The effectiveness of hand hygiene procedures in reducing the risks of infections in home and community settings including handwashing and alcohol-based hand sanitizers

American Journal of Infection Control

Volumn 35, Issue 10 SUPPL. 1, 2007, Pages

  Bloomfield, Sally F ^a   Aiello, Allison E ^b   Cookson, Barry ^c   O'Boyle, Carol ^d   Larson, Elaine L ^e  

^a International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^c PUBLIC HEALTH ENGLAND   (United Kingdom)

^d UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

^e Department of Medicine   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL;

ARTICLE; BACTERIAL VIRULENCE; COMMUNITY CARE; DEMOGRAPHY; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASE; HAND WASHING; HEALTH CARE; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; INFECTION RISK; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION; RISK ASSESSMENT; SKIN INFECTION; WOUND;

EID: 36849090649     PISSN: 01966553     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2007.07.001     Document Type: Article

References (223)

1. Pinner R.W., Teutsch S.M., Simonson L., Klug L.A., Graber J.M., Clarke M.J., et al. Trends in infectious disease mortality in the United States. JAMA 275 (1996) 189-193
2. Griffith C., and Redmond E. Evaluating hygiene behaviour in the domestic setting and the impact of hygiene behaviour. J Infect 43 (2001) 70-74
3. Pittet D. Improving adherence to hygiene practice: a multidisciplinary approach. Emerg Infect Dis 7 (2001) 234-240
4. Curtis V. Talking dirty: how to save a million lives. Int J Environ Health Res 13 Suppl 1 (2003) S73-S80
5. Kretzer E.K., and Larson E.L. Behavioural interventions to improve infection control practices. Am J Infect Control 26 (1998) 245-253
6. Whitby M., Pessoa-Silva C.L., McLaws M.L., Allegranzi B., Sax H., Larson E., et al. Behavioural considerations for hand hygiene practices: the basic building blocks. J Hosp Infect 65 (2007) 1-8
7. Amato-Gauci A, Ammon A, eds. The First European Communicable Disease Epidemiological Report. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Available at: http://www.ecdc.eu.int/pdf/Epi_report_2007.pdf. Accessed 2007.
8. Campylobacteriosis overtakes salmonellosis as the most reported animal infection transmitted to humans in the EU European Food Standards Agency. Available at: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press_room/press_release/press_releases_200 6/pr_zoonoses_report2005.html. Accessed 2006.
9. WHO assesses that up to 40% of food poisoning outbreaks occur in the home. Several foodborne diseases are increasing in Europe. WHO's "five keys to safer food" for winter holidays. 2003 Press Release EURO/16/03. Available at: http://www.euro.who.int/eprise/main/who/mediacentre/PR/2003/20031212_2.
10. Food Poisoning Notifications-annual totals England and Wales, 1982-2005. Available at: www.hpa.org.uk/infections/topics_az/noids/food_poisoning.htm.
11. Food Standards Agency. A report of the study of infectious intestinal disease in England (2000), The Stationary Office, London
12. Mead P.S., Slutsker L., Dietz V., McCaig L.F., Bresee J.S., Shapiro C., et al. Food-related illness and death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis 5 (1999) 607-625
13. Centers For Disease Control and Surveillance. Outbreak Response and Surveillance Team. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/foodborneoutbreaks/outbreak_data.htm.
14. Le Baigue S, Long S, Adak GK, O'Brien SJ. Infectious intestinal disease-it's not all foodborne! PHLS 25th Annual Scientific Conference, 2000.
15. Gillespie I.A., O'Brien S.J., and Adak G.K. General outbreaks of infectious intestinal diseases linked with private residences in England and Wales, 1992-1999: questionnaire study. BMJ 323 (2001) 1097-1098
16. Wheeler J.G., Sethi D., Cowden J.M., Wall P.G., Rodrigues L.C., Tompkins D.S., et al. Study of infectious intestinal disease in England: rates in the community, presenting to general practice and reported to national surveillance. BMJ 318 (1999) 1046-1050
17. de Wit M.A., Koopmans M.P., Kortbeek L.M., van Leeuwen N.J., Bartelds A.I., and van Duynhoven Y.T. Gastroenteritis in sentinel general practices in The Netherlands. Emerg Infect Dis 7 (2001) 82-91
18. de Wit M.A., Koopmans M.P., and van Duynhoven Y.T. Risk factors for norovirus, Sapporo-like virus and group A rotavirus gastroenteritis. Emerg Infect Dis 9 (2003) 1563-1569
19. Davis M.A., Sheng1 H., Newman J., Hancock D., and Hovde J. Comparison of a waterless hand-hygiene preparation and soap-and-water hand washing to reduce coliforms on hands in animal exhibit settings. Epidemiol Infect 134 (2006) 1024-1028
20. Widdowson M.A., Monroe S.S., and Glass R.I. Are noroviruses emerging?. Emerg Infect Dis 11 (2005) 735-737
21. Carter M.J. Enterically infecting viruses: pathogenicity, transmission and significance for food and waterborne infection. J Appl Microbiol 98 (2005) 1354-1380
22. Japan: largest norovirus since 1981. Available at: http://depts.washington.edu/einet/?a=printArticle&print=284.
23. Kroneman A., Vennema H., Harris J., Reuter G., von Bonsdorff C.-H., Hedlund K.-O., et al. Increase in norovirus activity reported in Europe. Eurosurveillance 11 12 (2006). http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ew/2006/061214.asp#1/ Available at:
24. Shapiro C.N., Shaw F.E., Mendel E.J., and Hadler S.C. Epidemiology of hepatitis A in the United States. In: Hollinger F.B., Lemon S.M., and Margolis H.S. (Eds). Viral hepatitis and liver disease (1991), Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore 214
25. Bloomfield SF, Cookson BD, Falkiner FR, Griffith C, Cleary V. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Clostridium difficile, and ESBL-producing Escherichia coli in the home and community: assessing the problem, controlling the spread. International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene 2006. Available at: http://www.ifh-homehygiene.org/2003/2library/MRSA_expert_report.pdf.
