Eyewitness evidence: Improving its probative value

Psychological Science in the Public Interest, Supplement

Volumn 7, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 45-75

  Wells, Gary L ^a   Memon, Amina ^b   Penrod, Steven D ^c  

^a IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN   (United Kingdom)

^c JOHN JAY COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34548459855     PISSN: 15291006     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1529-1006.2006.00027.x     Document Type: Article

References (259)

1. Akehurst, L., Milne, R. Köhnken, G. (2003). The effects of children's age and delay on recall in a cognitive or structured interview. Psychology, Crime and Law, 9, 97 107.
2. Allport, G. Postman, L. (1947). The psychology of rumor. New York : Holt.
3. Ayers, M.S. Reder, L.M. (1998). A theoretical review of the misinformation effect: Predictions from an activation-based model. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 5, 1 21.
4. Bekerian, D.A. Dennett, J.L. (1997). Imagery effects in spoken and written recall. In D. Payne F. Conrad (Eds.), Intersections in basic and applied memory research (pp. 175 191). Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum.
5. Behrman, B.W. Davey, S.L. (2001). Eyewitness identification in actual criminal cases: An archival analysis. Law and Human Behavior, 25, 475 491.
6. Berman, G.L. Cutler, B.L. (1996). Effects of inconsistencies in eyewitness testimony on mock-juror decision making. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 170 177.
7. Berresheim, A. Weber, A. (2003). Die Strukturierte Zeugenvernehmung und Ihre Wirksamkeit [Structured witness interviewing and its effectiveness]. Kriminalistik, 57, 757 771.
8. Binet, A. (1900). La suggestibilité [On suggestibility]. Paris : Schleicher.
9. Boon, J. Noon, E. (1994). Changing perspectives in cognitive interviewing. Psychology, Crime and Law, 1, 59 69.
10. Borchard, E. (1932). Convicting the innocent: Errors of criminal justice. New Haven, CT : Yale University Press.
11. Bornstein, B. Zickafoose, D.J. (1999). "I know I know it, I know I saw it": The stability of the confidence-accuracy relationship across domains. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 5, 76 88.
12. Bower, G. (1967). A multicomponent theory of memory trace. In K.W. Spence J.T. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 1, pp. 229 325). New York : Academic Press.
13. Bradfield, A.L. Wells, G.L. (2000). The perceived validity of eyewitness identification testimony: A test of the five Biggers criteria. Law and Human Behavior, 24, 581 594.
14. Bradfield, A.L., Wells, G.L. Olson, E.A. (2002). The damaging effect of confirming feedback on the relation between eyewitness certainty and identification accuracy. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 112 120.
15. Brainerd, C.J. Reyna, V.F. (1998). Fuzzy-trace theory and children's false memories. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 71, 81 129.
16. Brewer, N., Keast, A. Rishworth, A. (2002). The confidence-accuracy relationship in eyewitness identification: The effects of reflection and disconfirmation on correlation and calibration. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8, 46 58.
17. Brewer, N., Weber, N. Semmler, C. (2005). Eyewitness identification. In N. Brewer K.D. Williams (Eds.), Psychology and law: An empirical perspective (pp. 177 221). New York : Guilford.
18. Brewer, N. Wells, G.L. (2006). The confidence-accuracy relationship in eyewitness identification: Effects of lineup instructions, filler similarity and target-absent base rates. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 12, 11 30.
19. Brigham, J.C. (1990). Target person distinctiveness and attractiveness as moderator variables in the confidence-accuracy relationship in eyewitness identifications. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 11, 101 115.
20. Brigham, J.C. Bothwell, R.K. (1983). The ability of prospective jurors to estimate the accuracy of eyewitness identifications. Law and Human Behavior, 7, 19 30.
21. Brigham, J.C., Maas, A., Snyder, L.D. Spaulding, K. (1982). Accuracy of eyewitness identifications in a field setting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 673 681.
22. Brigham, J.C., Meissner, C.A. Wasserman, A.W. (1999). Applied issues in the construction and expert assessment of photo lineups. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 13, S73 S92.
23. Bruce, V., Ness, H., Hancock, P.J.B., Newman, C. Rarity, J. (2002). Four heads are better than one: Combining face composites yields improvements in face likeness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 894 902.
24. Bruck, M. Ceci, S.J. (1999). The suggestibility of children's memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 419 439.
25. Buckhout, R. (1974). Eyewitness testimony. Scientific American, 231, 23 31.
26. Buckhout, R. (1980). Nearly 2,000 witnesses can be wrong. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 4, 191 192.
27. Bull, R. Clifford, B.R. (1976). Identification: The Devlin Report. New Scientist, 70, 307 308.
28. Burtt, H. (1931). Legal psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice Hall.
29. Charman, S.D. Wells, G.L. (2006). Applied lineup theory. In R.C.L. Lindsay, D.F. Ross, J.D. Read M.P. Toglia (Eds.), Handbook of eyewitness psychology: Memory for people (pp. 219 254). Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum.
