cryer P, Moles J. Influence of body fat distribution on free fatty acid metabolism in obesity. J Clin Invest. 1989;83:1168-1173.
55. Landin K, Lonnroth M, Krotkiewski M, Holm G, Smith U. Increased insulin resistance and fat cell lipolysis in obese but not lean women with a high waist/ hip ratio. Eur J Clin Invest. 1990;20:530-535.
56. Landin K, Stigendal L, Eriksson, et al. Abdominal obesity is associated with an impaired fibrinolytic activity and elevated plasminogen activator inhibitor-1. Metabolism. 1990;39:1044-1048.
57. Stevens J, Keil JE, Rust PF, et al. Body mass index and body girths as predictors of mortality in black and white women. Arch Intern Med. 1992;152:1257-1262.
58. Dowse GK, Zimmet PZ, Gareebou H, et al. Abdominal obesity and physical inactivity as risk factors for NIDDM and impaired glucose tolerance in Indian, Creole, and Chinese Mauritians. Diabetes Care. 1991;14:271-282.
59. 1C, blood pressure and blood lipids in urban Japanese men. Int J Epidemiol. 1991;20:88-94.
60. Hodge AM, Dowse GK, Zimmet PZ. Association of body mass index and waist-hip circumference ratio with cardiovascular disease risk factors in Micronesian Nauruans. Int J Obes. 1993;17:399-407.
61. Plasma lipids and lipoproteins and the prevalence of risk for coronary heart disease in Canadian adults. Can Med Assoc J. 1992;146:1977-1988.
62. Gelskey D, Young TK, MacDonald SM. Screening with total cholesterol: determining sensitivity and specificity of the National Cholesterol Education Program's guidelines from a population survey. J Clin Epidemiol. 1994;47:547-553.
63. Zavaroni I, Dall'Aglio E, Bruschi F, et al. Effect of age and environmental factors on glucose tolerance and insulin secretion in a worker population. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1986;34:271-275.
64. Reaven GM, Reaven EP. Age, glucose intolerance, and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1985;33:286-290.
65. Busby MJ, Bellantoni MF, Tobin JD, et al. Glucose tolerance in women: the effects of age, body composition, and sex hormones. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1992;40:497-502.
66. Larsson B, Svardsudd K, Welin L, Wilhelmsen L, Bjorntorp P, Tibblin G. Abdominal adipose tissue distribution, obesity, and risk of cardiovascular disease and death: 13 years follow-up of participants in the study of men born in 1913. Br Med J. 1984;288:1401-1404.
67. Ohlson LO, Larsson B, Svardsudd K, et al. The influence of body fat distribution on the incidence of diabetes mellitus: 13.5 years of follow-up of the participants in the study of men born in 1913. Diabetes. 1985;34:1055-1058.
68. Ohlson LO, Larsson B, Svardsudd K, et al. The influence of body fat distribution on the incidence of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes. 1987;36:44-48.
69. Hollenbeck CB, Haskell W, Rosenthal M, et al. Effect of habitual physical activity on regulation of insulin-stimulated glucose disposal in older males. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1984;33:273-277.
70. Shimokata H, Andres R, Coon PJ, et al. Studies in the distribution of body fat II. Longitudinal effects of change in weight. Int J Obes. 1989;13:455-464.
71. Lipson LG. Diabetes in the elderly: diagnosis, pathogenesis, and therapy. Am J Med. 1986;80:10-21.
72. Tsui EYL, Zinman B. Exercise and diabetes: new insights and therapeutic goals. The Endocrinologist. 1995;5:263-271.
73. Laakso M, Edelman SV, Brechtel O, Baron AD. Decreased effect of insulin to stimulate skeletal muscle blood flow. J Clin Invest. 1990;85:1844-1852.
74. Long SD, O'Brien K, MacDonald KG, et al. Weight loss in severely obese subjects prevents the progression of impaired glucose tolerance in type II diabetes. A longitudinal interventional study. Diabetes Care. 1994;17:372-375.
75. Wing R, Blair E, Marcus M. Year-long weight loss treatment for obese patients with type II diabetes: does including an intermittent very-low calorie diet improve outcome? Am J Med. 1994;97:354-362.