26. Perry S., de la Luz Sanchez M., Yang S., Haggerty T.D., Philip Hurst P., Perez-Perez G., et al. Gastroenteritis and transmission of Helicobacter pylori infection in households. Emerg Infect Dis 12 (2006) 1701-1708
27. Seto EYW, Soller JA, Colford JM. Strategies to reduce person-to-person transmission during widespread Escherichia coli O157:H7 outbreak (Available at: www.cdc.gov/eid). Emerg Infect Dis 2007;13:861.
28. Monto A.S., and Sullivan K.M. Acute respiratory illness in the community: frequency of illness and the agents involved. Epidemiol Infect 110 (1993) 145-160
29. Dingle J.H., Badger G.F., and Jordan Jr. W.S. Illness in the home: a study of 25,000 illnesses in a group of Cleveland families (1964), The Press of Western Reserve University, Cleveland
30. Van Cauwenberge P.B., van Kempen M.J., and Bachert C. The common cold at the turn of the millennium. Am J Rhinol 14 (2000) 339-343
31. Gem J.E., and Busse W.W. The effects of rhinovirus infections on allergic airway responses. Am J Respir Crit Care 152 (1995) S40-S45
32. Goldmann D.A. Transmission of viral respiratory infections in the home. Paediatr Infect Dis J 19 Suppl 10 (2000) S97-S102
33. Fleming D.M. The contribution of influenza to combined acute respiratory infections, hospital admissions, and death in winter. Commun Dis Public Health 3 (2000) 32-38
34. Thompson W.W., Shay D.K., Brammer L., Cox N., Anderson L.J., and Fukuda K. Mortality associated with influenza and respiratory syncytial virus in the United States. JAMA 289 (2003) 179-186
35. Larson E.L. Warned, but not well armed: preventing viral upper respiratory infections in households. Public Health Nurs 24 (2007) 48-59
36. Kamps BS, Reyes-Terán G, Preiser W. Influenza report 2006. Available at: http://www.influenzareport.com/ir/overview.htm.
37. Bridges CB, Kuehnert MJ, Hall CB. Transmission of influenza: implications for control in health care settings (Available at: http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/CID/journal/issues/v37n8/30919/30919.ht ml). Clin Infect Dis 2003;37:1094-101.
38. Influenza season annual report. European Influenza Surveillance EISS 2006;43. Available at: http://www.eiss.org/documents/eiss_annual_report_2004-2005_+_cover.pdf.
39. Lo J.Y., Tsang T.H., Leung Y.H., Yeung E.Y., Wu T., and Lim W.W. Respiratory infections during SARS outbreak, Hong Kong, 2003. Emerg Infect Dis 11 (2005) 1738-1741
40. Lowy F.D. Staphylococcus aureus infections. N Engl J Med 339 (1998) 520-532
41. Hollis R., Barr J., Doebbeling B., Pfaller M., and Wenzel R. Familial carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and subsequent infection in a premature neonate. Clin Infect Dis 21 (1995) 328-332
42. Hollyoak V., and Gunn A. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in the community. Lancet 346 (1995) 513
43. L'Heriteau F., Lucet J., Scanvic A., and Bouvet E. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and familial transmission. JAMA 282 (1999) 1038-1039
44. Sanford M.D., Widmer A.F., Bale M.J., Jones R.N., and Wenzel R.P. Efficient detection and long-term persistence of the carriage of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis 19 (1994) 1123-1128
45. Hicks N.R., Moore E.P., and Williams E.W. Carriage and community treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: what happened to colonised patients after discharge?. J Hosp Infect 19 (1991) 17-24
46. Holmes A., Ganner M., McGuane S., Pitt T.L., Cookson B.D., and Kearns A.M. Staphylococcus aureus isolates carrying Panton-Valentine leucocidin genes in England and Wales: frequency, characterization, and association with clinical disease. J Clin Microbiol 43 (2005) 2384-2390
47. Voyich J.M., Otto M., Mathema B., Braughton K.R., Whitney A.R., Welty D., et al. Is Panton-Valentine leukocidin the major virulence determinant in community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus disease?. J Infect Dis 194 (2006) 1761-1770
48. Labandeira-Rey M, Couzon F, Boisset S, Brown EL, Bes M, Benito Y, et al. Staphylococcus aureus panton valentine leukocidin causes necrotizing pneumonia. Available at: www.sciencexpress.org/18January2007/Page1/10.1126/science.1137165.
49. Hospital transmission of Panton-Valentine (PVL) positive community-associated MRSA in the Midlands. CDR Weekly Report. Available at: http://www.hpa.org.uk/cdr/archives/2006/cdr5006.pdf.
50. Huang D.B., and Zhou J. Effect of intensive handwashing in the prevention of diarrhoeal illness among patients with AIDS: a randomized controlled study. J Med Microbiol 56 (2007) 659-663
51. Shanson D.C. Infections of the gastrointestinal tract. In: Shanson D.C. (Ed). Microbiology in clinical practice. 3rd ed. (1999), Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford 251-265
52. Forman D. Helicobacter pylori infection and cancer. Br Med Bull 54 (1998) 71-78
53. Buzby JC, Roberts T. Estimated annual costs of Campylobacter-associated Guillain Barré Syndrome. Food and Consumer Economics Division, Economic Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, and BanMishu Allos, Vanderbilt University, School of Medicine, Agricultural Economic Report No 756; 1997.
