The natural northern European boreal forests: Unifying the concepts, terminologies, and their application

Silva Fennica

Volumn 42, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 135-146

  Rouvinen, Seppo ^a   Kouki, Jari ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN FINLAND   (Finland)

Author keywords

Biodiversity; Human influence; Natural ecosystems; Natural forests; Protection; Terminology

Indexed keywords

BIODIVERSITY; ECOSYSTEMS; STATISTICS; TERMINOLOGY;

HUMAN INFLUENCE; NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS; NATURAL FORESTS;

FORESTRY;

ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECT; BIODIVERSITY; BOREAL FOREST; CONIFEROUS TREE; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; HABITAT CONSERVATION;

BIODIVERSITY; ECOSYSTEMS; FORESTS; NOMENCLATURE;

EURASIA; EUROPE;

CONIFEROPHYTA;

EID: 41549162875     PISSN: 00375330     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.14214/sf.270     Document Type: Review

References (140)

1. Anderson, J.E. 1991. A conceptual framework for evaluating and quantifying naturalness. Conservation Biology 5: 347-352.
2. Andersson, L.I. & Hytteborn, H. 1991. Bryophytes and decaying wood - a comparison between managed and natural forest. Holarctic Ecology 14: 121-130.
3. Andrews, T. 1996. What is natural in natural areas? Natural Areas Report 8: 2-4.
4. Angelstam, P.K. 1998. Maintaining and restoring biodiversity in European boreal forests by developing natural disturbance regimes. Journal of Vegetation Science 9: 593-602.
5. _ & Kuuluvainen, T. 2004. Boreal forest disturbance regimes, successional dynamics and landscape structures - a European perspective. Ecological Bulletins 51: 117-136.
6. Angermeier, P.L. 1994. Does biodiversity include artificial diversity? Conservation Biology 8: 600-602.
7. _ & Karr, J.R. 1994. Biological integrity versus biological diversity as policy directives. Bioscience 44: 690-697.
8. Atlegrim, O. & Sjöberg, K. 2004. Selective felling as a potential tool for maintaining biodiversity in managed forests. Biodiversity and Conservation 13: 1123-1133.
9. Axelsson, A.-L. 2001. Forest landscape change in boreal Sweden 1850-2000 - a multi-scale approach. PhD dissertation. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden. 44 p.
10. _ & Östlund, L. 2001. Retrospective gap analysis in a Swedish boreal forest landscape using historical data. Forest Ecology and Management 147: 109-122.
11. Berglund, H. & Jonsson, B.G. 2001. Predictability of plant and fungal species richness of old- growth boreal forest islands. Journal of Vegetation Science 12: 857-866.
12. Bradshaw, R.H.W. 2005. What is a natural forest? In: Stanturf, J.A. & Madsen, P. (eds.). Restoration of boreal and temperate forests. CRC Press, New York. p. 15-30.
13. Bryant, D., Nielsen, D. & Tangley, L. 1997. Last frontier forests: Ecosystems and economies on the edge. World Resources Institute, Washington (DC).
14. Buchwald, E. 2002. A hierarchical terminology for more or less natural forests in relation to sustainable management and biodiversity conservation. Paper presented September 2002 in Rome to the Second Expert Meeting on Harmonizing Forestrelated definitions. http://www.skovognatur.dk/. p. 1-17.
15. Carle, J. & Holmgren, P. 2003. Definitions related to planted forests. Forest Resource Assessment Programme. Working Paper 79. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. p. 1-14.
16. Christensen, N.L., Bartuska, A.M., Brown, J.H., Carpenter, S., Dantonio, C., Francis, R., Franklin, J.F., MacMahon, J.A., Noss, R.F., Parsons, D.J., Peterson, C.H., Turner, M.G. & Woodmansee, R.G. 1996. The report of the ecological society of America committee on the scientific basis for ecosystem management. Ecological Applications 6: 665-691.
17. Colak, A.H., Rotherham, I.D. & Calikoglu, M. 2003. Combining 'naturalness concepts' with close-to-nature silviculture. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt 122: 421-431.