76. Franscilla-Kallunki A, Rissanen A, Ekstrand A, Ollus A, Groop L. Effects of weight loss on substrate oxidation, energy expenditure, and insulin sensitivity in obese individuals. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992;55:356-361.
77. Rotella CM, Cresci B, Mannucci E, et al. Short cycles of very low calorie diet in the therapy of obese type II diabetes mellitus. Endocrinol Invest. 1994;17:171-179.
78. Polonsky KS, Gumbinger B, Ostrega D, Griver K, Tager H, Henry R. Alterations in immunoreactive proinsulin and insulin clearance induced by weight loss in NIDDM. Diabetes. 1994;43:871-877.
79. Wing RR, Blair EH, Bononi P, Marcus MD, Watanabe R, Bergman RN. Caloric restriction per se is a significant factor in improvements in glycemic control and insulin sensitivity during weight loss in obese NIDDM patients. Diabetes Care. 1994;17:30-36.
80. Amatruda JM, Richeson JF, Welle SL, Brodows RG, Lockwood DH. The safety and efficacy of a controlled low-energy ("very low calorie") diet in the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes and obesity. Arch Intern Med. 1988;148:873-877.
81. Pontiroli AE, Calderara A, Pacchioni M, Cassisa C, Pozza G. Weight loss reverses secondary failure of oral hypoglycemic agents in obese non-insulin dependent diabetic patients independently of the duration of the disease. Diabetes et Metabolisme. 1993;19:30-35.
82. Stamler R, Stamler J, Riedlinger WF, Algera G, Roberts RH. Weight and blood pressure. JAMA. 1978;240:1607-1610.
83. Barrett-Connor E, Khaw K-T. Is hypertension more benign when associated with obesity? Circulation. 1985;72:53-60.
84. Gillum RF, Taylor HL, Brozek J, Polansky P, Blackburn H. Indices of obesity and blood pressure in young men followed 32 years. J Chron Dis. 1982;35:211-219.
85. Weinsier RL, Norris DJ, Birch R, et al. The relative contribution of body fat and fat pattern to blood pressure level. Hypertension. 1985;7:578-585.
86. Imai Y, Sato K, Abe K, et al. Effect of weight loss on blood pressure and drug consumption in normal weight patients. Hypertension. 1986;8:223-228.
87. Fagerberg B, Andersson OK, Isaksson B, Bjorntorp P. Blood pressure control during weight reduction in obese hypertensive men: separate effects of sodium and energy restriction. Br Med J. 1984;288:11-14.
88. Dornfeld LP, Maxwell MH, Waks AU, Schroth P, Tuck ML. Obesity and hypertension: long-term effects of weight reduction on blood pressure. Int J Obes. 1985;9:381-389.
89. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1993;329:977-986.
90. Peterson JC, Adler S, Burkart JM, et al. Blood pressure control, proteinuria and the progression of renal disease. The Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study. Ann Intern Med. 1995;123:754-762
91. National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on Hypertension and Renal Disease. 1995 Update of the working group reports on chronic renal failure and renovascular hypertension. Arch Intern Med. In press.
92. Edelson GW, Sowers JR. Managing hypertension in patients with diabetes mellitus. Cont Inter Med. 1995;7:56-62.
93. Abbott K, Sanders L, Bakris GL. Microalbuminuria in type II diabetic patients: implications for prognosis and therapy. Arch Intern Med. 1994;154:146-153.
94. Kilaru P, Bakris GL. Microalbuminuria and progressive renal disease. J Human Hypertens. 1994;8:809-817.
95. Bakris GL. Microalbuminuria: prognostic implications. Cur Opinion in Nephrology and Hypertension. 1996;7:219-223.
96. Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Bain RP, Rohde RD, for the Collaborative Study Group. The effect of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition on diabetic nephropathy. N Engl J Med. 1993;329:1456-1462.
97. Bakris GL, Copley JB, Vicknair N, Leurgans S. Effects of nondihydropyridine calcium antagonists on progression of nephropathy resulting from noninsulin-dependent diabetes: a five year follow-up prospective study. J Invest Med. 1995;43:440A.
98. Ravid M, Lang R, Rachmani R, Lishner M. Long-term renoprotective effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med. 1996;156:286-289.
99. The Fifth Report of the Joint National Committee on the Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Pressure (JNC V). Arch Intern Med. 1993;153:154-182.