54. Lindsay J.A. Chronic sequelae of foodborne disease. Emerg Infect Dis 3 (1997) 443-452
55. Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Veterinary Measures relating to Public Health (2000), European Commission, Brussels EC DG24
56. Hament J.M., Klimpen J.L., Fleer A., and Wolfs T.F. Respiratory viral infection predisposing for bacterial diseases: a review. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 26 (1999) 189-195
57. Larson E., and Aiello A.E. Systematic risk assessment methods for the infection control professional. Am J Infect Control 34 (2006) 323-326
58. Barker J., and Bloomfield S.F. Survival of Salmonella in bathrooms and toilets in domestic homes following salmonellosis. J Appl Microbiol 89 (2000) 137-144
59. Bloomfield S.F., and Scott E.A. Cross-contamination and infection in the domestic environment and the role of chemical disinfectants. J Appl Microbiol 83 (1997) 1-9
60. Bloomfield S.F. Preventing infection in the home. Br J Infect Control 3 (2002) 14-17
61. Barker J., and Jones M.V. The potential spread of infection caused by aerosol contamination of surfaces after flushing a domestic toilet. J Appl Microbiol 99 (2005) 339-347
62. Aiello A.E., and Larson E.L. Causal inference: the case for hygiene and health. Am J Infect Control 30 (2002) 503-511
63. Tulve N.S., Suggs J.C., McCurdy T., Elaine A., Hubal C., and Moya J. Frequency of mouthing behavior in young children. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 12 (2002) 259-264
64. Redmond E.G., Griffith C.J., Slader J., and Humphrey T. Microbiological and observational analysis of cross contamination risks during domestic food preparation. Br Food J 106 (2004) 581-597
65. Bidawid S., Farber J.M., and Sattar S.A. Contamination of food handlers: experiments on hepatitis A virus transfer to food and its interruption. Appl Environ Microbiol 66 (2000) 2759-2763
66. Bidawid S., Malik N., Adegbunrin O., Sattar S.A., and Farber J.M. Norovirus cross contamination during food-handling and interruption of virus transfer by hand antisepsis: experiments with feline calicivirus a surrogate. J Food Prot 67 (2004) 103-109
67. Rusin P., Maxwell S., and Gerba C.P. Comparative surface-to-hand and fingertip-to-mouth transfer efficiency of gram-positive, gram-negative bacteria and phage. J Appl Microbiol 93 (2002) 585-592
68. Waterman S.R., and Small P.L. Acid sensitive enteric pathogens are protected from killing under extremely acidic conditions of pH 2.5 when they are inoculated into certain solid food sources. Appl Environ Microbiol 64 (1998) 3882-3886
69. Tauxe R.V. Epidemiology of Campylobacter jejuni infections in the United States and other industrial nations. In: Nachamkin I., Blaser M.J., and Tompkins L. (Eds). Campylobacter jejuni: current status and future trends (1992), American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC 9-19
70. Willshaw G.A., Thirwell J., Jones A.P., Parry S., Salmon R.L., and Hickey M. Vero cytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli 0157 in beefburger linked to an outbreak of diarrhoea, haemorrhagic colitis and haemolytic uraemic syndrome in Britain. Lett Appl Microbiol 19 (1994) 304-307
71. Griffin P.M., Bell B.P., Cieslak P.R., Tuttle J., Barrett T.J., Doyle M.P., et al. Large outbreak of Escherichia coli 0157:H7 infections in the Western United States: the big picture. In: Karmali M.A., and Goglio A.G. (Eds). Recent advances in verocytotoxin producing Escherichia coli infections (1994), Elsevier, Amsterdam 7-12
72. Caul E.O. Small round structured viruses: airborne transmission and hospital control. Lancet 343 (1994) 1240-1242
73. Ward R., Bernstein D., Knowlton D., Sherwood J., Yung E., Cusack T., et al. Prevention of surface-to-human transmission of rotavirus by treatment with disinfectant spray. J Clin Microbiol 29 (1991) 1991-1996
74. Ward R.L., Knowlton D.R., and Pierce M.J. Efficiency of rotavirus propagation in cell culture. J Clin Microbiol 19 (1984) 748-753
75. Gerba C.P., Wallis C., and Melnick J.L. Microbiological hazards of households toilets: droplet production and the fate of residual organisms. Appl Microbiol 30 (1975) 229-237
76. Report of the Task Force on Zoonoses Data Collection on the analysis of the baseline survey on the prevalence of Salmonella in broiler flocks of Gallus gallus, in the EU, 2005-2006. (1) Part A: Salmonella prevalence estimates. Available at: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/science/monitoring_zoonoses/reports/zoon_re port_finbroilers.html.
77. Campylobacter infections-frequently asked questions. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/campylobacter_g.htm.