18. Comer, P.J. 1997. A "natural" benchmark for ecosystem function. Conservation Biology 11: 301-303.
19. Council of the European Communities. 1992. Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora. The Official Journal of the European Communities L206, 22.7.92, p. 7-50.
20. Drobyshev, I.V. 1999. Regeneration of Norway spruce in canopy gaps in Sphagnum-Myrtillus old-growth forests. Forest Ecology and Management 115: 71-83.
21. _ 2001. Effect of natural disturbances on the abundance of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) regeneration in nemoral forests of the southern boreal zone. Forest Ecology and Management 140: 151-161.
22. Duchesne, L.C. 1994. Defining Canada's old-growth forests - problems and solutions. Forestry Chronicle 70: 739-744.
23. Edman, M. & Jonsson, B.G. 2001. Spatial pattern of downed logs and wood-decaying fungi in an old-growth Picea abies forest. Journal of Vegetation Science 12: 609-620.
24. European Commission. 2003. Interpretation manual of European Union habitats - EUR25. European Commission, DG Environment, Nature and biodiversity. 126 p.
25. FAO. 2000. On definitions of forest and forest change, Forest Resources Assessment Programme Working Paper 33. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
26. FAO. 2001. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000. Main report. FAO Forestry Paper 140. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
27. FAO. 2003. Proceedings: Second expert meeting on harmonizing forest-related definitions for use by various stakeholders. Meeting sponsored by FAO, WMO, IPCC, UNEP, CIFOR and IUFRO, Rome, Italy, 11-13 September, 2002. 323 p.
28. FAO. 2006. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005: Progress towards sustainable forest management. FAO Forestry Paper 147. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
29. Frelich, L.E. & Reich, P.B. 2003. Perspectives on development of definitions and values related to old-growth forests. Environmental Reviews Suppl. 11: 9-22.
30. Gromtsev, A.N. (ed.). 1998. Inventory of natural complexes and ecological feasibility study of Kalevala National Park. Preprint of the paper presented at the session of the Research Board of the Forest Research Institute, Karelia Research Centre, RAS, held on 27 November 1997. Forest Research Institute, Karelian Research Centre, Russian Academy of Sciences, Petrozavodsk, Russia.
31. _ 2002. Natural disturbance dynamics in the boreal forests of European Russia: A review. Silva Fennica 36: 41-55.
32. Groven, R., Rolstad, J., Storaunet, K.O. & Rolstad, E. 2002. Using forest stand reconstructions to assess the role of structural continuity for late-successional species. Forest Ecology and Management 164: 39-55.
33. Haila, Y. 1997. A "natural" benchmark for ecosystem function. Conservation Biology 11: 300-301.
34. _ & Kouki, J. 1994. The phenomenon of biodiversity in conservation biology. Annales Zoologici Fennici 31: 5-18.
35. Hannah, L., Carr, J.L. & Lankerani, A. 1995. Human disturbance and natural habitat - a biome level analysis of a global data set. Biodiversity and Conservation 4: 128-155.
36. Heikinheimo, O. 1915. Kaskiviljelyksen vaikutus Suomen metsiin. Metsähallituksen julkaisuja 2. (In Finnish.)
37. Helms, J.A. 2002. Forest, forestry, forester: What do these terms mean? Journal of Forestry 100: 15-19.
38. _ 2004. Old-growth: What is it? Journal of Forestry 102: 8-12.
39. Hofgaard, A. 1993. Structure and regeneration patterns in a virgin Picea abies forest in northern Sweden. Journal of Vegetation Science 4: 601-608.
40. Hörnberg, G., Ohlson, M. & Zackrisson, O. 1997. Influence of bryophytes and microrelief conditions on Picea abies seed regeneration patterns in boreal old-growth swamp forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 27: 1015-1023.
