Molecular diagnostic and surveillance tools for global malaria control

Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease

Volumn 6, Issue 1-2, 2008, Pages 82-99

  Erdman, Laura K ^a,b   Kain, Kevin C ^a,b  

^a McLaughlin Rotman Centre for Global Health   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

Antimalarial resistance; Epidemiology; Plasmodium; Screening

Indexed keywords

ANTIMALARIAL AGENT; CHLOROQUINE; HEMOZOIN; MOLECULAR MARKER;

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ARTICLE; BLOOD CELL COUNT; BLOOD DONOR; BLOOD SMEAR; BLOOD TRANSFUSION; CHROMATOGRAPHY; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH ROUTE; DNA MICROARRAY; ENDEMIC DISEASE; ENZYME IMMUNOASSAY; ENZYME LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY; EPIDEMIC; FLOW CYTOMETRY; GENE AMPLIFICATION; HUMAN; LOOP MEDIATED ISOTHERMAL AMPLIFICATION; MALARIA; MALARIA CONTROL; MASS SPECTROMETRY; MICROSCOPY; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY; NONHUMAN; NUCLEIC ACID SEQUENCE BASED AMPLIFICATION; PARASITE IDENTIFICATION; PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM; PLASMODIUM MALARIAE; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REAL TIME POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; REFUGEE; RESTRICTION FRAGMENT LENGTH POLYMORPHISM; SCREENING; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM; TRAVEL;

ANTIMALARIALS; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; DRUG RESISTANCE; HUMANS; MALARIA; MOLECULAR DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SENTINEL SURVEILLANCE; TRAVEL;

EID: 40649099617     PISSN: 14778939     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2007.10.001     Document Type: Article

References (217)

1. Snow R.W., Guerra C.A., Noor A.M., Myint H.Y., and Hay S.I. The global distribution of clinical episodes of Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Nature 434 7030 (2005) 214-217
2. Gallup J.L., and Sachs J.D. The economic burden of malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64 1-2 Suppl. (2001) 85-96
3. Trape J.F. The public health impact of chloroquine resistance in Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64 1-2 Suppl (2001) 12-17
4. Ryan E.T., and Kain K.C. Health advice and immunizations for travelers. N Engl J Med 342 23 (2000) 1716-1725
5. Kain K.C., MacPherson D.W., Kelton T., Keystone J.S., Mendelson J., and MacLean J.D. Malaria deaths in visitors to Canada and in Canadian travellers: a case series. CMAJ 164 5 (2001) 654-659
6. Martens P., and Hall L. Malaria on the move: human population movement and malaria transmission. Emerg Infect Dis 6 2 (2000) 103-109
7. dos Santos C.C., Anvar A., Keystone J.S., and Kain K.C. Survey of use of malaria prevention measures by Canadians visiting India. CMAJ 160 2 (1999) 195-200
8. Pistone T., Guibert P., Gay F., et al. Malaria risk perception, knowledge and prophylaxis practices among travellers of African ethnicity living in Paris and visiting their country of origin in sub-Saharan Africa. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg (2007)
9. Wellems T.E., and Miller L.H. Two worlds of malaria. N Engl J Med 349 16 (2003) 1496-1498
10. Kain K.C., Harrington M.A., Tennyson S., and Keystone J.S. Imported malaria: prospective analysis of problems in diagnosis and management. Clin Infect Dis 27 1 (1998) 142-149
11. Newman R.D., Parise M.E., Barber A.M., and Steketee R.W. Malaria-related deaths among US travelers, 1963-2001. Ann Intern Med 141 7 (2004) 547-555
12. Amexo M., Tolhurst R., Barnish G., and Bates I. Malaria misdiagnosis: effects on the poor and vulnerable. Lancet 364 9448 (2004) 1896-1898
13. The right tools can save lives. Nature 444 7120 (2006) 681
14. Kublin J.G., Cortese J.F., Njunju E.M., et al. Reemergence of chloroquine-sensitive Plasmodium falciparum malaria after cessation of chloroquine use in Malawi. J Infect Dis 187 12 (2003) 1870-1875
15. Mita T., Kaneko A., Lum J.K., et al. Recovery of chloroquine sensitivity and low prevalence of the Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter gene mutation K76T following the discontinuance of chloroquine use in Malawi. Am J Trop Med Hyg 68 4 (2003) 413-415
16. Labbe A.C., Patel S., Crandall I., and Kain K.C. A molecular surveillance system for global patterns of drug resistance in imported malaria. Emerg Infect Dis 9 1 (2003) 33-36
17. Jelinek T., and Muhlberger N. Surveillance of imported diseases as a window to travel health risks. Infect Dis Clin North Am 19 1 (2005) 1-13
18. Malaria Diagnosis: New Perspectives. Report of a Joint WHO/USAID Informal Consultation. 2000. World Health Organization. Report no: WHO/CDS/RBM/2000.1 cited 2007 Aug 10; Available from: 〈http://www.who.int/malaria/diagnosistechnicalreports.html〉.
19. World Health Organization. Severe and complicated malaria, second ed. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg, 1990;84(Suppl. 2):23-5.