78. Chapman P.A., Cerdan Malo A.T., Ellin M., Ashton R., and Harkin M.A. Escherichia coli 0157 in cattle and sheep at slaughter, on beef and lamb carcasses and in raw beef and lamb products in South Yorkshire. UK. Int J Food Microbiol 64 (2001) 139-150
79. Rodriguez-Palacios A., Staemphli H.R., Duffield T., and Weese J.S. Clostridium difficile in retail ground meat, Canada. Emerg Infect Dis 13 (2007) 485-487
80. Tan J.S. Human zoonotic infections transmitted by dogs and cats. Arch Intern Med 157 (1997) 1933-1943
81. Kramer A., Schwebke I., and Kampf G. How long do nosocomial pathogens survive on inanimate surfaces?. BMC Infect Dis 6 (2006) 130-138
82. Sattar V., Springthorpe S., Tetro J., Vashon R., and Keswick B. Hygienic hand antiseptics: should they not have activity and label claims against viruses?. Am J Infect Control 30 (2002) 355-372
83. Rzezutka A., and Cook N. Survival of human enteric viruses in the environment and food. FEMS Microbiol Rev 28 (2004) 441-453
84. Chen Y.H., Jackson K.M., Chea F.P., and Schaffner D.W. Quantification and variability analysis of bacterial cross-contamination rates in common food service tasks. J Food Prot 64 (2001) 72-80
85. Paulson D.S. The transmission of surrogate Norwalk virus-from inanimate surfaces to gloved hands: is it a threat?. Food Protection Trends 25 (2005) 450-454 596
86. Cogan T.A., Bloomfield S.F., and Humphrey T.J. The effectiveness of hygiene procedures for the prevention of cross contamination from chicken carcasses in the domestic kitchen. Lett Appl Microbiol 29 (1999) 354-358
87. Curtis V., Biran A., Deverell K., Hughes C., Bellamy K., and Drasar B. Hygiene in the home: relating bugs and behaviour. Soc Sci Med 57 (2003) 657-672
88. Rheinbaben F.V., Schunemann S., Gro B.T., and Wolff M.H. Transmission of viruses via contact in a household setting: experiments using bacteriophage phiX174 as a model virus. J Hosp Infect 46 (2000) 61-66
89. Barker J., Vipond I.B., and Bloomfield S.F. The effects of cleaning and disinfection in reducing the spread of Norovirus contamination via environmental surfaces. J Hosp Infect 58 (2004) 42-49
90. Clay S., Maherchandani S., Malik Y.S., and Goyal S.M. Survival on uncommon fomites of feline calicivirus, a surrogate of noroviruses. Am J Infect Control 34 (2006) 41-43
91. Kim K.H., Fekety R., Batts D.H., Brown D., Cudmore M., Silva J., et al. Isolation of Clostridium difficile from the environment and contacts of patients with antibiotic-associated colitis. J Infect Dis 143 (1981) 42-50
92. The infection potential in the domestic setting and the role of hygiene practice in reducing infection. Available at: http://www.ifh-homehygiene.org/2public/INFPOT2.pdf.
93. Kagan L.J., Aiello A.E., and Larson E. The role of the home environment in the transmission of infectious diseases. J Community Health 27 (2002) 247-267
94. Boone S.A., and Gerba C.P. The significance of fomites in the spread of respiratory and enteric viral disease. Appl Environ Microbiol 73 (2007) 1687-1696
95. Marks P.J., Vipond I.B., Carlisle D., Deakin D., Fey R.E., and Caul E.O. Evidence for airborne transmission of Norwalk-like virus (NLV) in a hotel restaurant. Epidemiol Infect 124 (2000) 481-487
96. Marks P.J., Vipond I.B., Regan F.M., Wedgwood K., Fey R.E., and Caul E.O. A school outbreak of Norwalk-like virus: evidence for airborne transmission. Epidemiol Infect 131 (2003) 727-736
97. Global Influenza Preparedness Plan World Health Organization. WHO Global Influenza Preparedness Plan, 2005. Available at: http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/influenza/WHO_CDS_CSR_GIP_ 2005_5.pdf.
98. Bell DM; World Health Organization Writing Group. Nonpharmaceutical interventions for pandemic influenza, international measures (Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol12no01/05-1370.htm). Emerg Infect Dis 2006;12:81-7.
99. Gwaltney J.M., and Hendley J.O. Mechanisms of transmission of rhinovirus infections. Epidemiol Rev 10 (1988) 24-58
100. Hendley J.O., Wenzel R.P., and Gwaltney J.M. Transmission of rhinovirus colds by self-inoculation. N Engl J Med 288 (1973) 1361-1364
101. Alford R.H., Kasle J.A., Gerone P.J., and Knight V. Human influenza resulting from aerosol inhalation. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 122 (1966) 800-804
102. Reed S.E. An investigation of possible transmission of rhinovirus colds through indirect contact. J Hyg 75 (1975) 249-258
103. Gwaltney J.M., and Hayden G.F. Psychological stress and the common cold. N Engl J Med 326 (1992) 644-645
104. Gwaltney J.M., and Hendley J.O. Transmission of experimental rhinovirus infection by contaminated surfaces. Am J Epidemiol 116 (1982) 828-833
105. Hall C.B., Douglas Jr. R., and Geiman J.M. Possible transmission by fomites of respiratory syncytial virus. J Infect Dis 141 (1980) 98-102
106. Hall C.B., and Douglas R.G. Modes of transmission of respiratory syncytial virus. J Pediatr 99 (1981) 100-103
107. Winther B., Greve J.M., Gwalteney J.M., Innes D.J., Eastham J.R., McClelland A., et al. Surface expression of intracellular adhesion molecule 1 on epithelial cells in the human adenoid. J Infect Dis 25 (1997) 574-583
108. Reiling J. Dissemination of bacteria from the mouth during speaking, coughing and otherwise. JAMA 284 (2000) 156
109. Zhao B., Zhao Z., and Xianing L. Numerical study of the transport of droplets or particles generated by respiratory systems indoors. Building Environ 40 (2005) 1032-1039
110. Couch R.B. Medical microbiology (1995), University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston p. 1-22