41. Hull, R.B., Robertson, D.P. & Kendra, A. 2001. Public understandings of nature: a case study of local knowledge about "natural" forest conditions. Society & Natural Resources 14: 325-340.
42. Hunter, M.L. 1989. What constitutes an old-growth stand? Journal of Forestry 87: 33-35.
43. _ 1996. Benchmarks for managing ecosystems: Are human activities natural? Conservation Biology 10: 695-697.
44. Hytteborn, H., Packham, J.R. & Verwijst, T. 1987. Tree population dynamics, stand structure and species composition in the montane virgin forest of Vallibacken, Northern Sweden. Vegetatio 72: 3-19.
45. Innes, J.L. & Er, K.B.H. 2002. Questionable utility of the frontier forest concept. Bioscience 52: 1095-1109.
46. Jonsson, B.G. 2000. Availability of coarse woody debris in a boreal old-growth Picea abies forest. Journal of Vegetation Science 11: 51-56.
47. Junninen, K., Similä, M., Kouki, J. & Kotiranta, H. 2006. Assemblages of wood-inhabiting fungi along the gradients of succession and naturalness in boreal pine-dominated forests in Fennoscandia. Ecography 29: 75-83.
48. Kaila, E.E. 1931. Tar-burning in Finland in the middle of the 18th century. Silva Fennica 21: 1-38.
49. Karjalainen, L. & Kuuluvainen, T. 2002. Amount and diversity of coarse woody debris within a boreal forest landscape dominated by Pinus sylvestris in Vienansalo wilderness, eastern Fennoscandia. Silva Fennica 36: 147-167.
50. Kauppi, P.E., Ausubel, J.H., Fang, J., Mather, A.S., Sedjo, R.A. & Waggoner, P.E. 2006. Returning forests analyzed with the forest identity. PNAS 103: 17574-17579.
51. Kouki, J., Löfman, S., Martikainen, P., Rouvinen, S. & Uotila, A. 2001. Forest fragmentation in Fennoscandia: linking habitat requirements of wood-associated threatened species to landscape and habitat changes. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research Suppl. 3: 27-37.
52. Kuuluvainen, T. 1994. Gap disturbance, ground microtopography & the regeneration dynamics of boreal coniferous forests in Finland - a review. Annales Zoologici Fennici 31: 35-51.
53. _ 2002. Natural variability of forests as a reference for restoring and managing biological diversity in boreal Fennoscandia. Silva Fennica 36: 97-125.
54. _ & Kalmari, R. 2003. Regeneration microsites of Picea abies seedlings in a windthrow area of a boreal old-growth forest in southern Finland. Annales Botanici Fennici 40: 401-413.
55. _, Penttinen, A., Leinonen, K. & Nygren, M. 1996. Statistical opportunities for comparing stand structural heterogeneity in managed and primeval forests: An example from boreal spruce forest in southern Finland. Silva Fennica 30: 315-328.
56. _, Järvinen, E., Hokkanen, T.J., Rouvinen, S. & Heikkinen, K. 1998a. Structural heterogeneity and spatial autocorrelation in a natural mature Pinus sylvestris dominated forest. Ecography 21: 159-174.
57. _, Syrjänen, K. & Kalliola, R. 1998b. Structure of a pristine Picea abies forest in northeastern Europe. Journal of Vegetation Science 9: 563-574.
58. _, Syrjänen, K. & Kalliola, R. 2001. Logs in a pristine Picea abies forest: occurrence, decay stage distribution and spatial pattern. Ecological Bulletins 49: 105-113.
59. Lähde, E., Laiho, O., Norokorpi, Y. & Saksa, T. 1991. The structure of advanced virgin forests in Finland. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 6: 527-537.
60. Landres, P.B., Morgan, P. & Swanson, F.J. 1999. Overview of the use of natural variability concepts in managing ecological systems. Ecological Applications 9: 1179-1188.
61. Laurance, W.F. 2000. Do edge effects occur over large spatial scales? Trends in Ecology & Evolution 15: 134-135.
62. Levin, S.A. 1992. The problem of pattern and scale in ecology. Ecology 73: 1943-1967.
63. Lihtonen, V. 1949. Piirteitä valtion metsätaloudesta. Silva Fennica 66: 1-46. (In Finnish.)