20. Malaria diagnosis: memorandum from a WHO meeting. Bull World Health Organiz 1988;66:621-6.
21. Ohrt C., Purnomo A., Sutamihardja M.A., Tang D., and Kain K.C. Impact of microscopy error on estimates of protective efficacy in malaria-prevention trials. J Infect Dis 186 4 (2002) 540-546
22. Coleman R.E., Maneechai N., Rachaphaew N., et al. Comparison of field and expert laboratory microscopy for active surveillance for asymptomatic Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax in western Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg 67 2 (2002) 141-144
23. Moody A. Rapid diagnostic tests for malaria parasites. Clin Microbiol Rev 15 1 (2002) 66-78
24. Beadle C., Long G.W., Weiss W.R., et al. Diagnosis of malaria by detection of Plasmodium falciparum HRP-2 antigen with a rapid dipstick antigen-capture assay. Lancet 343 8897 (1994) 564-568
25. Shiff C.J., Premji Z., and Minjas J.N. The rapid manual ParaSight-F test. A new diagnostic tool for Plasmodium falciparum infection. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 87 6 (1993) 646-648
26. Shiff C.J., Minjas J., and Premji Z. The ParaSight-F test: a simple rapid manual dipstick test to detect Plasmodium falciparum infection. Parasitol Today 10 12 (1994) 494-495
27. Bell D., Wongsrichanalai C., and Barnwell J.W. Ensuring quality and access for malaria diagnosis: how can it be achieved?. Nat Rev Microbiol 4 9 Suppl. (2006) S7-S20
28. Coleman R.E., Maneechai N., Rachapaew N., et al. Field evaluation of the ICT Malaria Pf/Pv immunochromatographic test for the detection of asymptomatic malaria in a Plasmodium falciparum/vivax endemic area in Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg 66 4 (2002) 379-383
29. Murray C.K., Bell D., Gasser R.A., and Wongsrichanalai C. Rapid diagnostic testing for malaria. Trop Med Int Health 8 10 (2003) 876-883
30. Mason D.P., Kawamoto F., Lin K., Laoboonchai A., and Wongsrichanalai C. A comparison of two rapid field immunochromatographic tests to expert microscopy in the diagnosis of malaria. Acta Trop 82 1 (2002) 51-59
31. Marx A., Pewsner D., Egger M., et al. Meta-analysis: accuracy of rapid tests for malaria in travelers returning from endemic areas. Ann Intern Med 142 10 (2005) 836-846
32. Farcas G.A., Zhong K.J., Mazzulli T., and Kain K.C. Evaluation of the RealArt Malaria LC real-time PCR assay for malaria diagnosis. J Clin Microbiol 42 2 (2004) 636-638
33. Pieroni P., Mills C.D., Ohrt C., Harrington M.A., and Kain K.C. Comparison of the ParaSight-F test and the ICT Malaria Pf test with the polymerase chain reaction for the diagnosis of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in travellers. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 92 2 (1998) 166-169
34. Baker J., McCarthy J., Gatton M., et al. Genetic diversity of Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich protein 2 (PfHRP2) and its effect on the performance of PfHRP2-based rapid diagnostic tests. J Infect Dis 192 5 (2005) 870-877
35. Craig M.H., Bredenkamp B.L., Williams C.H., et al. Field and laboratory comparative evaluation of ten rapid malaria diagnostic tests. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 96 3 (2002) 258-265
36. Mayxay M., Pukrittayakamee S., Chotivanich K., Looareesuwan S., and White N.J. Persistence of Plasmodium falciparum HRP-2 in successfully treated acute falciparum malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 95 2 (2001) 179-182
37. Grobusch M.P., Hanscheid T., Gobels K., et al. Comparison of three antigen detection tests for diagnosis and follow-up of falciparum malaria in travellers returning to Berlin, Germany. Parasitol Res 89 5 (2003) 354-357
38. Srinivasan S., Moody A.H., and Chiodini P.L. Comparison of blood-film microscopy, the OptiMAL dipstick, Rhodamine-123 fluorescence staining and PCR, for monitoring antimalarial treatment. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 94 3 (2000) 227-232
39. Moody A.H., and Chiodini P.L. Non-microscopic method for malaria diagnosis using OptiMAL IT, a second-generation dipstick for malaria pLDH antigen detection. Br J Biomed Sci 59 4 (2002) 228-231
40. Rubio J.M., Buhigas I., Subirats M., Baquero M., Puente S., and Benito A. Limited level of accuracy provided by available rapid diagnosis tests for malaria enhances the need for PCR-based reference laboratories. J Clin Microbiol 39 7 (2001) 2736-2737
41. Tjitra E., and Anstey N.M. Will the high rates of post-treatment sexual stage parasitaemia seen in malaria-endemic areas make the optiMAL antigen test unreliable in predicting malaria treatment outcome?. Br J Haematol 113 1 (2001) 255-257
42. Miller R.S., McDaniel P., and Wongsrichanalai C. Following the course of malaria treatment by detecting parasite lactate dehydrogenase enzyme. Br J Haematol 113 2 (2001) 558-559
43. Mueller I., Betuela I., Ginny M., Reeder J.C., and Genton B. The sensitivity of the OptiMAL rapid diagnostic test to the presence of Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes compromises its ability to monitor treatment outcomes in an area of Papua New Guinea in which malaria is endemic. J Clin Microbiol 45 2 (2007) 627-630
44. Chilton D., Malik A.N., Armstrong M., Kettelhut M., Parker-Williams J., and Chiodini P.L. Use of rapid diagnostic tests for diagnosis of malaria in the UK. J Clin Pathol 59 8 (2006) 862-866
45. Ochola L.B., Vounatsou P., Smith T., Mabaso M.L., and Newton C.R. The reliability of diagnostic techniques in the diagnosis and management of malaria in the absence of a gold standard. Lancet Infect Dis 6 9 (2006) 582-588
46. Jorgensen P., Chanthap L., Rebueno A., Tsuyuoka R., and Bell D. Malaria rapid diagnostic tests in tropical climates: the need for a cool chain. Am J Trop Med Hyg 74 5 (2006) 750-754
47. Chiodini P.L., Bowers K., Jorgensen P., et al. The heat stability of Plasmodium lactate dehydrogenase-based and histidine-rich protein 2-based malaria rapid diagnostic tests. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 101 4 (2007) 331-337
48. Rennie W., Phetsouvanh R., Lupisan S., et al. Minimising human error in malaria rapid diagnosis: clarity of written instructions and health worker performance. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 101 1 (2007) 9-18
49. Bell D., Go R., Miguel C., Walker J., Cacal L., and Saul A. Diagnosis of malaria in a remote area of the Philippines: comparison of techniques and their acceptance by health workers and the community. Bull World Health Organ 79 10 (2001) 933-941
50. Shillcutt S.D.M.C., Coleman P.G., Mills A.J., and Goodman C.A. Cost-Effectiveness of Malaria Diagnosis in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Role of Rapid Diagnostic Tests in Rural Settings with High Plasmodium falciparum transmission (2006), London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
51. Rolland E., Checchi F., Pinoges L., Balkan S., Guthmann J.P., and Guerin P.J. Operational response to malaria epidemics: are rapid diagnostic tests cost-effective?. Trop Med Int Health 11 4 (2006) 398-408
52. Trachsler M., Schlagenhauf P., and Steffen R. Feasibility of a rapid dipstick antigen-capture assay for self-testing of travellers' malaria. Trop Med Int Health 4 6 (1999) 442-447
53. Funk M., Schlagenhauf P., Tschopp A., and Steffen R. MalaQuick versus ParaSight F as a diagnostic aid in travellers' malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 93 3 (1999) 268-272
54. Jelinek T., Amsler L., Grobusch M.P., and Nothdurft H.D. Self-use of rapid tests for malaria diagnosis by tourists. Lancet 354 9190 (1999) 1609
55. Whitty C.J.M., Armstrong M., and Behrens R.H. Self-testing for falciparum malaria with antigen-capture cards by travelers with symptoms of malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 63 5-6 (2000) 295-297
56. Jelinek T. Malaria self-testing by travellers: opportunities and limitations. Travel Med Infect Dis 2 3-4 (2004) 143-148
57. Towards Quality Testing of Malaria Rapid Diagnostic Tests: Evidence and Methods. 2006. World Health Organization [cited 2007 Aug 11]; Available from: 〈http://www.who.int/malaria/rdt.html〉.