100. Warram J, Laffel LM, Valsania P, Christlieb AR, Krolewski AS. Excess mortality associated with diuretic therapy in diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med. 1991;151:1350-1356.
101. Klein R, Moss SE, Lein BEK, DeMets DL. Relation of ocular and systemic factors to survival in diabetes. Arch Intern Med. 1989;149:266-272.
102. MRC trial of treatment of mild hypertension: principal results. Medical Research Council Working Party. Br Med J. 1985;291:97-104.
103. Black HR, Cohen J, Davis BR, et al, for the SHEP Cooperative Research Group. Influence of long-term, low-dose, diuretic-based, antihypertensive therapy on glucose, lipid, and mortality. Hypertension. 1993;21:335-343.
104. Yusuf S, Lessem J, Jha P, Lonn E. Primary and secondary prevention of myocardial infarction and strokes: an update of randomly allocated, controlled trials. J Hypertens. 1993;11(suppl 4):S61-S73.
105. Hoes AW, Grobbee DE, Lubsen J, Man in 't Veld AJ, van der Does E, Hofman A. Diuretics, β-blockers and the risk for sudden cardiac death in hypertensive patients. Ann Intern Med. 1995;123:481-487.
106. Walker WG, Hermann J, Murphy R, Patz A. Elevated blood pressure and angiotensin II are associated with accelerated loss of renal function in diabetic nephropathy. Trans Am Clin Climatol Assoc. 1985;97:94-104.
107. Walker WG, Hermann J, Yin D, Murhpy RP, Patz A. Diuretics accelerate diabetic nephropathy in hypertensive insulin dependent and non-insulin dependent subjects. Trans Assoc Am Phys. 1987;C305-C315.
108. Walker WG, Hermann JA, Anderson JE. Randomized doubly blinded trial of enalapril vs. hydrochlorothiazide on glomerular filtration rate in diabetic nephropathy. (Abstr.) Hypertension. 1993;22:410.
109. Dengel DR, Goldberg AP, Mayuaga RS, Kairis GM, Weir MR. Insulin resistance, elevated glomerular filtration fraction, and renal injury. Hypertension. 1996;28:127-132.
110. Bank N, Lahorra MA, Aynedjian HS, Wilkes BM. Sodium restriction corrects hyperfiltration of diabetes. Am J Physiol. 1988;254:F668-F676.
111. Heeg JE, deJong PE, vanderHem GK, de Zeeuw D. Efficacy and variability of the antiproteinuric effect of ACE inhibition by lisinopril. Kid International. 1989;36:272-279.
112. Bakris GL, Smith AC. Effects of sodium intake on albumin excretion in patients with diabetic nephropathy treated with long-acting calcium antagonists. Ann Intern Med. 1996;125:201-204.
113. Hemmelder MH, de Zeeuw D, Buler H, de Jong PE. Hydrochlorothiazide potentiates the antiproteinuric efficacy of ACE inhibition comparable to dietary salt restriction. (Abstr.) J Am Soc Nephrol. 1995;6:420.
114. Mykkanen L, Kuusisto J, Pyorala K, Laakso M, Haffner SM. Increased risk of non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus in elderly hypertensive subjects. J Hypertens. 1994;12:1425-1432.
115. Bakris GL, Copley JB, Vicknair N. Blood pressure reduction and progression of diabetic nephropathy in African-Americans: a five year follow-up study. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1995;6:446A.
116. Bjorck S, Mulec H, Johnsen SA, Norden G, Aurell M. Renal protective effect of enalapril in diabetic nephropathy. Br Med J. 1992;304:339-343.
117. Mulec H, Johnsen SA, Bjorck S. Long-term enalapril treatment in diabetic nephropathy. Kidney Int. 1994;45(suppl):S141-S144.
118. Nielsen FS, Rossing P, Gall MA, Skott P, Smidt UM, Parving HH. Impact of lisinopril and atenolol on kidney function in hypertensive NIDDM subjects with diabetic nephropathy. Diabetes. 1994;43:1108-1113.
119. Wright A, Barber S, Kendall M, Poole P. Beta-adrenoceptor-blocking drugs and blood sugar control in diabetes mellitus. Br Med J. 1979; 1:159-161.