111. Winther B., McCue K., Ashe K., Rubino J.R., and Hendley J.O. Environmental contamination with rhinovirus and transfer to fingers of healthy individuals by daily life activity. J Med Virology 79 (2007) 1606-1610
112. Ansari S.A., Springthorpe V.S., Sattar S.A., Rivard S., and Rahman M. Potential role of hands in the spread of respiratory viral infections {Eth} studies with human parainfuenza virus 3 and rhinovirus. J Clin Microbiol 29 (1991) 2115-2119
113. Gwaltney Jr. J.M., Moskalski P.B., and Hendley J.O. Hand-to-hand transmission of rhinovirus colds. Ann Intern Med 88 (1978) 463-467
114. Pancic F., Carpenter D.C., and Came P.E. Role of infectious secretions in the transmission of rhinovirus. J Clin Microbiol 12 (1980) 567-571
115. Ansari S.A., Springthorpe V.S., Sattar S.A., Tostowaryk W., and Wells G.A. Comparison of cloth, paper and warm air-drying in eliminating viruses and bacteria from washed hands. Am J Infect Control 19 (1991) 243-249
116. Brady M.T., Evans J., and Cuartas J. Survival and disinfection of parainfluenza viruses on environmental surfaces. Am J Infect Control 18 (1990) 18-23
117. Bean B., Moore B.M., Sterner B., Peterson L.R., Gerding D.N., and Balfour H.H. Survival of influenza viruses on environmental surfaces. J Infect Dis 146 (1982) 47-51
118. Dick E.C., Jennings L.C., Mink K.A., Wartgow C.D., and Inhorn S.L. Aerosol transmission of rhinovirus colds. J Infect Dis 156 (1987) 442-448
119. World Health Organization Writing Group. Non-pharmaceutical interventions for pandemic influenza, review-national and community measures (http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol12no01/05-1371.htm). Emerg Infect Diseases 2006;12:81-7.
120. Nicoll A. Personal (non-pharmaceutical) protective measures for reducing transmission of influenza: ECDC interim recommendations. Eurosurveillance 2006;11. Available at: http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ew/2006/061012.
121. Hayden F., and Croisier A. Transmission of avian influenza virus to and between humans. J Infect Dis 192 (2005) 1311-1314
122. Moser M.R., Bender T.R., Margolis H.S., Noble G.R., Kendal A.P., and Ritter D.G. An outbreak of influenza aboard a commercial airliner. Am J Epidemiol 110 (1979) 1-6
123. Tellier R. Review of aerosol transmission of influenza A virus. Emerg Infect Dis 12 (2006) 1657-1662
124. Brankston G., Gitterman L., Hitji Z., Lemiux C., and Gardam M. Transmission of influenza A in human beings. Lancet Infect Dis 7 (2007) 257-265
125. Sugaya N., Kusumoto N., Suzuki Y., Nerome R., and Nerome K. Large sequential outbreaks caused by influenza A (H3N2) and B viruses in an institution for the mentally handicapped. J Med Virol 50 (1996) 120-125
126. Marples R.R. Local infections experimental aspects. J Soc Cosmet Chem 27 (1976) 449-457
127. Fridkin S.K., Hageman J.C., Morrison M., Sanza L.T., Como-Sabetti K., Jernigan J.A., et al. Active Bacterial Core Surveillance Program of the Emerging Infections Program Network. Methicillin-resistant S aureus disease in three communities. N Engl J Med 352 (2005) 1436-1444
128. Johnson L.B., Louis D., and Saravolatz L. Community-acquired MRSA: current epidemiology and management issues. Infect Med 22 (2005) 16-20
129. Turabelidze G., Lin M., Wolkoff B., Dodson D., Gladbach S., and Zhu B.P. Personal hygiene and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. Emerg Infect Dis 12 (2006) 422-427
130. Kluytmans J., van Belkum A., and Verbrugh H. Nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus: epidemiology, underlying mechanisms, and associated risks. Clin Microbiol Rev 10 (1997) 505-520
131. Graham P.L., Lin S.X., and Larson E.L. A US population-based survey of Staphylococcus aureus colonization. Ann Intern Med 144 (2006) 318-325
132. Morgan M., Evans-Williams D., Salmon R., Hosein I., Looker D.N., and Howard A. The population impact of MRSA in a country: the national survey of MRSA in Wales 1997. J Hosp Infect 44 (2000) 227-239
133. Moran G.J., Amii R.N., Abrahamian F.M., and Talan D.A. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in community-acquired skin infections. Emerg Infect Dis 11 (2005) 928-930
134. Shopsin B., Mathema B., Martinez J., Ha E., Campo M.L., Fierman A., et al. Prevalence of methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus in the community. J Infect Dis 182 (2000) 359-362
135. Cefai C., Ashurst S., and Owens C. Human carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus linked with pet dog. Lancet 344 (1994) 539-540
136. Manian F.A. Asymptomatic nasal carriage of mupirocin resistant, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in a pet dog associated with MRSA infection in household contacts. Clin Infect Dis 36 (2003) e26-e28
137. Rankin S., Roberts S., O'Shea K., Maloney D., Lorenzo M., and Benson C.E. Panton valentine leukocidin (PVL) toxin positive MRSA strains isolated from companion animals. Vet Microbiol 108 (2005) 145-148
138. van Duijkeren E., Wolfhagen M.J., Box A.T., Heck M.E., Wannet W.J., and Fluit A.C. Human-to-dog transmission of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Emerg Infect Dis 10 (2004) 2235-2237
139. Enoch D.A., Karas J.A., Slater J.D., Emery M.M., Kearns A.M., and Farrington M. MRSA carriage in a pet therapy dog. J Hosp Infect 60 (2005) 186-188
140. Solberg C.O. Spread of Staphylococcus aureus in hospitals: causes and prevention. Scand J Infect Dis 32 (2000) 587-595
141. Scott E., and Bloomfield S.F. The survival of microbial contamination on worksurfaces and cloths and its transfer via cloths hands and utensils. Environ Health 98 (1990) 34-47
142. Reynolds K, Gerba C. Detection of MRSA in the domestic environment. IFH Newsheet 2006. Available at: http://www.ifh-homehygiene.org/2003/2newsletter/letter.htm.