30. Charman, S.D. Wells, G.L. (in press). Eyewitness lineups: Is the appearance-change instruction a good idea? Law and Human Behavior.
31. Clarke, C. Milne, R. (2001). National Evaluation of the PEACE investigative interviewing course. Police Research Award Scheme (Report No. PRAS/149). London: Home Office.
32. Clark, S.E. (2003). A memory and decision model for eyewitness identification. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17, 629 654.
33. Clark, S.E. (2005). A re-examination of the effects of biased lineup instructions in eyewitness identification. Law and Human Behavior, 29, 395 424.
34. Clark, S.E. Davey, S.L. (2005). The target-to-fillers shift in simultaneous and sequential lineups. Law and Human Behavior, 29, 151 172.
35. Clark, S.E. Tunnicliff, J.L. (2001). Selecting lineup fillers in eyewitness identification: Experimental control and real-world simulation. Law and Human Behavior, 25, 199 216.
36. Clifford, BR. Bull, R. (1978). The psychology of person identification. London : Routledge & Kegan Paul.
37. Clifford, B.R. Hollin, C.R. (1981). Effects of the type of incident and the number of perpetrators on eyewitness memory. Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 364 370.
38. Clifford, B.R. Scott, J. (1978). Individual and situational factors in eyewitness testimony. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63, 352 359.
39. Cole, G.F. (1986). The American system of criminal justice (4th ed Monterey, CA : Brooks/Cole.
40. Connors, E., Lundregan, T., Miller, N. McEwan, T. (1996). Convicted by juries, exonerated by science: Case studies in the use of DNA evidence to establish innocence after trial. Alexandria, VA : National Institute of Justice.
41. Cote, P. (1998). FACES: The Ultimate Composite Picture (Version 3.0) [Computer software]. Saint Hubert, Quebec, Canada : Interquest.
42. Cutler, B.L. Penrod, S.D. (1989). Forensically relevant moderators of the relation between eyewitness identification accuracy and confidence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 650 653.
43. Cutler, B.L. Penrod, S.D. (1995). Mistaken identification: The eyewitness, psychology, and the law. New York : Cambridge University Press.
44. Cutler, B.L., Penrod, S.D. Martens, T.K. (1987a). Improving the reliability of eyewitness identifications: Putting context into context. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 629 637.
45. Cutler, B.L., Penrod, S.D. Martens, T.K. (1987b). The reliability of eyewitness identifications: The role of system and estimator variables. Law and Human Behavior, 11, 223 258.
46. Cutler, B.L., Penrod, S.D. Stuve, T.E. (1988). Jury decision making in eyewitness identification cases. Law and Human Behavior, 12, 41 56.
47. Davies, G.M., Ellis, H.D. Shepherd, J.W. (1978). Face recognition accuracy as a function of mode of representation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63, 180 187.
48. Davis, M., McMahon, M. Greenwood, K. (2004). The efficacy of the mnemonic components of the cognitive interview: Towards a shortened variant for time-critical investigations. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19, 75 93.
49. Deffenbacher, K. (1980). Eyewitness accuracy and confidence: Can we infer anything about their relationship? Law and Human Behavior, 4, 243 260.
50. Deffenbacher, K.A., Bornstein, B.H., Penrod, S.D. McGorty, E.K. (2004). A meta-analytic review of the effects of high stress on eyewitness memory. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 687 706.
51. Devlin, L. (1976). Report to the Secretary of State for the Home Department of the Departmental Committee on Evidence of Identification in Criminal Cases. London : Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
52. Dixon, S. Memon, A. (2005). The effect of post-identification feedback on the recall of crime and perpetrator details. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19, 935 951.
53. Doob, A.N. Kirshenbaum, H. (1973). Bias in police lineups - Partial remembering. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 1, 287 293.
54. Douglass, A.B. Steblay, N. (in press). Memory distortion in eyewitnesses: A meta-analysis of the post-identification feedback effect. Applied Cognitive Psychology.
55. Dunning, D. Perretta, S. (2002). Automaticity and eyewitness accuracy: A 10-12 second rule for distinguishing accurate from inaccurate positive identifications. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 951 962.
56. Dunning, D. Stern, L.B. (1994). Distinguishing accurate from inaccurate identifications via inquiries about decision processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 818 835.
57. Dysart, J.E., Lindsay, R.C.L., MacDonald, T.K. Wicke, C. (2002). The intoxicated witness: Effects of alcohol on identification accuracy from showups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 170 175.
58. Ebbeson, E.B. Flowe, H.D. (n.d.). Simultaneous v. sequential lineups: What do we really know? Retrieved October 12, 2006, from
59. Echterhoff, G., Hirst, W. Hussy, W. (2005). How eyewitnesses resist misinformation: Social postwarnings and the monitoring of memory characteristics. Memory & Cognition, 30, 770 782.