120. Holm G, Johansson S, Vedin A, Wilhelmsson C, Smith U. The effect of beta-blockade on glucose tolerance and insulin release in adult diabetics. Acta Med Scand. 1980;208:187-191.
121. Dornhorst A, Powell S, Pensky J. Aggravation by propranolol of hyperglycemic effect of hydrochlorothiazide in type II diabetics without alteration in insulin secretion. Lancet. 1985;i:123-126.
122. Bakris GL. Pathogenesis of hypertension in diabetes. Diabetes Reviews. 1995;3:460-476.
123. Gurwitz JH, Bohn RL, Glynn RJ, Monane M, Mogun H, Avorn J. Antihypertensive drug therapy and the initiation of treatment for diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med. 1993;118:273-278.
124. Kasiske BL, Ma JZ, Kalil RSN, Louis TA. Effects of antihypertensive therapy on serum lipids. Ann Intern Med. 1995;122:133-141.
125. Veterans Cooperative Administration Study Group on Anti-Hypertensive Agents: comparison of propranolol and hydrochlorothiazide for the initial treatment of hypertension. II. Results of long-term therapy. JAMA. 1982;248:2004-2011.
126. Pollare T, Lithell H, Selinus J, Berne C. Sensitivity to insulin during treatment with atenolol and metoprolol: a randomized, double blind study of effects on carbohydrate and lipoprotein metabolism in hypertensive patients. Br Med J. 1989;298:1152-1157.
127. Leren P, Helgeland A, Holme J, Foss P, Hjermann J, Lund-Larsen P. Effect of propranolol and prazosin on blood lipids: the Oslo study. Lancet. 1980;ii:4-6.
128. Black HR. Metabolic considerations in the choice of therapy for the hypertensive patient. Am Heart J. 1991;121:707-715.
129. Tanaka N, Sakaguchi S, Oshige K, Nimura T, Kanehisa T. Effect of chronic administration of propranolol on lipoprotein composition. Metabolism. 1976;25:1071-1075.
130. Bakris GL, Barnhill BW, Sadler R. Treatment of arterial hypertension in diabetic man: importance of therapeutic selection. Kid International. 1992;41:912-919.
131. Guthrie GJ, Kotchen TA, Van Loon GR. Clonidine in patients with diabetes and mild hypertension. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1983;34:713-717.
132. Bhandarkar S, Vernekar K. Clonidine as an antihypertensive drug in diabetes. J Postgrad Med. 1978;24:182-185.
133. Nilsson-Ehle P, Ekberg M, Fridstrom P, Ursing D, Lins LE. Lipoproteins and metabolic control in hypertensive type II diabetics treated with clonidine. Acta Med Scand. 1988;224:131-134.
134. Swislocki AL, Vestal RE, Reaven GM, Hoffman BB. Acute metabolic effects of clonidine and adenosine in man. Horm Metab Res. 1993;25:90-95.
135. Barbieri C, Ferrare C, Borzio M, Piepoli V, Caldra R. Metabolic effects of chronic prazosin treatment. Horm Metab Res. 1980;12:331-334.
136. Shionoiri H, Noda K, Miyamoto K. Glucose tolerance during chronic prazosin therapy in patients with essential hypertension. Curr Ther Res. 1986;40:171-180.
137. Broadstone V, Pfeifer M, Bajaj V, Stagner J, Samols E. Alpha-adrenergic blockade improves glucose-potentiated insulin secretion in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Diabetes. 1987;36:932-937.
138. Rabkin SW. Mechanisms of action of adrenergic receptor blockers on lipids during antihypertensive drug treatment. J Clin Pharmacol. 1993;33:286-291.
139. Maheux P, Facchini F, Jeppesen J. Changes in glucose insulin, lipid lipoprotein, and apoprotein concentrations and insulin action in doxazosin-treated patients with hypertension: comparison between nondiabetic individuals and patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Am J Hypertens. 1994;7:416-424.
140. Whitcoft I. Effects of alpha and beta adrenoreceptor and ACE inhibitors on long term glucose and lipid control in hypertensive, non-insulin dependent diabetics. Horm Metab Res. 1990;22(suppl):42-46.
141. Shionoiri H, Gotoh E, Ito T. Long-term therapy with terazosin may improve glucose and lipid metabolism in hypertensives: a multicenter prospective study. Am J Med Sci. 1994;307(suppl 1):S91-S95.