64. Lilja, S. 2006. Ecological restoration of forests in Fennoscandia: defining reference stand structures and immediate effects of restoration. PhD dissertation. Department of Forest Ecology. University of Helsinki, Helsinki. 51 p.
65. _ & Kuuluvainen, T. 2005. Structure of old Pinus sylvestris dominated forest stands along a geographic and human impact gradient in mid-boreal Fennoscandia. Silva Fennica 39: 407-428.
66. _, Wallenius, T. & Kuuluvainen, T. 2006. Structure and development of old Picea abies forests in northern boreal Fennoscandia. Ecoscience 13: 181-192.
67. Lindblad, I. 1998. Wood-inhabiting fungi on fallen logs of Norway spruce: relations to forest management and substrate quality. Nordic Journal of Botany 18: 243-255.
68. Linder, P. 1998. Stand structure and successional trends in forest reserves in boreal Sweden. PhD dissertation. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden. 38 p.
69. Liu, Q.H. & Hytteborn, H. 1991. Gap structure, disturbance and regeneration in a primeval Picea abies forest. Journal of Vegetation Science 2: 391-402.
70. Löfman, S. & Kouki, J. 2001. Fifty years of landscape transformation in managed forests of Southern Finland. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 16: 44-53.
71. Lund, H.G. 2002a. Coming to terms with politicians and definitions. In: Dobbertin, M.K. & Prüller, R. (eds.). Forest terminology: living expert knowledge. How to get society to understand forest terminology. Proceedings of the 6.03.02/SilvaVoc Group session at the IUFRO World Congress 2000 & selected contributions on forest terminology. IUFRO. p. 23-44.
72. _ 2002b. When is a forest not a forest? Journal of Forestry 100: 21-28.
73. _ 2005. Definitions of old growth, pristine, climax, ancient forests, degradation, desertification, forest fragmentation & similar terms. [Online publication], Gainesville, VA: Forest Information Services. Misc. pagination. http://home.comcast.net/~gyde/pristine.htm.
74. Machado, A. 2004. An index of naturalness. Journal for Nature Conservation 12: 95-110.
75. Margules, C. & Usher, M.B. 1981. Criteria used in assessing wildlife conservation potential: A review. Biological Conservation 21: 79-109.
76. Martikainen, P., Siitonen, J., Kaila, L., Punttila, P. & Rauh, J. 1999. Bark beetles (Coleoptera, Scolytidae) and associated beetle species in mature managed and old-growth boreal forests in southern Finland. Forest Ecology and Management 116: 233-245.
77. Maser, C. 1990. On the "naturalness" of natural areas: a perspective for the future. Natural Areas Journal 10: 129-133.
78. Mosseler, A., Thompson, I. & Pendrel, B.A. 2003. Overview of old-growth forests in Canada from a science perspective. Environmental Reviews Suppl. 11: 1-7.
79. Niklasson, M. & Granström, A. 2000. Numbers and sizes of fires: long-term spatially explicit fire history in a Swedish boreal landscape. Ecology 81: 1484-1499.
80. Nilsson, S.G., Hedin, J. & Niklasson, M. 2001. Biodiversity and its assessment in boreal and nemoral forests. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research Suppl. 3: 10-26.
81. _, Niklasson, M., Hedin, J., Aronsson, G., Gutowski, J.M., Linder, P., Ljungberg, H., Mikusinski, G. & Ranius, T. 2002. Densities of large living and dead trees in old-growth temperate and boreal forests. Forest Ecology and Management 161: 189-204.
82. Nyyssönen, A. 1956. Estimation of the cut from stumps. Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae 45: 1-68. (In Finnish with English summary.)
83. Ohlson, M. & Tryterud, E. 1999. Long-term spruce forest continuity - a challenge for a sustainable Scandinavian forestry. Forest Ecology and Management 124: 27-34.
84. Okland, B. 1994. Mycetophilidae (Diptera), an insect group vulnerable to forestry practices - a comparison of clear-cut, managed and seminatural spruce forests in southern Norway. Biodiversity and Conservation 3: 68-85.
85. _ 1996. Unlogged forests: important sites for preserving the diversity of mycetophilids (Diptera: Sciaroidea). Biological Conservation 76: 297-310.