60. Ellis, H.D., Davies, G.M. Shepherd, J.W. (1977). Experimental studies of face identification. Journal of Criminal Defense, 3, 219 234.
61. Ellis, H.D., Davies, G.M. Shepherd, J.W. (1978). A critical examination of the Photo-fit system for recalling faces. Ergonomics, 21, 297 301.
62. Ellis, H.D., Shepherd, J.W., Flin, R.H., Shepherd, J. Davies, G.M. (1989). Identification from a computer-driven retrieval system compared with traditional mugshot album search: A new tool for police investigations. Ergonomics, 32, 167 177.
63. Fisher, R.P. (2005). The cognitive interview: Question & answers. Ashburn, Virginia: The National Transportation Safety Board Academy. Retrieved June 13, 2006, from
64. Fisher, R.P., Brennan, K.H. McCauley, M.R. (2002). The cognitive interview method to enhance eyewitness recall. In M. Eisen, G. Goodman J. Quas (Eds.), Memory and suggestibility in the forensic interview (pp. 265 286). Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum.
65. Fisher, R.P. Geiselman, R.E. (1992). Memory enhancing techniques for investigative interviewing: The cognitive interview. Springfield IL : Charles C. Thomas.
66. Fisher, R.P., Geiselman, R.E. Raymond, D.S. (1987). Critical analysis of police interviewing techniques. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 15, 177 185.
67. Fisher, R.P., Quigley, K.L., Brock, P., Chin, E. Cutler, B.L. (1990, March). The effectiveness of the cognitive interview in description and identification tasks. Paper presented at the American Psychology-Law Society, Williamsburg, VA.
68. Fisher, R.P. Schreiber, N. (in press). Interviewing protocols to improve eyewitness memory. In M. Toglia, R. Lindsay, D. Ross J. Reed (Eds.), The handbook of eyewitness psychology: Vol. 1. Memory for events. Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum.
69. Fleet, M.L., Brigham, J.C. Bothwell, R.K. (1987). The confidence-accuracy relationship: The effects of confidence assessment and choosing. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17, 171 187.
70. Fox, S.G. Walters, H.A. (1986). The impact of general versus specific expert testimony and eyewitness confidence upon mock juror judgment. Law and Human Behavior, 10, 215 228.
71. Frank, J. Frank, B. (1957). Not guilty. London : Gallanez.
72. Frowd, C.D., Carson, D., Ness, H., McQuiston, D., Richardson, J., Baldwin, H. Hancock, P.J.B. (2005). Contemporary composite techniques: The impact of a forensically relevant target delay. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 10, 63 81.
73. Gabbert, F., Memon, A. Wright, D.B. (in press). Memory conformity: Disentangling the steps towards influence during a discussion. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review.
74. Garrioch, L. Brimacombe, C.A.E. (2001). Lineup administrators' expectations: Their impact on eyewitness confidence. Law and Human Behavior, 25, 299 314.
75. Geiselman, R.E. Callot, R. (1990). Reverse versus forward recall of script-based texts. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 4, 141 144.
76. Geiselman, R.E., Fisher, R.P., Firstenberg, I., Hutton, L.A., Sullivan, S.J., Avetissian, I.V. Prosk, A.L. (1984). Enhancement of eyewitness memory: An empirical evaluation of the cognitive interview. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 12, 74 79.
77. Geiselman, R.E., Fisher, R.P., MacKinnon, D.P. Holland, H.L. (1985). Eyewitness memory enhancement in the police interview. Journal of Applied Psychology, 27, 358 418.
78. George, R.C. (1991). A field evaluation of the cognitive interview. Unpublished master's thesis, Polytechnic of East London.
79. Granhag, PA. Stromwall, L. (2004). The detection of deception in forensic contexts. Cambridge, England : Cambridge University Press.
80. Gwyer, P. Clifford, B.R. (1997). The effects of the cognitive interview on recall, identification, confidence and the confidence/accuracy relationship. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 11, 121 145.
81. Hafstad, G.S., Memon, A. Logie, R. (2004). Post-identification feedback, confidence, and recollections of witnessing conditions in child witnesses. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18, 901 912.
82. Harley, E.M., Carlsen, K.A. Loftus, G.R. (2004). The "saw-it-all- along" effect: Demonstrations of visual hindsight bias. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30, 960 968.
83. Harris, M.J. Rosenthal, R. (1985). Mediation of interpersonal expectancy effects: 31 meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 363 386.
84. Hastorf, A.H. Cantrill, H. (1954). They saw a game: A case study. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 49, 129 134.
85. Hasel, L. Wells, G.L. (in press). Catching the bad guy: Morphing composite faces helps. Law and Human Behavior.
86. Haw, R.M. Fisher, R.P. (2004). Effects of administrator-witness contact on eyewitness identification accuracy. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 1106 1112.
87. Holliday, R.E. (2003a). Reducing misinformation effects in children with cognitive interviews: Dissociating recollection and familiarity. Child Development, 74, 728 751.