142. Itskovitz HD. Alpha 1-blockade for the treatment of hypertension: a mega study of terazosin in 2214 clinical practice settings. Clin Ther. 1994;16:490-504.
143. Kirk JK, Konen JC, Shihabi Z, Rocco MV, Summerson JH. Effects of terazosin on glycemic control, cholesterol and microalbuminuria in patients with NIDDM and hypertension. J Clin Pharmacol. In press.
144. Levy P. Effects of prazosin on blood pressure and diabetic control in patients with type II diabetes mellitus and mild essential hypertension. Am J Med. 1989;86:59-62.
145. Numabe A, Komatsu K, Frohlich ED. Effects of ANG-converting enzyme and alpha-1 adrenoreceptor inhibition on intrarenal hemodynamics in SHR. Am J Physiol. 1994; 266:R1437-R1442.
146. Jyothirmayi GN, Alluru I, Reddi AS. Doxazosin prevents proteinuria and glomerular loss of heparan sulfate in diabetic rats. Hypertension. 1996;27:1108-1114.
147. Gaber L, Walton C, Brown S, Bakris, GL. Effects of different antihypertensive treatments on morphologic progression of diabetic nephropathy in uninephrectomized dogs. Kidney International. 1994;46:161-169.
148. Maki DD, Ma JZ, Louis TA, Kasiske BL. Effects of antihypertensive agents on the kidney. Arch Intern Med. 1995;155:1073-1082.
149. Bakris GL, Williams B. ACE inhibitors and calcium antagonists alone or combined: is there a difference on progression of diabetic renal disease? J Hypertension. 1995;13(suppl 2):S95-S101.
150. Ferriere M, Bringer J, Richard J, Rodier M, Jaffiol C, Mirouze J. Captopril and insulin sensitivity. Ann Intern Med. 1985;102:134-145.
151. Elling P, Elling H. Penicillamine, captopril, and hypoglycemia. Ann Intern Med. 1985;103:644-645.
152. Buller GK, Perazella M. ACE inhibitor-induced hypoglycemia. Am J Med. 1991;91:104-105.
153. Dietze G, Rett K, Jauch K. Captopril in hypertensive patients with non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). Hertz. 1987;12:16-21.
154. Pollare T, Lithell H, Berne C. A comparison of the effects of hydrochlorothiazide and captopril on glucose and lipid metabolism in patients with hypertension. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:868-873.
155. Torlone E, Britta M, Rambotti AM. Improved insulin action and glycemic control after long-term angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in subjects with arterial hypertension and type II diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1993;16:1347-1355.
156. Lind L, Pollare T, Berne C, Lithell H. Long-term metabolic effects of antihypertensive drugs. Am Heart J. 1994;128:1177-1183.
157. Jauch K, Hartl W, Guenther B, Wichlmayr M, Rett K, Dietze G. Captopril enhances insulin responsiveness of forearm muscle in non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Eur J Clin Invest. 1987;17:448-454.
158. Passa P, LeBlanc H, Marre M. Effects of enalapril in insulin-dependent diabetic subjects with mild to moderate uncomplicated hypertension. Diabetes Care. 1987;10:200-204.
159. Moore M, Elliott T, Nicholls M. Hormonal and metabolic effects of enalapril treatment in hypertensive subjects with NIDDM. Diabetes Care. 1988;11:397-401.
160. Bilo H, Westerman R, Nicolaas-Merkus A, Donker A. Effects of enalapril with and without hydrochlorothiazide in hypertensive patients with non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Res. 1988;9:21-25.
161. Umnerova V, Jarolim M, Jindra A. Control of hyperinsulinemia in essential hypertension using the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, lisinopril. Cor Vasa. 1993;35:75-79.
162. Keilani T, Schlueter WA, Levin ML, Battle DC. Improvement of lipid abnormalities associated with proteinuria using fosinopril, an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor. Ann Intern Med. 1993;118:246-254.
163. Lacourciere Y, Nadeau A, Poireier L, Tancrede G. Captopril or conventional therapy in hypertensive type II diabetics: three-year analysis. Hypertension. 1993;21:786-794.
164. Sano T, Kawamura T, Matsumae H, et al. Effects of long-term enalapril treatment on persistent microalbuminuria in well-controlled hypertensive and normotensive NIDDM patients. Diabetes Care. 1994;17:420-424.