86. _, Rydgren, K., Okland, R.H., Storaunet, K.O. & Rolstad, J. 2003. Variation in environmental conditions, understorey species number, abundance and composition among natural and managed Picea abies forest stands. Forest Ecology and Management 177: 17-37.
87. Östlund, L., Zackrisson, O. & Axelsson, A.L. 1997. The history and transformation of a Scandinavian boreal forest landscape since the 19th century. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 27: 1198-1206.
88. Parviainen, J. 1999. Strict forest reserves in Europe - efforts to enhance biodiversity and strenghten research related to natural forests in Europe. In: Parviainen, J., Little, D., Doyle, M., O'Sullivan, A., Kettunen, M. & Korhonen, M. (eds.). Research in forest reserves and natural forests in European countries. Country reports from the COST Action E4: Forest reserves research network. EFI Proceedings No. 16, European Forest Institute, Joensuu. p. 7-33.
89. Peterken, G.F. 1996. Natural woodland: ecology and conservation in northern temperate regions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
90. Pommerening, A. 2002. Approaches to quantifying forest structures. Forestry 75: 305-324.
91. Punttila, P., Haila, Y., Niemelä, J. & Pajunen, T. 1994. Ant communities in fragments of old-growth taiga and managed surroundings. Annales Zoologici Fennici 31: 131-144.
92. Rolstad, J., Saetersdal, M., Gjerde, I. & Storaunet, K.O. 2004. Wood-decaying fungi in boreal forest: are species richness and abundances influenced by small-scale spatiotemporal distribution of dead wood? Biological Conservation 117: 539-555.
93. Rouvinen, S. 2002. Amount, diversity and spatio-temporal availability of dead wood in old forests in boreal Fennoscandia. PhD dissertation. Faculty of Forestry. University of Joensuu, Joensuu. 53 p.
94. _ & Kouki, J. 2002. Spatiotemporal availability of dead wood in protected old-growth forests: A case study from boreal forests in eastern Finland. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 17: 317-329.
95. _ & Kuuluvainen, T. 1997. Structure and asymmetry of tree crowns in relation to local competition in a natural mature Scots pine forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 27: 890-902.
96. _, Kuuluvainen, T. & Siitonen, J. 2002a. Tree mortality in a Pinus sylvestris dominated boreal forest landscape in Vienansalo wilderness, eastern Fennoscandia. Silva Fennica 36: 127-145.
97. _, Kuuluvainen, T. & Karjalainen, L. 2002b. Coarse woody debris in old Pinus sylvestris dominated forests along a geographic and human impact gradient in boreal Fennoscandia. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 32: 2184-2200.
98. _, Rautiainen, A. & Kouki, J. 2005. A relation between historical forest use and current dead woody material in a boreal protected old-growth forest in Finland. Silva Fennica 39: 21-36.
99. Rydgren, K., Hestmark, G. & Okland, R.H. 1998. Revegetation following experimental disturbance in a boreal old-growth Picea abies forest. Journal of Vegetation Science 9: 763-776.
100. Schuck, A., Parviainen, J. & Bücking, W. 1994. A review of approaches to forestry research on structure, succession and biodiversity of undisturbed and semi-natural forests and woodlands in Europe. EFI Working Paper 3. European Forest Institute, Joensuu, Finland.
101. Shorohova, E.V. & Soloviev, V.A. 2002. Living and dead wood carbon dynamics in pristine boreal Norway spruce forests subjected to windthrow disturbances. In: Shaw, S. & Apps, M. (eds.). The role of boreal forests and forestry in the global carbon budget. Proc. of the IBFRA 2000 Conference, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. p. 179-194.
102. Shrader-Frechette, K.S. & McCoy, E.D. 1995. Natural landscapes, natural communities & natural ecosystems. Forest and Conservation History 39: 138-142.