143. Masterton R.G., Coia J.E., Notman A.W., Kempton-Smith L., and Cookson B.D. Refractory methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carriage associated with contamination of the home environment. J Hosp Infect 29 (1995) 318-319
144. Allen K.D., Anson J.J., Parsons L.A., and Frost N.G. Staff carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (EMRSA 15) and the home environment: a case report. J Hosp Infect 35 (1997) 307-311
145. Calfee D.P., Durbin L.J., Germanson T.P., Toney D.M., Smith E.B., and Farr B.M. Spread of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) among household contacts of individuals with nosocomially acquired MRSA. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 24 (2003) 422-426
146. Kniehl E., Becker A., and Forster D.H. Bed, bath and beyond: pitfalls in prompt eradication of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carrier status in health care workers. J Hosp Infect 59 (2005) 180-187
147. Hollis R., Barr J., Doebbeling B., Pfaller M., and Wenzel R. Familial carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and subsequent infection in a premature neonate. Clin Infect Dis 21 (1995) 328-332
148. Hollyoak V., and Gunn A. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in the community. Lancet 346 (1995) 513
149. L'Heriteau F., Lucet J., Scanvic A., and Bouvet E. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and familial transmission. JAMA 282 (1999) 1038-1039
150. Shahin R., Johnson I., Tolkin J., Ford-Jones E., and The Toronto Child Care Center Study Group. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carriage in a child care center following a case of disease. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 153 (1999) 864-868
151. Aiello A.E., and Larson E.L. What is the evidence for a causal link between hygiene and infections?. Lancet Infect Dis 2 (2002) 103-110
152. Curtis V., and Cairncross S. Effect of washing hands with soap on diarrhoea risk in the community: a systematic review. Lancet Infect Dis 3 (2003) 275-281
153. Fewtrell L., Kaufmann R.B., Kay D., Enanoria W., Haller L., and Colford J.M. Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions to reduce diarrhoea in less developed countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 5 (2005) 42-52
154. Aiello AE, Coulborn R, Perez V, Larson EL. Hand hygiene in the community setting: What really matters? Submitted.
155. Black R.E., Dykes A.C., Anderson K.E., Wells J.G., Sinclair S.P., Gary G.W., et al. Handwashing to prevent diarrhea in day-care centers. Am J Epidemiol 113 (1981) 445-451
156. Bartlett A.V., Jarvis B.A., Ross V., Katz T.M., Dalia M.A., Englender S.J., et al. Diarrheal illness among infants and toddlers in day care centers: effects of active surveillance and staff training without subsequent monitoring. Am J Epidemiol 127 (1988) 808-817
157. Master D., Hess Longe S.H., and Dickson H. Scheduled hand washing in an elementary school population. Fam Med 29 (1997) 336-339
158. Carabin H., Gyorkos T.W., Soto J.C., Joseph L., Payment P., and Collet J.P. Effectiveness of a training program in reducing infections in toddlers attending day care centers. Epidemiology 10 (1999) 219-227
159. Roberts L., Jorm L., Patel M., Smith W., Douglas R.M., and McGilchrist C. Effect of infection control measures on the frequency of diarrheal episodes in child care: a randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics 105 (2000) 743-746
160. Lee T., Jordan N.N., Sanchez J.L., and Gaydos J.C. Selected nonvaccine interventions to prevent infectious acute respiratory disease. Am J Prev Med 28 (2005) 305-316
161. Rabie T., and Curtis V. Handwashing and risk of respiratory infections: a quantitative systematic review. Trop Med Int Health 11 (2006) 258-267
162. Health impact of handwashing. WELL fact sheet 2006. Available at: http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/fact-sheets/fact-sheets-htm/Handwa shing.htm.
163. Kimel L.S. Handwashing education can decrease illness absenteeism. J Sch Nurs 12 (1996) 14-16 18
164. Niffenegger J.P. Proper handwashing promotes wellness in child care. J Pediatr Health Care 11 (1997) 26-31
165. Roberts L., Smith W., Jorm L., Patel M., Douglas R.M., and McGilchrist C. Effect of infection control measures on the frequency of upper respiratory infection in child care: a randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics 105 (2000) 738-742
166. Luby S.P., Agboatwalla M., Feikin D.R., Painter J., Billhimer W., Altaf A., et al. Effect of handwashing on child health: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 366 (2005) 225-233
167. Rosen L., Manor O., Engelhard D., and Zucker D. Design of the Jerusalem Handwashing Study: meeting the challenges of a preschool-based public health intervention trial. Clin Trials 3 (2006) 376-384
168. Hedin K., Petersson C., Cars H., Beckman A., and Håkansson A. Infection prevention at day-care centres: feasibility and possible effects of intervention. Scand J Prim Health Care 24 (2006) 44-49
169. Sickbert-Bennett E.E., Weber D.J., Gergen-Teague M.F., and Rutala W.A. The effects of test variables on the efficacy of hand hygiene agents. Am J Infect Control 32 (2004) 69-83
170. Chemical disinfectants and antiseptics-hygienic handwash-test methods and requirements (phase 2/step 2) EN 1499. London, UK: British Standards Institute.