58. Snounou G., Viriyakosol S., Jarra W., Thaithong S., and Brown K.N. Identification of the four human malaria parasite species in field samples by the polymerase chain reaction and detection of a high prevalence of mixed infections. Mol Biochem Parasitol 58 2 (1993) 283-292
59. Rubio J.M., Benito A., Roche J., et al. Semi-nested, multiplex polymerase chain reaction for detection of human malaria parasites and evidence of Plasmodium vivax infection in Equatorial Guinea. Am J Trop Med Hyg 60 2 (1999) 183-187
60. Humar A., Harrington M.A., and Kain K.C. Evaluation of a non-isotopic polymerase chain reaction-based assay to detect and predict treatment failure of Plasmodium vivax malaria in travellers. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 91 4 (1997) 406-409
61. Zhong K.J., and Kain K.C. Evaluation of a colorimetric PCR-based assay to diagnose Plasmodium falciparum malaria in travelers. J Clin Microbiol 37 2 (1999) 339-341
62. Calderaro A., Piccolo G., Zuelli C., et al. Evaluation of a new plate hybridization assay for the laboratory diagnosis of imported malaria in Italy. New Microbiol 27 2 (2004) 163-171
63. Rubio J.M., Benito A., Berzosa P.J., et al. Usefulness of seminested multiplex PCR in surveillance of imported malaria in Spain. J Clin Microbiol 37 10 (1999) 3260-3264
64. Speers D.J., Ryan S., Harnett G., and Chidlow G. Diagnosis of malaria aided by polymerase chain reaction in two cases with low-level parasitaemia. Intern Med J 33 12 (2003) 613-615
65. Blossom D.B., King C.H., and Armitage K.B. Occult Plasmodium vivax infection diagnosed by a polymerase chain reaction-based detection system: a case report. Am J Trop Med Hyg 73 1 (2005) 188-190
66. Singh B., Cox-Singh J., Miller A.O., Abdullah M.S., Snounou G., and Rahman H.A. Detection of malaria in Malaysia by nested polymerase chain reaction amplification of dried blood spots on filter papers. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 90 5 (1996) 519-521
67. Rougemont M., Van Saanen M., Sahli R., Hinrikson H.P., Bille J., and Jaton K. Detection of four Plasmodium species in blood from humans by 18S rRNA gene subunit-based and species-specific real-time PCR assays. J Clin Microbiol 42 12 (2004) 5636-5643
68. Swan H., Sloan L., Muyombwe A., et al. Evaluation of a real-time polymerase chain reaction assay for the diagnosis of malaria in patients from Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg 73 5 (2005) 850-854
69. Perandin F., Manca N., Calderaro A., et al. Development of a real-time PCR assay for detection of Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, and Plasmodium ovale for routine clinical diagnosis. J Clin Microbiol 42 3 (2004) 1214-1219
70. Mangold K.A., Manson R.U., Koay E.S., et al. Real-time PCR for detection and identification of Plasmodium spp. J Clin Microbiol 43 5 (2005) 2435-2440
71. de Monbrison F., Angei C., Staal A., Kaiser K., and Picot S. Simultaneous identification of the four human Plasmodium species and quantification of Plasmodium DNA load in human blood by real-time polymerase chain reaction. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 97 4 (2003) 387-390
72. Fabre R., Berry A., Morassin B., and Magnaval J.F. Comparative assessment of conventional PCR with multiplex real-time PCR using SYBR Green I detection for the molecular diagnosis of imported malaria. Parasitology 128 Part 1 (2004) 15-21
73. Swan H.S.L., Muyombwe A., Chavalitshewinkoon-Petmitr P., Krudsood S., Leowattana W., Wilairatana P., et al. Evaluation of a real-time polymerase chain reaction assay for the diagnosis of malaria in patients from Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg 73 5 (2005) 850-854
74. Kain K.C., Kyle D.E., Wongsrichanalai C., et al. Qualitative and semiquantitative polymerase chain reaction to predict Plasmodium falciparum treatment failure. J Infect Dis 170 6 (1994) 1626-1630
75. Jarra W., and Snounou G. Only viable parasites are detected by PCR following clearance of rodent malarial infections by drug treatment or immune responses. Infect Immun 66 8 (1998) 3783-3787
76. Vo T.K., Bigot P., Gazin P., et al. Evaluation of a real-time PCR assay for malaria diagnosis in patients from Vietnam and in returned travellers. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 101 5 (2007) 422-428
77. Bialasiewicz S., Whiley D.M., Nissen M.D., and Sloots T.P. Impact of competitive inhibition and sequence variation upon the sensitivity of malaria PCR. J Clin Microbiol 45 5 (2007) 1621-1623
78. Calderaro A., Piccolo G., Perandin F., et al. Genetic polymorphisms influence Plasmodium ovale PCR detection accuracy. J Clin Microbiol 45 5 (2007) 1624-1627
79. Morassin B., Fabre R., Berry A., and Magnaval J.F. One year's experience with the polymerase chain reaction as a routine method for the diagnosis of imported malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 66 5 (2002) 503-508
80. Yang S., and Rothman R.E. PCR-based diagnostics for infectious diseases: uses, limitations, and future applications in acute-care settings. Lancet Infect Dis 4 6 (2004) 337-348
81. Holland C.A., and Kiechle F.L. Point-of-care molecular diagnostic systems-past, present and future. Curr Opin Microbiol 8 5 (2005) 504-509
82. Espy M.J., Uhl J.R., Sloan L.M., et al. Real-time PCR in clinical microbiology: applications for routine laboratory testing. Clin Microbiol Rev 19 1 (2006) 165-256