165. Mimran A, Insua A, Ribstein J, Bringer J, Monnier T. Comparative effect of captopril and nifedipine in normotensive patients with incipient diabetic nephropathy. Diabetes Care. 1988;11:850-853.
166. Parving H, Hommel E, Nielsen M, Giese J. Effect of captopril on blood pressure and kidney function in normotensive insulin dependent diabetics with nephropathy. Br Med J. 1989;299:533-536.
167. Bakris GL, Slataper R, Vicknair N, Sadler R. ACE inhibitor mediated reductions in renal size and microalbuminuria in normotensive, diabetic subjects. J Diabetic Complications. 1994;8:2-6.
168. Parving H, Hommel E, Smidt U. Protection of kidney function and decrease in albumuniuria by captopril in insulin dependent diabetes with nephropathy. Br Med J. 1988;297:1086-1091.
169. Lebovitz HE, Wiegmann TB, Cnaan A. Renal protective effects of enalapril in hypertensive NIDDM: role of baseline albuminuria. Kidney Int. 1994;45(suppl):S150-S155.
170. Laffel LMB, McGill JB, Gans DJ, on behalf of the North America Microalbuminuria Study Group. The beneficial effect of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition with captopril on diabetic nephropathy in normotensive IDDM patients with microalbuminuria. Am J Med. 1995;99:497-504.
171. Velussi M, Brocco E, Frigato F, et al. Effects of cilazapril and amlodipine on kidney function in hypertensive NIDDM patients. Diabetes. 1996;45:216-222.
172. Savage S, Johnson NN, Estacio RO. The ABCD (Appropriate Blood Pressure Control in Diabetes) trial: rationale and design of a trial of hypertension control (moderate or intensive) in type II diabetes. Online J Curr Clin Trials Doc. No. 1993;104.
173. Ramsey LE, Yeo WW, Jackson PR. Influence of diuretics, calcium antagonists and alpha-blockers on insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance in hypertensive patients. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1992;20(suppl 11):S49-S54.
174. Dominic J, Miller RE, Anderson J, McAllister R. Pharmacology of verapamil. Impairment of glucose tolerance by verapamil in the conscious dog. Pharmacology. 1980;20:196-202.
175. Rojmark S, Andersson D, Hed R, Nordlund A, Sundblad L, Weichel K. Does verapamil influence glucose induced insulin release in man? Acta Med Scand. 1981;210:501-505.
176. Lyngsoe J, Sorensen M, Sjostrand H, Sengelov H, Thrane MT, Holst J. The effect of sustained release verapamil on glucose metabolism in patients with non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Drugs. 1992;1:85-87.
177. Anderssen D, Rojdmark S. Improvement of glucose tolerance by verapamil in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Acta Med Scand. 1981;210:27-33.
178. Insua A, Ribstein J, Mimran A. Comparative effect of captopril and nifedipine in normotensive patients with incipient diabetic nephropathy. Postgrad Med. 1988;64(suppl 3):59-62.
179. Ferder L, Daccordi H, Martello M, Panzalis M, Inserra F. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors versus calcium antagonists in the treatment of diabetic hypertensive patients. Hypertension. 1992;9(suppl 2):II-237-242.
180. Bakris G. Effects of diltiazem or lisinopril on massive proteinuria associated with diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med. 1990;112:707-708.
181. Trost B, Weidmann P. Nitrendipine in patients with hypertension and diabetes mellitus. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1985;9(suppl 4):S280-S285.
182. Holdaas H, Hartmann A, Lien MG. Contrasting effects of lisinopril and nifedipine on albuminuria and tubular functions in insulin dependent diabetics with nephropathy. J Intern Med. 1991;229:163-170.
183. Jungmann E, Schumm DP, Scheuermann EH, Usadel KH. Long-term antihypertensive therapy of diabetic patients with felodipine: effects of treatment on blood pressure and kidney function parameters. Fortschr Med. 1992;110:224-226.
184. Romero R, Salinas I, Lucas A, Teixido J, Audi L, Sanmarti A. Comparative effects of captopril versus nifedipine on proteinuria and renal function of type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 1992;17:191-198.