88. Holliday, R.E. (2003b). The effect of a prior cognitive interview on children's acceptance of misinformation. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17, 443 457.
89. Hosch, H.M. Cooper, D.S. (1982). Victimization as a determinant of eyewitness accuracy. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67, 649 652.
90. Hosch, H.M., Leippe, M.R., Marchioni, P.M. Cooper, D.S. (1984). Victimization, self-monitoring, and eyewitness identification. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 280 288.
91. Huff, R., Rattner, A. Sagarin, E. (1986). Guilty until proven innocent. Crime and Delinquency, 32, 518 544.
92. Illinois Pilot Program on Double-Blind Sequential Procedures. (2006). Retrieved March 21, 2006, from
93. Juslin, P., Olsson, N. Winman, A. (1996). Calibration and diagnosticity of confidence in eyewitness identification: Comments on what can and cannot be inferred from a low confidence-accuracy correlation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 5, 1304 1316.
94. Kassin, S.M., Tubb, V.A., Hosch, H.M. Memon, A. (2001). On the "general acceptance" of eyewitness testimony research. American Psychologist, 56, 405 416.
95. Kassin, S.M. Gudjonsson, G.H. (2004). The psychology of confessions: A review of the literature and issues. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 5, 33 67.
96. Kebbell, M. Milne, R. (1998). Police officers' perception of eyewitness factors in forensic investigations. Journal of Social Psychology, 138, 323 330.
97. Kebbell, M.R., Milne, R. Wagstaff, G. (1999). The cognitive interview: A survey of its forensic effectiveness. Psychology, Crime and Law, 5, 101 115.
98. Kebbell, M.R., Milne, R. Wagstaff, G. (2001). The cognitive interview in forensic investigations: A review. In G.B. Traverson L. Bagnoli (Eds.), Psychology and law in a changing world: New trends in theory, research and practice (pp. 185 198). London : Routledge.
99. Klobuchar, A., Steblay, N. Caligiuri, H. (in press). Improving eyewitness identifications: Hennepin County's blind sequential lineup project. Cardozo Public Law, Policy, and Ethics Journal.
100. Köhnken, G., Milne, R., Memon, A. Bull, R. (1999). A meta-analysis on the effects of the cognitive interview. Psychology, Crime and Law, 5, 3 27.
101. Köhnken, G., Schimmossek, E., Aschermann, E. Höfer, E. (1995). The cognitive interview and the assessment of the credibility of adults' statements. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 671 684.
102. Köhnken, G., Thurer, C. Zorberbier, D. (1994). The cognitive interview: Are interviewers' memories enhanced too? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 8, 13 24.
103. Koriat, A., Goldsmith, M. Pansky, A. (2000). Towards a psychology of memory accuracy. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 481 537.
104. Kovera, M.B., Penrod, S.D., Pappas, C. Thill, D.L. (1997). Identification of computer-generated facial composites. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 235 246.
105. Lampinen, J.M., Judges, D.P., Odegard, T.N. Hamilton, S. (2005). The reactions of mock jurors to the Department of Justice Guidelines for the Collection and Preservation of Eyewitness Evidence. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 27, 155 162.
106. Leippe, M.R. (1980). Effect of integrative memorial and cognitive processes on the correspondence of eyewitness accuracy and confidence. Law and Human Behavior, 4, 261 274.
107. Levi, A.M. (2002). Lineup size, the modified sequential lineup, and the sequential lineup. Cognitive Technology, 7, 39 46.
108. Lindsay, D.S. Johnson, M.K. (1989). The eyewitness suggestibility effect and memory for source. Memory and Cognition, 17, 349 358.
109. Lindsay, R.C.L. (1986). Confidence and accuracy in eyewitness identification from lineups. Law and Human Behavior, 10, 229 239.
110. Lindsay, R.C.L. Bellinger, K. (1999). Alternatives to the sequential lineup: The importance of controlling the pictures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 315 321.
111. Lindsay, R.C.L., Lim, R., Mirando, L. Cully, D. (1986). Mock juror evaluations of eyewitness testimony: A test of metamemory hypotheses. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 16, 447 459.
112. Lindsay, R.C.L., Martin, R. Webber, L. (1994). Default values in eyewitness descriptions: A problem for the match-to-description lineup filler selection strategy. Law and Human Behavior, 18, 527 541.
113. Lindsay, R.C.L., Nosworthy, G.J., Martin, R. Martynuck, C. (1994). Finding suspects in mugshots. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 121 130.
114. Lindsay, R.C.L. Wells, G.L. (1980). What price justice? Exploring the relationship between lineup fairness and identification accuracy. Law and Human Behavior, 4, 303 314.
115. Lindsay, R.C.L. Wells, G.L. (1985). Improving eyewitness identification from lineups: Simultaneous versus sequential lineup presentations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 556 564.