83. Gunson R.N., Collins T.C., and Carman W.F. Practical experience of high throughput real time PCR in the routine diagnostic virology setting. J Clin Virol 35 4 (2006) 355-367
84. Fortina P., Surrey S., and Kricka L.J. Molecular diagnostics: hurdles for clinical implementation. Trends Mol Med 8 6 (2002) 264-266
85. Hanscheid T., and Grobusch M.P. How useful is PCR in the diagnosis of malaria?. Trends Parasitol 18 9 (2002) 395-398
86. Djimde A.A., Dolo A., Ouattara A., Diakite S., Plowe C.V., and Doumbo O.K. Molecular diagnosis of resistance to antimalarial drugs during epidemics and in war zones. J Infect Dis 190 4 (2004) 853-855
87. Agrawal N., Hassan Y.A., and Ugaz V.M. A pocket-sized convective PCR thermocycler. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 46 23 (2007) 4316-4319
88. Shekalaghe S.A., Bousema J.T., Kunei K.K., et al. Submicroscopic Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte carriage is common in an area of low and seasonal transmission in Tanzania. Trop Med Int Health 12 4 (2007) 547-553
89. John C.C., McHugh M.M., Moormann A.M., Sumba P.O., and Ofulla A.V. Low prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum infection among asymptomatic individuals in a highland area of Kenya. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 99 10 (2005) 780-786
90. Coleman R.E., Sattabongkot J., Promstaporm S., et al. Comparison of PCR and microscopy for the detection of asymptomatic malaria in a Plasmodium falciparum/vivax endemic area in Thailand. Malar J 5 (2006) 121
91. Poon L.L., Wong B.W., Ma E.H., et al. Sensitive and inexpensive molecular test for falciparum malaria: detecting Plasmodium falciparum DNA directly from heat-treated blood by loop-mediated isothermal amplification. Clin Chem 52 2 (2006) 303-306
92. Han E.T., Watanabe R., Sattabongkot J., et al. Detection of four Plasmodium species by genus- and species-specific loop-mediated isothermal amplification for clinical diagnosis. J Clin Microbiol 45 8 (2007) 2521-2528
93. Parida M., Posadas G., Inoue S., Hasebe F., and Morita K. Real-time reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification for rapid detection of West Nile virus. J Clin Microbiol 42 1 (2004) 257-263
94. Schoone G.J., Oskam L., Kroon N.C., Schallig H.D., and Omar S.A. Detection and quantification of Plasmodium falciparum in blood samples using quantitative nucleic acid sequence-based amplification. J Clin Microbiol 38 11 (2000) 4072-4075
95. Mens P.F., Schoone G.J., Kager P.A., and Schallig H.D. Detection and identification of human Plasmodium species with real-time quantitative nucleic acid sequence-based amplification. Malar J 5 (2006) 80
96. Omar S.A., Mens P.F., Schoone G.J., et al. Plasmodium falciparum: evaluation of a quantitative nucleic acid sequence-based amplification assay to predict the outcome of sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine treatment of uncomplicated malaria. Exp Parasitol 110 1 (2005) 73-79
97. Lanciotti R.S., and Kerst A.J. Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification assays for rapid detection of West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis viruses. J Clin Microbiol 39 12 (2001) 4506-4513
98. Gilbert G.L. Molecular diagnostics in infectious diseases and public health microbiology: cottage industry to postgenomics. Trends Mol Med 8 6 (2002) 280-287
99. Palacios G., Quan P.L., Jabado O.J., et al. Panmicrobial oligonucleotide array for diagnosis of infectious diseases. Emerg Infect Dis 13 1 (2007) 73-81
100. Demirev P.A., Feldman A.B., Kongkasuriyachai D., Scholl P., Sullivan Jr. D., and Kumar N. Detection of malaria parasites in blood by laser desorption mass spectrometry. Anal Chem 74 14 (2002) 3262-3266
101. Scholl P.F., Kongkasuriyachai D., Demirev P.A., et al. Rapid detection of malaria infection in vivo by laser desorption mass spectrometry. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71 5 (2004) 546-551
102. Nyunt M., Pisciotta J., Feldman A.B., et al. Detection of Plasmodium falciparum in pregnancy by laser desorption mass spectrometry. Am J Trop Med Hyg 73 3 (2005) 485-490
103. Mockenhaupt F.P., Ulmen U., von Gaertner C., Bedu-Addo G., and Bienzle U. Diagnosis of placental malaria. J Clin Microbiol 40 1 (2002) 306-308
104. Malhotra I., Dent A., Mungai P., Muchiri E., and King C.L. Real-time quantitative PCR for determining the burden of Plasmodium falciparum parasites during pregnancy and infancy. J Clin Microbiol 43 8 (2005) 3630-3635
105. Duffy P., and Fried M. Malaria: new diagnostics for an old problem. Am J Trop Med Hyg 73 3 (2005) 482-483
106. Mann M. Mass tool for diagnosis. Nature 418 6899 (2002) 731-732
107. Wu C.I., Tsai C.C., Lu C.C., et al. Diagnosis of occult blood in human feces using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization/time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Clin Chim Acta (2007)
108. Spitzer A.R., and Chace D. Mass spectrometry in neonatal medicine and clinical diagnosis-the [corrected] potential use of mass spectrometry in neonatal brain [corrected] monitoring. Clin Perinatol 33 3 (2006) 729-744 viii
109. Conrads T.P., Hood B.L., Issaq H.J., and Veenstra T.D. Proteomic patterns as a diagnostic tool for early-stage cancer: a review of its progress to a clinically relevant tool. Mol Diagn 8 2 (2004) 77-85