103. Siitonen, J., Martikainen, P., Punttila, P. & Rauh, J. 2000. Coarse woody debris and stand characteristics in mature managed and old-growth boreal mesic forests in southern Finland. Forest Ecology and Management 128: 211-225.
104. _, Penttilä, R. & Kotiranta, H. 2001. Coarse woody debris, polyporous fungi and saproxylic insects in an old-growth spruce forest in Vodlozero National Park, Russian Karelia. Ecological Bulletins 49: 231-242.
105. Similä, M., Kouki, J., Martikainen, P. & Uotila, A. 2002. Conservation of beetles in boreal pine forests: the effects of forest age and naturalness on species assemblages. Biological Conservation 106: 19-27.
106. _, Kouki, J. & Martikainen, P. 2003. Saproxylic beetles in managed and seminatural Scots pine forests: quality of dead wood matters. Forest Ecology and Management 174: 365-381.
107. Sippola, A.-L. & Renvall, P. 1999. Wood-decomposing fungi and seed-tree cutting: A 40-year perspective. Forest Ecology and Management 115: 183-201.
108. _, Siitonen, J. & Kallio, R. 1998. Amount and quality of coarse woody debris in natural and managed coniferous forests near the timberline in Finnish Lapland. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 13: 204-214.
109. _, Lehesvirta, T. & Renvall, P. 2001. Effects of selective logging on coarse woody debris and diversity of wood-decaying polypores in eastern Finland. Ecological Bulletins 49: 243-254.
110. Söderström, L. 1988. The occurrence of epixylic bryophyte and lichen species in an old natural and a managed forest stand in northeast Sweden. Biological Conservation 45: 169-178.
111. Spies, T.A. 2004. Ecological concepts and diversity of old-growth forests. Journal of Forestry 102: 14-20.
112. Sprugel, D.G. 1991. Disturbance, equilibrium & environmental variability - what is natural vegetation in a changing environment. Biological Conservation 58: 1-18.
113. Stanturf, J.A. 2005. What is forest restoration? In: Stanturf, J.A. & Madsen, P. (eds.). Restoration of boreal and temperate forests. CRC Press, New York. p. 3-11.
114. Steijlen, I., Nilsson, M.C. & Zackrisson, O. 1995. Seed regeneration of Scots pine in boreal forest stands dominated by lichen and feather moss. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 25: 713-723.
115. Stokland, J.N. 2001. The coarse woody debris profile: an archive of recent forest history and an important biodiversity indicator. Ecological Bulletins 49: 71-83.
116. _ & Kauserud, H. 2004. Phellinus nigrolimitatus - a wood-decomposing fungus highly influenced by forestry. Forest Ecology and Management 187: 333-343.
117. Storaunet, K.O. & Rolstad, J. 2002. Time since death and fall of Norway spruce logs in old-growth and selectively cut boreal forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 32: 1801-1812.
118. _ & Rolstad, J. 2004. How long do Norway spruce snags stand? Evaluating four estimation methods. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 34: 376-383.
119. _, Rolstad, J. & Groven, R. 2000. Reconstructing 100-150 years of logging history in coastal spruce forest (Picea abies) with special conservation values in central Norway. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 15: 591-604.
120. _, Rolstad, J., Gjerde, I. & Gundersen, V.S. 2005. Historical logging, productivity & structural char acteristics of boreal coniferous forests in Norway. Silva Fennica 39: 429-442.
121. Stoyan, D. & Penttinen, A. 2000. Recent applications of point process methods in forestry statistics. Statistical Science 15: 61-78.
122. Svensson, J. 1998. Structure and dynamics of an oldgrowth conifer forest on the rising boreal coastline. In: New stand types in boreal forestry. The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Research Papers 714. p. 55-62.
123. Svensson, J. S. & Jeglum, J.K.. 2001. Structure and dynamics of an undisturbed old-growth Norway spruce forest on the rising Bothnian coastline. Forest Ecology and Management 151: 67-79.