171. Standard test method for evaluation of healthcare personnel handwash. E1174. Vol 11.04. Philadelphia: American Society for Testing Materials; p. 207-12.
172. Boyce J.M., and Pittet D. Guideline for hand hygiene in health-care settings. Recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. Am J Infect Control 30 (2002) S1-S46
173. Kampf G., and Kramer A. Epidemiologic background of hand hygiene and evaluation of the most important agents for scrubs and rubs. Clin Microbiol Rev 174 (2004) 863-893
174. Sickhert-Bennett E.E., Webber D.J., Gergen-Teague M.F., Sobsey M.B., Samson G.P., and Rutala W. Comparative efficacy of hand hygiene agents in the reduction of bacteria and viruses. Am J Infect Control 33 (2005) 67-77
175. Schurmann W., and Eggers H.J. An experimental study on the epidemiology of enteroviruses: soap and water washing of poliovirus 1-contaminated hands, its effectiveness and kinetics. Med Microbiol Immunol 174 (1985) 221-236
176. Barker J., Naeeni M., and Bloomfield S.F. The effects of cleaning and disinfection in reducing Salmonella contamination in a laboratory model kitchen. J Appl Microbiol 95 (2003) 1351-1360
177. Cogan T.A., Slader J., Bloomfield S.F., and Humphrey T.J. Achieving hygiene in the domestic kitchen: the effectiveness of commonly used cleaning products. J Appl Microbiol 92 (2002) 885-892
178. Larson E.L., Eke P.I., Wilder M.P., and Laughon B.E. Quantity of soap as a variable in handwashing. Infect Control 8 (1987) 371-375
179. Jernigan J.A., Lowry B.S., Hayden F.G., Kyger S.A., Conway B.P., Groschel D.H., et al. Adenovirus type 8 epidemic keratoconjunctivitis in an eye clinic: risk factors and control. J Infect Dis 167 (1993) 1307-1313
180. Larson E.L., Gomez-Duarte C., Lee L.V., Della-Latta P., Kain D.J., and Keswick B.H. Microbial flora of hands of homemakers. Am J Infect Control 31 (2003) 72-79
181. Larson E., Leyden J.J., McGinley K.J., Grove G.L., and Talbot G.H. Physiologic and microbiologic changes in skin related to frequent handwashing. Infect Control 7 (1986) 59-63
182. Doring G., Jansen S., Noll H., Grupp H., Frank F., Botzenhart K., et al. Distribution and transmission of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Burkholderia cepacia in a hospital ward. Pediatr Pulmonol 21 (1996) 90-100
183. Mermel L.A., Josephson S.L., Dempsey J., Parenteau S., Perry C., and Magill N. Outbreak of Shigella sonnei in a clinical microbiology laboratory. J Clin Microbiol 35 (1997) 3163-3165
184. Chemical disinfectants and antiseptics-hygienic handrub-test methods and requirements (phase 2/step 2) EN 1500. London, UK: British Standards Institute.
185. Paulson D.S., Fendler E.J., Dolan M.J., and Williams R.A. A close look at alcohol gel as an antimicrobial sanitizing agent. Am J Infect Control 27 (1999) 332-337
186. Hammond B., Ali Y., Fendler E., Dolan M., and Donovan S. Effect of hand sanitizer use on elementary school absenteeism. Am J Infect Control 28 (2000) 340-346
187. Leischner J, Johnson S, Sambol S, Parada J, Gerding D. Effect of alcohol hand gels and chlorhexidine hand wash in removing spores of clostridium difficile (CD) from hands. Abstracts of the 2005 meeting of International Conference Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, LB-29.
188. Traub-Dargatz J.L., Weese J.S., Rousseau J.D., Dunowska M., Morley P.S., et al. Pilot study to evaluate 3 hygiene protocols on the reduction of bacterial load on the hands of veterinary staff performing routine equine physical examinations. Can Vet J 47 (2006) 671-676
189. Ansari S.A., Sattar S.A., Springthorpe V.S., Wells G.A., and Tostowaryk W. In vivo protocol for testing efficacy of hand-washing agents against viruses and bacteria: experiments with rotavirus and Escherichia coli. Appl Environ Microbiol 55 (1989) 3113-3118
190. Gehrke C., Steinman J., and Goroncy-Bermes P. Inactivation of feline calicivirus, a surrogate of norovirus (formerly Norwalk-like viruses),
191. Kampf G., Grotheer D., and Steinmann J. Efficacy of 3 ethanol-based handrubs against feline calicivirus, a surrogate for norovirus. J Hosp Infect 60 (2005) 144-149
192. Davies J.G., Babb J.R., Bradley C.R., and Ayliffe G.A. Preliminary study of test methods to assess virucidal activity of skin disinfectants using poliovirus and bacteriophages. J Hosp Infect 25 (1993) 125-131
193. Steinmann J., Nehrkorn R., Meyer A., and Becker K. Two in-vivo protocols for testing virucidal efficacy of handwashing and hand disinfection. Zbl Hyg 196 (1995) 425-436
194. Sattar S.A., Abede M., Bueti A.J., Jampani H., Newman J., and Hua S. Activity of an alcohol-based hand gel against human adeno-, rhino-, and rotaviruses using the fingerpad method. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 21 (2000) 516-519
195. Bellamy K., Alllcock R., Babb J.R., Davies J.G., and Aylifee G.A. A test for the assessment of hygienic hand disinfection using rotavirus. J Hosp Infect 24 (1993) 201-210