110. Fawzi Z.O., Fakhro N.A., Nabhan R.A., Alloueche A., and Scott C.S. Differences in automated depolarization patterns of Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax malaria infections defined by the Cell-Dyn CD4000 haematology analyser. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 97 1 (2003) 71-79
111. Dromigny J.A., Jambou R., Scott C.S., and Perrier-Gros-Claude J.D. Performance evaluation of automated depolarization analysis for detecting clinically unsuspected malaria in endemic countries. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 99 6 (2005) 430-439
112. Mendelow B.V., Lyons C., Nhlangothi P., et al. Automated malaria detection by depolarization of laser light. Br J Haematol 104 3 (1999) 499-503
113. Padial M.M., Subirats M., Puente S., et al. Sensitivity of laser light depolarization analysis for detection of malaria in blood samples. J Med Microbiol 54 Part 5 (2005) 449-452
114. Scott C.S., van Zyl D., Ho E., et al. Automated detection of malaria-associated intraleucocytic haemozoin by Cell-Dyn CD4000 depolarization analysis. Clin Lab Haematol 25 2 (2003) 77-86
115. Hanscheid T., Melo-Cristino J., and Pinto B.G. Automated detection of malaria pigment in white blood cells for the diagnosis of malaria in Portugal. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64 5-6 (2001) 290-292
116. Suh I.B., Kim H.J., Kim J.Y., et al. Evaluation of the Abbott Cell-Dyn 4000 hematology analyzer for detection and therapeutic monitoring of Plasmodium vivax in the Republic of Korea. Trop Med Int Health 8 12 (2003) 1074-1081
117. Grobusch M.P., Hanscheid T., Kramer B., et al. Sensitivity of hemozoin detection by automated flow cytometry in non- and semi-immune malaria patients. Cytometry B Clin Cytom 55 1 (2003) 46-51
118. Kramer B., Grobusch M.P., Suttorp N., Neukammer J., and Rinneberg H. Relative frequency of malaria pigment-carrying monocytes of nonimmune and semi-immune patients from flow cytometric depolarized side scatter. Cytometry 45 2 (2001) 133-140
119. Hanscheid T., Valadas E., and Grobusch M.P. Automated malaria diagnosis using pigment detection. Parasitol Today 16 12 (2000) 549-551
120. Hanscheid T., Pinto B.G., Pereira I., Cristino J.M., and Valadas E. Avoiding misdiagnosis of malaria: a novel automated method allows specific diagnosis, even in the absence of clinical suspicion. Emerg Infect Dis 5 6 (1999) 836-838
121. de Langen A.J., van Dillen J., de Witte P., Mucheto S., Nagelkerke N., and Kager P. Automated detection of malaria pigment: feasibility for malaria diagnosing in an area with seasonal malaria in northern Namibia. Trop Med Int Health 11 6 (2006) 809-816
122. Jani I.V., Janossy G., Brown D.W., and Mandy F. Multiplexed immunoassays by flow cytometry for diagnosis and surveillance of infectious diseases in resource-poor settings. Lancet Infect Dis 2 4 (2002) 243-250
123. Maroushek S.R., Aguilar E.F., Stauffer W., and Abd-Alla M.D. Malaria among refugee children at arrival in the United States. Pediatr Infect Dis J 24 5 (2005) 450-452
124. Eliades M.J., Shah S., Nguyen-Dinh P., et al. Malaria surveillance-United States, 2003. MMWR Surveill Summ 54 2 (2005) 25-40
125. Kazmi J.H., and Pandit K. Disease and dislocation: the impact of refugee movements on the geography of malaria in NWFP, Pakistan. Soc Sci Med 52 7 (2001) 1043-1055
126. Miller J.M., Boyd H.A., Ostrowski S.R., et al. Malaria, intestinal parasites, and schistosomiasis among Barawan Somali refugees resettling to the United States: a strategy to reduce morbidity and decrease the risk of imported infections. Am J Trop Med Hyg 62 1 (2000) 115-121
127. Cherian S., Fagan J.M., Thambiran A., Geddes J., and Burgner D. Severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria in refugee children despite reported predeparture antimalarial treatment. Med J Aust 185 11-12 (2006) 611
128. Causer L.M., Bishop H.S., Sharp D.J., et al. Rapid malaria screening and targeted treatment of United States-bound Montagnard refugees from Cambodia in 2002. Am J Trop Med Hyg 72 6 (2005) 688-693
129. Ndao M., Bandyayera E., Kokoskin E., Gyorkos T.W., MacLean J.D., and Ward B.J. Comparison of blood smear, antigen detection, and nested-PCR methods for screening refugees from regions where malaria is endemic after a malaria outbreak in Quebec, Canada. J Clin Microbiol 42 6 (2004) 2694-2700
130. Stauffer W.M., Newberry A.M., Cartwright C.P., et al. Evaluation of malaria screening in newly arrived refugees to the United States by microscopy and rapid antigen capture enzyme assay. Pediatr Infect Dis J 25 10 (2006) 948-950
131. Collinet-Adler S., Stauffer W.M., Boulware D.R., Larsen K.L., Rogers T.B., and Williams D.N. Financial implications of refugee malaria: the impact of pre-departure presumptive treatment with anti-malarial drugs. Am J Trop Med Hyg 77 3 (2007) 458-463
132. Seed C.R., Kitchen A., and Davis T.M. The current status and potential role of laboratory testing to prevent transfusion-transmitted malaria. Transfus Med Rev 19 3 (2005) 229-240
133. Slinger R., Giulivi A., Bodie-Collins M., et al. Transfusion-transmitted malaria in Canada. CMAJ 164 3 (2001) 377-379
134. Mungai M., Tegtmeier G., Chamberland M., and Parise M. Transfusion-transmitted malaria in the United States from 1963 through 1999. N Engl J Med 344 26 (2001) 1973-1978
135. James R.C., and Matthews D.E. Analysis of blood donor return behaviour using survival regression methods. Transfus Med 6 1 (1996) 21-30