116. Lindsay, R.C.L., Wells, G.L. O'Connor, F. (1989). Mock juror belief of accurate and inaccurate eyewitnesses: A replication. Law and Human Behavior, 13, 333 340.
117. Lindsay, R.C.L., Wells, G.L. Rumpel, C. (1981). Can people detect eyewitness identification accuracy within and between situations? Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 79 89.
118. Loftus, E.F. (1979). Eyewitness testimony. Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press.
119. Loftus, E.F. (2005). A 30-year investigation of the malleability of memory. Learning and Memory, 12, 361 366.
120. Loftus, E.F. Palmer, J.C. (1974). Reconstruction of an automobile destruction: An example of the interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13, 585 589.
121. Luus, C.A.E. Wells, G.L. (1991). Eyewitness identification and the selection of distracters for lineups. Law and Human Behavior, 15, 43 57.
122. Luus, C.A.E. Wells, G.L. (1994). The malleability of eyewitness confidence: Co-witness and perseverance effects. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 714 724.
123. Maas, A., Brigham, J. West, S.G. (1985). Testifying on eyewitness reliability: Expert advice is not always persuasive. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 15, 207 229.
124. MacLeod, M. (2002). Retrieval-induced forgetting in eyewitness memory: Forgetting as a consequence of remembering. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 16, 135 149.
125. MacLin, O.H., Zimmerman, L.A. Malpass, R.S. (2005). PC_Eyewitness and the sequential superiority effect: Computer-based lineup administration. Law and Human Behavior, 29, 303 321.
126. MacLin, O., Wells, G.L. Phelan, C. (2004). [Target removal-without- replacement in lineups]. Unpublished raw data.
127. Malpass, R.S. Devine, P.G. (1981). Eyewitness identification: Lineup instructions and the absence of the offender. Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 482 489.
128. Malpass, R.S. Lindsay, R.C.L. (1999). Measuring lineup fairness. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 13 (Suppl. 1), S1 S8.
129. Manson v. Braithwaite, 432 U.S. 98 (1977).
130. McCloskey, M. Egeth, H. (1983). Eyewitness identification: What can a psychologist tell a jury? American Psychologist, 38, 550 563.
131. McQuiston, D.E. Malpass, R.S. (2002). Validity of the mock witness paradigm: Testing the assumptions. Law and Human Behavior, 26, 439 453.
132. McKelvie, S.J. (1988). The role of spectacles in facial memory: A replication and extension. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 66, 651 658.
133. Meissner, C.A. Brigham, J.C. (2001a). Thirty years of investigating the own-race bias in memory for faces: A meta-analytic review. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 7, 3 35.
134. Meissner, C.A Brigham, J.C. (2001b). A meta-analysis of the verbal overshadowing effect in face identification. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 15, 603 616.
135. Meissner, C.A., Sporer, S.L. Schooler, J.W. (in press). Person descriptions as eyewitness evidence. In R.C.L. Lindsay, D.F. Ross, J.D. Read M.P. Toglia (Eds.), Handbook of eyewitness psychology: Memory for people (pp. 1 34). Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum.
136. Meissner, C.A., Tredoux, C.J., Parker, J.F. MacLin, O.H. (2005). Eyewitness decisions in simultaneous and sequential lineups. Memory and Cognition, 33, 783 792.
137. Mello, E.W. Fisher, R.P. (1996). Enhancing older adult eyewitness memory with the cognitive interview. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 10, 403 418.
138. Memon, A. (2006). The cognitive interview. In O. Hargie (Ed.), A handbook of communication skills (3rd ed London and New York : Routledge.
139. Memon, A. Bull, R. (Eds.) 1999). Handbook of the psychology of interviewing. Chichester, England : Wiley.
140. Memon, A., Cronin, Ó., Eaves, R. Bull, R. (1993). The cognitive interview and child interviewees. In G.M. Stephenson N.K. Clark (Eds.), Children, evidence and procedure: Issues in criminological & legal psychology. Division of Criminological and Legal Psychology (Occasional Paper No. 20). Leicester, England : British Psychological Society.
141. Memon, A. Higham, P. (1999). A review of the cognitive interview. Psychology, Crime and Law, 5, 177 196.
142. Memon, A., Hope, L., Bartlett, J. Bull, R. (2002). Eyewitness recognition errors: The effects of mugshot viewing and choosing in young and old adults. Memory and Cognition, 30, 1219 1227.
143. Memon, A., Hope, L. Bull, R. (2003). Exposure duration: Effects on eyewitness accuracy and confidence. British Journal of Psychology, 94, 339 354.
144. Memon, A., Milne, R., Holley, A., Bull, R. Köhnken, G. (1994). Towards understanding the effects of interviewer training in evaluating the cognitive interview. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 8, 641 659.
145. Memon, A. Stevenage, S.V. (1996). Interviewing witnesses: What works and what doesn't? Psycholoquy 7(6), Witness Memory (1). Retrieved October 20, 2006, from
146. Memon, A., Wark, L., Bull, R. Köhnken, G. (1997). Isolating the effects of the cognitive interview techniques. British Journal of Psychology, 88, 179 198.