185. Comparison between perindopril and nifedipine in hypertensive and normotensive diabetic patients with microalbuminuria: Melbourne Diabetic Nephropathy Study Group. Br Med J. 1991;302:210-216.
186. Baba T, Murabayashi S, Takebe K. Comparison of the renal effects of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor and calcium antagonist in hypertensive type 2 (non-insulin dependent) diabetics with microalbuminuria: a randomized controlled trial. Diabetologia. 1989;32:40-44.
187. Demarie BK, Bakris GL. Effects of different calcium antagonists on proteinuria associated with diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med. 1990;113:987-988.
188. Bakris GL, Stein JH. Diabetic nephropathy. Disease-Month. 1993;39:573-611.
189. Abbott K, Smith AC, Bakris GL. Effects of dihydropyridine calcium antagonists on albuminuria in diabetic subjects. J Clin Pharmacol. 1996;36:274-279.
190. Bretzel RG, Bollen CC, Maeser E, Federlin KF. Nephroprotective effects of nitrendipine in hypertensive type I and type II diabetic patients. Am J Kid Dis. 1993;21(suppl 3):53-64.
191. Gilbert RE, Jerum G, Allen T, Hammond J, Cooper ME, on behalf of the Diabetic Nephropathy Study Group. Effect of different antihypertensive agents on normotensive microalbuminuria patients with IDDM and NIDDM. (Abstr.) J Am Soc Nephrol. 1994;5:377.
192. Gansevoort RT, Sluiter WJ, Hemmelder MH, de Zeeuw D, de Jong PE. Antiproteinuric effect of blood pressure lowering agents: a meta-analysis of comparative trials. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1995;10:1963-1974.
193. Hartmann A, Lund K, Hagel L, et al. Contrasting short term effects of nifedipine on glomerular and tubular functions in glomerulonephritic patients. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1994;5:1385-1390.
194. Bakris GL, Smith AC. Long term effects of two different calcium channel blockers on albuminuria and glomerular sieving. J Am Soc Nephrol. In press.
195. Munter K, Hergenroder S, Jochims K, Kirchengast M. Individual and combined effects of verapamil or trandolapril on glomerular morphology and function in the stroke prone rat. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1996;7:681-686.
196. Bakris GL. Hypertension in diabetic patients: an overview of interventional studies to preserve renal function. Am J Hypertens. 1993;6(suppl 4):40S-147S.
197. Hebert LA, Bain RP, Verme D, et al, for the Collaborative Study Group. Remission of nephrotic range proteinuria in type I diabetes. Kidney Int. 1994;46:1688-1693.
198. Remuzzi A, Perico N, Amuchastegui CS, et al. Short and long term effect of angiotensin II receptor blockade in rats with experimental diabetes. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1993;4:40-49.
199. Munger KA, Jackson EK. Effects of selective A1 receptor blockade on glomerular hemodynamics: involvement of the renin-angiotensin system. Am J Physiol. 1994;267:F783-F790.
200. Nakamura T, Alberola AM, Granger JP. Role of renal interstitial pressure as a mediator of sodium retention during systemic blockade of nitric oxide. Hypertension. 1993;21:956-960.
201. Salazar PJ, Alberola A, Pinilla JM, Romero JC, Quesada T. Salt induced increase in arterial pressure during nitric oxide synthesis inhibition. Hypertension. 1993;22:49-55.
202. Majid DS, Williams A, Navar LG. Inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis attenuates pressure-induced natriuretic responses in anesthetized dogs. Am J Physiol. 1993;264:F79-F87.
203. Yamada SS, Sassaki AL, Fujihara CK, Malheiros DMAC, De Nucci G, Zatz R. Effect of salt intake and inhibitor dose of arterial hypertension and renal injury induced by chronic nitric oxide blockade. Hypertension. 1996;27:1165-1172.
204. Walsh MF, Barazi M, Pete G, Muniyappa R, Dunbar JC, and Sowers JR. Insulin like growth factor one diminishes in vivo and in vitro vascular contractility: role of vascular nitric oxide. Endocrinology. 1986;137:1798-1803.
205. Garcia-Salom MG, Lahera V, Miranda-Guardiola F, Romero JC. Blockade of pressure natriuresis induced by inhibition of renal synthesis of nitric oxide in dogs. Am J Physiol. 1992;262:F1033-F1037.