136. Halperin D., Baetens J., and Newman B. The effect of short-term, temporary deferral on future blood donation. Transfusion 38 2 (1998) 181-183
137. Chiodini P.L., Hartley S., Hewitt P.E., et al. Evaluation of a malaria antibody ELISA and its value in reducing potential wastage of red cell donations from blood donors exposed to malaria, with a note on a case of transfusion-transmitted malaria. Vox Sang 73 3 (1997) 143-148
138. Mertens G., Vervoort T., Heylen S., and Muylle L. Malaria antibody ELISA insufficiently sensitive for blood donor screening. Vox Sang 77 4 (1999) 237-238
139. Kitchen A.D., Lowe P.H., Lalloo K., and Chiodini P.L. Evaluation of a malarial antibody assay for use in the screening of blood and tissue products for clinical use. Vox Sang 87 3 (2004) 150-155
140. Seed C.R., Cheng A., Davis T.M., et al. The efficacy of a malarial antibody enzyme immunoassay for establishing the reinstatement status of blood donors potentially exposed to malaria. Vox Sang 88 2 (2005) 98-106
141. Kitchen A.D., Barbara J.A., and Hewitt P.E. Documented cases of post-transfusion malaria occurring in England: a review in relation to current and proposed donor-selection guidelines. Vox Sang 89 2 (2005) 77-80
142. Benito A., and Rubio J.M. Usefulness of seminested polymerase chain reaction for screening blood donors at risk for malaria in Spain. Emerg Infect Dis 7 6 (2001) 1068
143. Shehata N., Kohli M., and Detsky A. The cost-effectiveness of screening blood donors for malaria by PCR. Transfusion 44 2 (2004) 217-228
144. Hanscheid T., Valadas E., and Grobusch M.P. Polymerase chain reaction for screening blood donors at risk for malaria: safe and useful?. Emerg Infect Dis 8 8 (2002) 872 author reply 873-4
145. Bruce-Chwatt L.J. Transfusion malaria revisited. Trop Dis Bull 79 10 (1982) 827-840
146. Conway D.J. Molecular epidemiology of malaria. Clin Microbiol Rev 20 1 (2007) 188-204
147. Coura J.R., Suarez-Mutis M., and Ladeia-Andrade S. A new challenge for malaria control in Brazil: asymptomatic Plasmodium infection--a review. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 101 3 (2006) 229-237
148. Erhart A., Thang N.D., Xa N.X., et al. Accuracy of the health information system on malaria surveillance in Vietnam. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 101 3 (2007) 216-225
149. Betanzos-Reyes A.F., Rodriguez M.H., Duran-Arenas L.G., et al. Comparative analysis of two alternative models for epidemiological surveillance in the Mexican Malaria Control Program. Health Policy 80 3 (2007) 465-482
150. Johnston S.P., Pieniazek N.J., Xayavong M.V., Slemenda S.B., Wilkins P.P., and da Silva A.J. PCR as a confirmatory technique for laboratory diagnosis of malaria. J Clin Microbiol 44 3 (2006) 1087-1089
151. Leder K., Black J., O'Brien D., et al. Malaria in travelers: a review of the GeoSentinel surveillance network. Clin Infect Dis 39 8 (2004) 1104-1112
152. Freedman D.O., Weld L.H., Kozarsky P.E., et al. Spectrum of disease and relation to place of exposure among ill returned travelers. N Engl J Med 354 2 (2006) 119-130
153. Elliott J.H., O'Brien D., Leder K., et al. Imported Plasmodium vivax malaria: demographic and clinical features in nonimmune travelers. J Travel Med 11 4 (2004) 213-217
154. Muhlberger N., Jelinek T., Gascon J., et al. Epidemiology and clinical features of vivax malaria imported to Europe: sentinel surveillance data from TropNetEurop. Malar J 3 (2004) 5
155. Jelinek T., Behrens R., Bisoffi Z., et al. Recent cases of falciparum malaria imported to Europe from Goa, India, December 2006-January 2007. Euro Surveill 12 1 (2007) E070111 1
156. Lindo J.F., Bryce J.H., Ducasse M.B., et al. Plasmodium malariae in Haitian refugees, Jamaica. Emerg Infect Dis 13 6 (2007) 931-933
157. Fidock D.A., Nomura T., Talley A.K., et al. Mutations in the P. falciparum digestive vacuole transmembrane protein PfCRT and evidence for their role in chloroquine resistance. Mol Cell 6 4 (2000) 861-871
158. Djimde A., Doumbo O.K., Cortese J.F., et al. A molecular marker for chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 344 4 (2001) 257-263
159. Duraisingh M.T., and Cowman A.F. Contribution of the pfmdr1 gene to antimalarial drug-resistance. Acta Trop 94 3 (2005) 181-190
160. Omar S.A., Adagu I.S., and Warhurst D.C. Can pretreatment screening for dhps and dhfr point mutations in Plasmodium falciparum infections be used to predict sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine treatment failure?. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 95 3 (2001) 315-319
161. Kublin J.G., Dzinjalamala F.K., Kamwendo D.D., et al. Molecular markers for failure of sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine and chlorproguanil-dapsone treatment of Plasmodium falciparum malaria. J Infect Dis 185 3 (2002) 380-388
162. Kyabayinze D., Cattamanchi A., Kamya M.R., Rosenthal P.J., and Dorsey G. Validation of a simplified method for using molecular markers to predict sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine treatment failure in African children with falciparum malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 69 3 (2003) 247-252
163. Price R.N., Uhlemann A.C., Brockman A., et al. Mefloquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum and increased pfmdr1 gene copy number. Lancet 364 9432 (2004) 438-447