147. Memon, A., Wark, L., Holley, A., Bull, R. Köhnken, G. (1997). Eyewitness performance in cognitive and structured interviews. Memory, 5, 639 655.
148. Milne, R. Bull, R. (2006). Interviewing victims of crime, including children and people with intellectual difficulties. In M.R. Kebbell G.M. Davies (Eds.), Practical psychology for forensic investigations. Chichester, England : Wiley.
149. Milne, R., Bull, R., Memon, A. Köhnken, G. (1995). The cognitive interview and suggestibility. In G.M. Stephenson N.K. Clark (Eds.), Criminal behaviour: Perceptions, attributions and rationality. Division of Criminological and Legal Psychology (Occasional Paper No. 22). Leicester, England : British Psychological Society.
150. Milne, R., Clare, I.C.H. Bull, R. (1999). Using the cognitive interview with adults with mild learning disabilities. Psychology, Crime and Law, 5, 81 100.
151. Mitchell, K.J. Johnson, M. (2000). Source monitoring: Attributing mental experiences. In E. Tulving F.I.M. Craik (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of memory (pp. 179 195). New York : Oxford University Press.
152. Mitchell, K.J., Livosky, M. Mather, M. (1998). The weapon focus effect revisited: The role of novelty. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 3, 287 303.
153. Morgan, C.A., Hazlett, G., Doran, A., Garrett, S., Hoyt, G., Thomas, P., Baronoski, M. Southwick, S.M. (2004). Accuracy of eyewitness memory for persons encountered during exposure to highly intense stress. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 27, 265 279.
154. Münsterberg, H. (1908). On the witness stand. New York : Doubleday.
155. Newsome v. McCabe et al., 256 F.3d 747 (2002).
156. Neuschatz, J.S., Preston, E.L., Burkett, A.D., Toglia, M.R., Lampinen, J.M., Neuschatz, J.S., Fairless, A.H., Lawson, D.S., Powers, R.A. Goodsell, C.A. (2005). The effects of post-identification feedback and age on retrospective eyewitness memory. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19, 435 453.
157. Patterson, K.E. Baddeley, A.D. (1977). When face recognition fails. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 3, 406 417.
158. Pecher, D., Zeelenberg, R. Barsalou, L.W. (2003). Verifying conceptual properties in different modalities produces switching costs. Psychological Science, 14, 119 124.
159. Penrod, S. (2003, Spring). Eyewitness identification evidence: How well are witnesses and police performing? Criminal Justice, 54, 36 47.
160. Perfect, T.J. Hollins, T.S. (1996). Predictive feeling of knowing judgments and postdictive confidence judgments in eyewitness memory and general knowledge. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 10, 371 382.
161. Pezdek, K., Blandon-Gitlin, I. Moore, C. (2003). Children's face recognition memory: More evidence for the cross-race effect. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 760 763.
162. Phillips, M.R., McAuliff, B.D., Kovera, M.B. Cutler, B.L. (1999). Double-blind photoarray administration as a safeguard against investigator bias. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 940 951.
163. Pickel, K.L. (1998). Unusualness and threat as possible causes of "weapon focus." Memory, 6, 277 295.
164. Pickel, K.L. (1999). The influence of context on the "weapon focus" effect. Law and Human Behavior, 23, 299 311.
165. Pike, G.E., Kemp, R.I., Towell, N.A. Phillips, K.C. (1997). Recognizing moving faces: The relative contribution of motion and perspective view information. Visual Cognition, 4, 409 437.
166. Poole, D. Lamb, M. (1998). Investigative interviews with children: A guide for helping professionals. Washington, DC : American Psychological Association.
167. Poole, D. Lindsay, D.S. (2001). Children's eyewitness reports after exposure to misinformation from parents. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 7, 27 50.
168. Read, J.D., Vokey, J.R. Hammersley, R. (1990). Changing photos of faces: Effects of exposure duration and photo similarity on recognition and the accuracy-confidence relationship. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 16, 870 882.
169. Read, J.D., Yuille, J.C. Tollestrup, P. (1992). Recollections of a robbery: Effects of arousal and alcohol upon recall and person identification. Law and Human Behavior, 16, 425 446.
170. Roberts, W.T. Higham, P.A. (2002). Selecting accurate statements from the cognitive interview using confidence ratings. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8, 33 43.
171. Roberts, K., Lamb, M. Sternberg, K. (2004). The effects of rapport building style on children's reports of a staged event. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18, 189 202.
172. Robinson, M.D. Johnson, J.T. (1998). How not to enhance the confidence-accuracy relation: The detrimental effects of attention to the identification process. Law and Human Behavior, 22, 409 428.
173. Savage, S. Milne, R. (in press). Miscarriages of justice - the role of the investigative process. In T. Newburn, T. Williamson A. Wright (Eds.), Handbook of criminal investigation. Cullompton, England : Willan.