124. Sverdrup-Thygeson, A. 2002. Key habitats in the Norwegian production forest: A case study. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 17: 166-178.
125. Swetnam, T.W., Allen, C.D. & Betancourt, J.L. 1999. Applied historical ecology: using the past to manage for the future. Ecological Applications 9: 1189-1206.
126. Uotila, A. 2004. Vegetation patterns in managed and semi-natural boreal forests in eastern Finland and Russian Karelia. PhD dissertation. Faculty of Forestry. University of Joensuu, Joensuu. 48 p.
127. _, Kouki, J., Kontkanen, H. & Pulkkinen, P. 2002. Assessing the naturalness of boreal forests in eastern Fennoscandia. Forest Ecology and Management 161: 257-277.
128. _ & Kouki, J. 2005. Understorey vegetation in spruce-dominated forests in eastern Finland and Russian Karelia: Successional patterns after anthropogenic and natural disturbances. Forest Ecology and Management 215: 113-137.
129. _, Maltamo, M., Uuttera, J. & Isomäki, A. 2001. Stand structure in semi-natural and managed forests in eastern Finland and Russian Karelia. Ecological Bulletins 49: 149-158.
130. _, Kouki, J., Kontkanen, H. & Pulkkinen, P. 2002. Assessing the naturalness of boreal forests in eastern Fennoscandia. Forest Ecology and Management 161: 257-277.
131. _, Hotanen, J.P. & Kouki, J. 2005. Succession of understory vegetation in managed and seminatural Scots pine forests in eastern Finland and Russian Karelia. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 35: 1422-1441.
132. Väisänen, R.A., Järvinen, O. & Rauhala, P. 1986. How are extensive, human-caused habitat alterations expressed on the scale of local populations in boreal forests? Ornis Scandinavica 17: 282-292.
133. Volkov, A.D., Gromtsev, A.N. & Sakovets, V.I. 1997. Climax forests in the north-western taiga zone of Russia: natural characteristics, present state and conservation problems. Preprint of report for the meeting of the Learned Council, Forest Research Institute, Karelian Research Centre, Russian Academy of Sciences, Petrozavodsk, Russia. p. 1-32.
134. Wallenius, T. 2004. Fire histories and tree ages in unmanaged boreal forests in Eastern Fennoscandia and Onega peninsula. PhD dissertation. Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Department of Forest Ecology, Faculty of Biosciences. University of Helsinki, Finland. 31 p.
135. _, Pitkänen, A., Kuuluvainen, T., Pennanen, J. & Karttunen, H. 2005. Fire history and forest age distribution of an unmanaged Picea abies dominated landscape. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 35: 1540-1552.
136. White, L. 1967. Historical roots of our ecological crisis. Science 155: 1203-1207.
137. Wirth, C., Schulze, E.D., Schulze, W., Stunzner-Karbe, D. von, Ziegler, W., Miljukova, I.M., Sogatchev, A., Varlagin, A.B., Panvyorov, M., Grigoriev, S., Kusnetzova, W., Siry, M., Hardes, G., Zimmermann, R. & Vygodskaya, N.N. 1999. Above-ground biomass and structure of pristine Siberian Scots pine forests as controlled by competition and fire. Oecologia 121: 66-80.
138. Wright, D.H. 1990. Human impacts on energy-flow through natural ecosystems & implications for species endangerment. Ambio 19: 189-194.
139. Yakovlev, E., Scherbakov, A., Polevoi, A. & Humala, A. 2000. Insect fauna of the Paanajärvi National Park and proposed Kalevala National Park with particular emphasis on saproxylic Coleoptera, Diptera and Hymenoptera. In: Heikkilä, R., Heikkilä, H., Polevoi, A. & Yakovlev, E. (eds.). Biodiversity of old-growth forests and its conservation in northwestern Russia. North Ostrobothnia Regional Environment Centre, Regional Environmental Publications 158, Oulu, Finland. p. 103-157.
140. Yaroshenko, A.Y., Potapov, P.V. & Turubanova, S.A. 2001. The intact forest landscapes of northern European Russia. Greenpeace Russia and the Global Forest Watch, Moscow.