164. Korsinczky M., Chen N., Kotecka B., Saul A., Rieckmann K., and Cheng Q. Mutations in Plasmodium falciparum cytochrome b that are associated with atovaquone resistance are located at a putative drug-binding site. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 44 8 (2000) 2100-2108
165. Fivelman Q.L., Butcher G.A., Adagu I.S., Warhurst D.C., and Pasvol G. Malarone treatment failure and in vitro confirmation of resistance of Plasmodium falciparum isolate from Lagos, Nigeria. Malar J 1 (2002) 1
166. Schwartz E., Bujanover S., and Kain K.C. Genetic confirmation of atovaquone-proguanil-resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria acquired by a nonimmune traveler to East Africa. Clin Infect Dis 37 3 (2003) 450-451
167. Jambou R., Legrand E., Niang M., et al. Resistance of Plasmodium falciparum field isolates to in-vitro artemether and point mutations of the SERCA-type PfATPase6. Lancet 366 9501 (2005) 1960-1963
168. Reed M.B., Saliba K.J., Caruana S.R., Kirk K., and Cowman A.F. Pgh1 modulates sensitivity and resistance to multiple antimalarials in Plasmodium falciparum. Nature 403 6772 (2000) 906-909
169. Sidhu A.B., Valderramos S.G., and Fidock D.A. pfmdr1 mutations contribute to quinine resistance and enhance mefloquine and artemisinin sensitivity in Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Microbiol 57 4 (2005) 913-926
170. Djimde A., Doumbo O.K., Steketee R.W., and Plowe C.V. Application of a molecular marker for surveillance of chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria. Lancet 358 9285 (2001) 890-891
171. Sibley C.H., and Ringwald P. A database of antimalarial drug resistance. Malar J 5 (2006) 48
172. Kean B.H. Chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria from Africa. JAMA 241 4 (1979) 395
173. Onori E. The problem of Plasmodium falciparum drug resistance in Africa south of the Sahara. Bull World Health Organ 62 Suppl. (1984) 55-62
174. Sutherland C.J., Haustein T., Gadalla N., Armstrong M., Doherty J.F., and Chiodini P.L. Chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum infections among UK travellers returning with malaria after chloroquine prophylaxis. J Antimicrob Chemother 59 6 (2007) 1197-1199
175. Veiga M.I., Ferreira P.E., Bjorkman A., and Gil J.P. Multiplex PCR-RFLP methods for pfcrt, pfmdr1 and pfdhfr mutations in Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Cell Probes 20 2 (2006) 100-104
176. Pearce R.J., Drakeley C., Chandramohan D., Mosha F., and Roper C. Molecular determination of point mutation haplotypes in the dihydrofolate reductase and dihydropteroate synthase of Plasmodium falciparum in three districts of northern Tanzania. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47 4 (2003) 1347-1354
177. Adagu I.S., and Warhurst D.C. Association of cg2 and pfmdr1 genotype with chloroquine resistance in field samples of Plasmodium falciparum from Nigeria. Parasitology 119 Part 4 (1999) 343-348
178. Alifrangis M., Enosse S., Pearce R., et al. A simple, high-throughput method to detect Plasmodium falciparum single nucleotide polymorphisms in the dihydrofolate reductase, dihydropteroate synthase, and P. falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter genes using polymerase chain reaction- and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay-based technology. Am J Trop Med Hyg 72 2 (2005) 155-162
179. Vessiere A., Berry A., Fabre R., Benoit-Vical F., and Magnaval J.F. Detection by real-time PCR of the Pfcrt T76 mutation, a molecular marker of chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum strains. Parasitol Res 93 1 (2004) 5-7
180. Berry A., Vessiere A., Fabre R., et al. Pfcrt K76T mutation and its associations in imported Plasmodium falciparum malaria cases. Infect Genet Evol 4 4 (2004) 361-364
181. Farcas G.A., Soeller R., Zhong K., Zahirieh A., and Kain K.C. Real-time polymerase chain reaction assay for the rapid detection and characterization of chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria in returned travelers. Clin Infect Dis 42 5 (2006) 622-627
182. de Monbrison F., Raynaud D., Latour-Fondanaiche C., et al. Real-time PCR for chloroquine sensitivity assay and for pfmdr1-pfcrt single nucleotide polymorphisms in Plasmodium falciparum. J Microbiol Methods 54 3 (2003) 391-401
183. Wilson P.E., Alker A.P., and Meshnick S.R. Real-time PCR methods for monitoring antimalarial drug resistance. Trends Parasitol 21 6 (2005) 278-283
184. Senescau A., Berry A., Benoit-Vical F., et al. Use of a locked-nucleic-acid oligomer in the clamped-probe assay for detection of a minority Pfcrt K76T mutant population of Plasmodium falciparum. J Clin Microbiol 43 7 (2005) 3304-3308
185. Carnevale E.P., Kouri D., DaRe J.T., McNamara D.T., Mueller I., and Zimmerman P.A. A multiplex ligase detection reaction-fluorescent microsphere assay for simultaneous detection of single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with Plasmodium falciparum drug resistance. J Clin Microbiol 45 3 (2007) 752-761
186. McNamara D.T., Thomson J.M., Kasehagen L.J., and Zimmerman P.A. Development of a multiplex PCR-ligase detection reaction assay for diagnosis of infection by the four parasite species causing malaria in humans. J Clin Microbiol 42 6 (2004) 2403-2410
187. McNamara D.T., Kasehagen L.J., Grimberg B.T., Cole-Tobian J., Collins W.E., and Zimmerman P.A. Diagnosing infection levels of four human malaria parasite species by a polymerase chain reaction/ligase detection reaction fluorescent microsphere-based assay. Am J Trop Med Hyg 74 3 (2006) 413-421