174. Saywitz, K.J., Geiselman, R.E. Bornstein, G.K. (1992). Effects of cognitive interviewing and practice on children's recall performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 744 756.
175. Scheck, B., Neufeld, P. Dwyer, J. (2000). Actual innocence. New York : Random House.
176. Schooler, J.W. Engstler-Schooler, T.Y. (1990). Verbal overshadowing of visual memories: Some things are better left unsaid. Cognitive Psychology, 22, 36 71.
177. Searcy, J.H., Bartlett, J.C. Memon, A. (1999). Age differences in accuracy and choosing rates on face recognition and eyewitness identification tasks. Memory and Cognition, 27, 538 552.
178. Searcy, J.H., Bartlett, J.C., Swanson, K. Memon, A. (2001). Aging and lineup performance at long retention intervals: Effects of meta-memory and context reinstatement. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 207 214.
179. Semmler, C., Brewer, N. Wells, G.L. (2004). Effects of postidentification feedback on eyewitness identification and nonidentification. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 334 346.
180. Shapiro, P. Penrod, S. (1986). A meta-analysis of facial identification studies. Psychological Bulletin, 100, 139 156.
181. Shaw, J.S., III. McClure, K.A. (1996). Repeated postevent questioning can lead to elevated levels of eyewitness confidence. Law and Human Behavior, 20, 629 654.
182. Shaw, J.S., III. Skolnick, P. (1999). Weapon focus and gender differences in eyewitness accuracy: Arousal versus salience. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29, 2328 2341.
183. Shaw, J.S., III. Zerr, T.K. (2003). Extra effort during memory retrieval may be associated with increases in eyewitness confidence. Law and Human Behavior, 27, 315 329.
184. Shaw, J.S., III., Zerr, T.K. Woythaler, K.A. (2001). Public eyewitness confidence ratings can differ from those held privately. Law and Human Behavior, 25, 141 154.
185. Slater, A. (1994). Identification parades: A scientific evaluation. London : Police Research Group, Home Office.
186. Smith, S.M. (1994). Theoretical principles of context dependent memory. In P. Morris M. Grunerberg (Eds.), Aspects of memory: Theoretical aspects (2nd ed., pp. 169 195). New York : Routledge Press.
187. Smith, S.M., Lindsay, R.C.L. Pryke, S. (2000). Postdictors of eyewitness errors: Can false identification be diagnosed? Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 542 550.
188. Smith, S.M., Lindsay, R.C.L., Pryke, S. Dysart, J.E. (2001). Postdictors of eyewitness errors: Can false identifications be diagnosed in the cross-race situation? Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 7, 153 169.
189. Smith, S.M. Vela, E. (2001). Environmental context-dependent memory: A review and meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 8, 203 220.
190. Snee, T. Lush, D. (1941). Interaction of the narrative and interrogatory methods of obtaining testimony. Journal of Psychology, 11, 229 230.
191. Sporer, S.L. (1982). A brief history of the psychology of testimony. Current Psychological Reviews, 2, 323 339.
192. Sporer, S.L. (1992). Post-dicting eyewitness identification accuracy: Confidence, decision-times and person descriptions among choosers and nonchoosers. European Journal of Social Psychology, 20, 157 180.
193. Sporer, S.L. (1993). Eyewitness identification accuracy, confidence, and decision times in simultaneous and sequential lineups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 22 33.
194. Sporer, S.L. (1994). Decision-times and eyewitness identification accuracy in simultaneous and sequential lineups. In D.F. Ross, J.D. Read M.P. Toglia (Eds.), Adult eyewitness testimony: Current trends and developments (pp. 300 327). New York : Cambridge University Press.
195. Sporer, S.L. (1996). Psychological aspects of person descriptions. In S. Sporer, R. Malpass G. Köhnken (Eds.), Psychological issues in eyewitness identification (pp. 53 86). Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum.
196. Sporer, S.L. (in press). Person descriptions as retrieval cues: Do they really help? Psychology, Crime and Law.
197. Sporer, S., Penrod, S., Read, D. Cutler, B.L. (1995). Choosing, confidence, and accuracy: A meta-analysis of the confidence-accuracy relation in eyewitness identification studies. Psychological Bulletin, 118, 315 327.
198. State of Maryland v. Kirk N. Bloodsworth, 84-CR-3138 (Baltimore County 1984).
199. Steblay, N.M. (1992). A meta-analytic review of the weapon focus effect. Law and Human Behavior, 16, 413 424.
200. Steblay, N.M. (1997). Social influence in eyewitness recall: A meta-analytic review of lineup instruction effects. Law and Human Behavior, 21, 283 298.
201. Steblay, N.M., Dysart, J., Fulero, S. Lindsay, R.C.L. (2001). Eyewitness accuracy rates in sequential and simultaneous lineup presentations: A meta-analytic comparison. Law and Human Behavior, 25, 459 474.