196. Mbithi J.N., Springthorpe V.S., and Sattar S.A. Effect of relative humidity and air temperature on survival of hepatitis A virus on environmental surfaces. Appl Environ Microbiol 57 (1991) 1394-1399
197. Steinmann J., Nehrkhorn R., Losche E., Sasse E., and Bogumil-Pouchert B. Virucidal efficacy of hand hygiene disinfection. Hygiene und Medizin 15 (1990) 7-14
198. Kampf G., Rudolf M., Labadie J.C., and Barrett S.P. Spectrum of antimicrobial activity and user acceptability of the hand disinfectant agent Sterilium gel. J Hosp Infect 52 (2002) 141-147
199. Chaberny I.E., Schnitzler, Geiss H.K., and Wendt C. An outbreak of epidemic keratoconjunctivitis in a pediatric unit due to adenovirus type 8. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 24 (2003) 514-519
200. Fendler E.J., Ali Y., Hammond B.S., Lyons M.K., Kelley M.B., and Vowell N.A. The impact of alcohol hand sanitizer use on infection rates in an extended care facility. Am J Infect Control 30 (2002) 226-233
201. Duizer E., Bijkerk P., Rockx B., De Groot A., Twisk F., and Koopmans M. Inactivation of caliciviruses. Appl Environ Microbiol 70 (2004) 4538-4543
202. Rabenau H.F., Kampf G., Cinati J., and Doerr H.W. Efficacy of various disinfectants against SARS coronavirus. J Hosp Infect 61 (2005) 107-111
203. Larson E., and Bobo L. Effective hand degerming in the presence of blood. J Emerg Med 10 (1992) 7-11
204. Haas C.N., Rose J.B., and Gerba C.P. Microbial agents and their transmission. In: Haas C.N., Rose J.B., and Gerba C.P. (Eds). Quantitative microbial risk assessment (1999), J Wiley & Sons Inc, New York 18-85
205. Haas C.N., Marie J.R., Rose J.B., and Gerba C.P. Assessment of benefits from use of antimicrobial hand products: reduction in risk from handling ground beef. Int J Hyg Environ Health 208 (2005) 461-466
206. Mead P.S., Finelli L., Lambert-Fair M.A., Champ D., Townes J., Hutwagner L., et al. Risk factors for sporadic infection with Escherichia coli O157:H7. Arch Intern Med 157 (1997) 204-208
207. Gibson L.L., Rose J.B., Haas C.N., Gerba C.P., and Rusin P.A. Quantitative assessment of risk reduction from hand washing with antibacterial soaps. Symp Ser Soc Appl Microbiol 31 Suppl (2002) S136-S143
208. Meadows E., and Le Saux N. A systematic review of the effectiveness of antimicrobial rinse-free hand sanitizers for prevention of illness-related absenteeism in elementary school children. BMC Public Health 4 (2004) 50
209. Butz A.M., Larson E., Fosarelli P., and Yolken R. Occurrence of infectious symptoms in children in day care homes. Am J Infect Control 18 (1990) 347-353
210. Kotch J.B., Weigle K.A., Weber D.J., Clifford R.M., Harms T.O., Loda F.A., et al. Evaluation of a hygienic intervention in child day-care centers. Pediatrics 94 (1994) 991-994
211. Uhari M., and Mottonen M. An open randomized controlled trial of infection prevention in child day-care centers. Pediatr Infect Dis J 18 (1999) 672-677
212. Guinan M., McGuckin M., and Ali Y. The effect of a comprehensive handwashing program on absenteeism in elementary schools. Am J Infect Control 30 (2002) 217-220
213. White C., Kolble R., Carlson R., Lipson N., Dolan M., Ali Y., et al. The effect of hand hygiene on illness rate among students in university residence halls. Am J Infect Control 31 (2003) 364-370
214. Morton J.L., and Schultz A.A. Healthy hands: use of alcohol gel as an adjunct to handwashing in elementary school children. J Sch Nurs 20 (2004) 161-167
215. Sandora T., Taveras E.M., Shih M.C., Resnick E.A., Lee G.M., Ross-Degnan D., et al. A randomized controlled trial of a multifaceted hand hygiene intervention including alcohol-based hand sanitizer and hand hygiene education to reduce illness transmission in the home. Pediatrics 116 (2005) 587-594
216. Pandemic flu: important guidance for you and your family. UK Health Protection Agency. Available at: http://www.dh.gov.uk/assetRoot/04/10/77/08/04107708.pdf.
217. Curtis V. Hygiene: how myths, monsters and mothers-in-law can promote behaviour change. J Infect 43 (2001) 75-79
218. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Avian influenza. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/index.htm.
219. Larson E., Bryan J.L., Adler L.M., and Blane C. A multifaceted approach to changing handwashing behaviour. Am J Infect Control 25 (1997) 3-10
220. Guidelines for prevention of infection and cross infection the domestic environment. Available at: http://www.ifh-homehygiene.org/2public/2pubgu00.htm. 2004.
221. Recommendations for selection of suitable hygiene procedures for use in the domestic environment. Available at: http://www.ifh-homehygiene.org/2public/2pub04.htm. 2001.
222. Home hygiene-prevention of infection at home: a training resource for carers and their trainers. Available at: http://www.ifh-homehygiene.org/2003/2public/2pub06.asp. 2003.
223. Memorandum on the threat posed by infectious diseases. Need for reassessment and a new prevention strategy in Germany. Rudolf Schulke Foundation (1996), mph-Verlag GmbH, Wiesbaden