188. Marks F., Meyer C.G., Sievertsen J., et al. Genotyping of Plasmodium falciparum pyrimethamine resistance by matrix-assisted laser desorption-ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 48 2 (2004) 466-472
189. Kirchgatter K., Wunderlich G., Branquinho M.S., et al. Molecular typing of Plasmodium falciparum from Giemsa-stained blood smears confirms nosocomial malaria transmission. Acta Trop 84 3 (2002) 199-203
190. de Pecoulas P.E., Basco L.K., Wilson C.M., Le Bras J., and Mazabraud A. Molecular characterization of airport malaria. J Travel Med 3 3 (1996) 179-181
191. Jafari S., Durand R., Lusina D., and Le Bras J. Molecular characterisation of airport malaria: four cases in France during summer 1999. Parasite 9 2 (2002) 187-191
192. Hanna J.N., Ritchie S.A., Eisen D.P., Cooper R.D., Brookes D.L., and Montgomery B.L. An outbreak of Plasmodium vivax malaria in Far North Queensland, 2002. Med J Aust 180 1 (2004) 24-28
193. Legrand E., Volney B., Lavergne A., et al. Molecular analysis of two local falciparum malaria outbreaks on the French Guiana coast confirms the msp1 B-K1/varD genotype association with severe malaria. Malar J 4 (2005) 26
194. Chung J.Y., Chun E.H., Chun J.H., and Kho W.G. Analysis of the Plasmodium vivax apical membrane antigen-1 gene from re-emerging Korean isolates. Parasitol Res 90 4 (2003) 325-329
195. Hawkes M., and Kain K.C. Advances in malaria diagnosis. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 5 3 (2007) 485-495
196. Church DL L.A., Elsayed S., Kuhn S., and Gregson D.B. A regional centralized microbiology service in Calgary for the rapid diagnosis of malaria. Arch Pathol Lab Med 127 6 (2003) 687-693
197. Kain KC H.M., Tennyson S., and Keystone J.S. Imported malaria: prospective analysis of problems in diagnosis and management. Clin Infect Dis 27 1 (1998) 142-149
198. Reyburn H., Mbakilwa H., Mwangi R., et al. Rapid diagnostic tests compared with malaria microscopy for guiding outpatient treatment of febrile illness in Tanzania: randomised trial. BMJ 334 7590 (2007) 403
199. Talisuna A.O., and Meya D.N. Diagnosis and treatment of malaria. BMJ 334 7590 (2007) 375-376
200. D'Acremont V., Lengeler C., and Genton B. Stop ambiguous messages on malaria diagnosis. BMJ 334 7592 (2007) 489
201. Fortina P., Kricka L.J., Surrey S., and Grodzinski P. Nanobiotechnology: the promise and reality of new approaches to molecular recognition. Trends Biotechnol 23 4 (2005) 168-173
202. Nolan J.P., and Mandy F. Multiplexed and microparticle-based analyses: quantitative tools for the large-scale analysis of biological systems. Cytometry A 69 5 (2006) 318-325
203. Abu-Raddad L.J., Patnaik P., and Kublin J.G. Dual infection with HIV and malaria fuels the spread of both diseases in sub-Saharan Africa. Science 314 5805 (2006) 1603-1606
204. Picard F.J., and Bergeron M.G. Rapid molecular theranostics in infectious diseases. Drug Discov Today 7 21 (2002) 1092-1101
205. Mu J., Awadalla P., Duan J., et al. Recombination hotspots and population structure in Plasmodium falciparum. PLoS Biol 3 10 (2005) e335
206. Volkman S.K., Sabeti P.C., DeCaprio D., et al. A genome-wide map of diversity in Plasmodium falciparum. Nat Genet 39 1 (2007) 113-119
207. Anderson T.J. Mapping drug resistance genes in Plasmodium falciparum by genome-wide association. Curr Drug Targets Infect Disord 4 1 (2004) 65-78
208. Wootton J.C., Feng X., Ferdig M.T., et al. Genetic diversity and chloroquine selective sweeps in Plasmodium falciparum. Nature 418 6895 (2002) 320-323
209. Jeffares D.C., Pain A., Berry A., et al. Genome variation and evolution of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Nat Genet 39 1 (2007) 120-125
210. Mu J., Awadalla P., Duan J., et al. Genome-wide variation and identification of vaccine targets in the Plasmodium falciparum genome. Nat Genet 39 1 (2007) 126-130
211. Timmann C., Evans J.A., Konig I.R., et al. Genome-wide linkage analysis of malaria infection intensity and mild disease. PLoS Genet 3 3 (2007) e48
212. Happi C.T., Gbotosho G.O., Folarin O.A., et al. Confirmation of emergence of mutations associated with atovaquone-proguanil resistance in unexposed Plasmodium falciparum isolates from Africa. Malar J 5 (2006) 82
213. Mugittu K., Genton B., Mshinda H., and Beck H.P. Molecular monitoring of Plasmodium falciparum resistance to artemisinin in Tanzania. Malar J 5 (2006) 126
214. Berry A., Senescau A., Lelievre J., et al. Prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum cytochrome b gene mutations in isolates imported from Africa, and implications for atovaquone resistance. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 100 10 (2006) 986-988
215. Wichmann O., Jelinek T., Peyerl-hoffmann G., et al. Molecular surveillance of the antifolate-resistant mutation I164L in imported African isolates of Plasmodium falciparum in Europe: sentinel data from TropNetEurop. Malar J 2 (2003) 17
216. Major Commitment to Global Fight Against Malaria (2006), Seattle, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
217. Informal consultation on quality control of malaria microscopy. 2006. World Health Organization. Report no: WHO/HTM/MAL/2006.1117 [cited 2007 Aug 10]; available from: 〈http://www.who.int/malaria/diagnosistechnicalreports.html〉.