202. Steele, C.M. Josephs, R.A. (1990). Alcohol myopia: Its prized and dangerous effects. American Psychologist, 45, 921 933.
203. Stein, L. Memon, A. (in press). Testing the efficacy of the cognitive interview in a developing country. Applied Cognitive Psychology.
204. Stern, L.B. Dunning, D. (1994). Distinguishing accurate from inaccurate eyewitness identifications: A reality monitoring approach. In D.F. Ross, J.D. Read M.P. Toglia (Eds.), Adult eyewitness testimony: Current trends and developments (pp. 273 299). New York : Cambridge University Press.
205. Stern, L.W. (1904). Die Aussage als geistige Leistung und als Verhörsprodukt [The statement as a mental achievement and product of interrogation]. Beiträge zur Psychologie der Aussage, 3, 269 415.
206. Stern, L.W. (1939). The psychology of testimony. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 34, 3 20.
207. Stevenage, S. Memon, A. (1997). On the importance of imagery in the cognitive interview. Reply to Roberts. Psycholoquy, 8 (3), Witness Memory (16). Retrieved October 20, 2006, from
208. Stinson, V., Devenport, J.L., Cutler, B.L. Kravitz, D.A. (1996). How effective is the presence-of-counsel safeguard? Attorney perceptions of suggestiveness, fairness and correctability of biased lineup procedures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 64 75.
209. Stinson, V., Devenport, J.L., Cutler, B.L. Kravitz, D.A. (1997). How effective is the motion-to-suppress safeguard? Judges' perceptions of suggestiveness and fairness of biased lineup procedures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 211 220.
210. Tanaka, J.W. Farah, M.J. (1993). Parts and wholes in face recognition. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A, 46, 225 246.
211. Tanaka, J.W. Sengco, J.A. (1997). Features and their configuration in face recognition. Memory and Cognition, 25, 583 592.
212. Tollestrup, P., Turtle, J. Yuille, J. (1994). Actual victims and witnesses to robbery and fraud: An archival analysis. In D.F. Ross, J.D. Read M.P. Toglia (Eds.), Adult eyewitness testimony: Current trends and developments (pp. 144 160). New York : Cambridge University Press.
213. Tulving, E. Thomson, D.M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80, 353 370.
214. Turtle, J.W., Lindsay, R.C.L. Wells, G.L. (2003). Best practice recommendations for eyewitness evidence procedures: New ideas for the oldest way to solve a case. Canadian Journal of Police and Security Services, 1, 5 18.
215. Valentine, T. Heaton, P. (1999). An evaluation of the fairness of police line-ups and video identifications. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 13, S59 S72.
216. Valentine, T., Pickering, A. Darling, S. (2003). Characteristics of eyewitness identification that predict the outcome of real lineups. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17, 969 993.
217. Vrij, A. (2000). Detecting lies and deceit: The psychology of lying and the implications for professional practice. Chichester, England : Wiley.
218. Weber, N. Brewer, N. (2003). The effect of judgment type and confidence scale on confidence-accuracy calibration in face recognition. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 490 499.
219. Weber, N. Brewer, N. (2004). Confidence-accuracy calibration in absolute and relative face recognition judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 10, 156 172.
220. Weber, N., Brewer, N., Wells, G.L., Semmler, C. Keast, A. (2004). Eyewitness identification accuracy and response latency: The unruly 10-12 second rule. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 10, 139 147.
221. Wells, G.L. (1978). Applied eyewitness testimony research: System variables and estimator variables. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1546 1557.
222. Wells, G.L. (1984). The psychology of lineup identifications. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 14, 89 103.
223. Wells, G.L. (1988). Eyewitness identification: A system handbook. Toronto : Carswell Legal Publications.
224. Wells, G.L. (1993). What do we know about eyewitness identification? American Psychologist, 48, 553 571.
225. Wells, G.L. (2006). Eyewitness identification: Systemic reforms. Wisconsin Law Review, 2006, 615 643.
226. Wells, G.L. Bradfield, A.L. (1998). "Good, you identified the suspect": Feedback to eyewitnesses distorts their reports of the witnessing experience. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 360 376.
227. Wells, G.L. Bradfield, A.L. (1999a). Distortions in eyewitnesses' recollections: Can the postidentification feedback effect be moderated? Psychological Science, 10, 138 144.
228. Wells, G.L. Bradfield, A.L. (1999b). Measuring the goodness of lineups: Parameter estimation, question effects, and limits to the mock witness paradigm. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 13, 27 40.
229. Wells, G.L., Charman, S.D. Olson, E.A. (2005). Building face composites can harm lineup identification performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 11, 147 157.
230. Wells, G.L., Ferguson, T.J. Lindsay, R.C.L. (1981). The tractability of eyewitness confidence and its implication for triers of fact. Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 688 696.
231. Wells, G.L. Hryciw, B. (1984). Memory for faces: Encoding and retrieval operations. Memory and Cognition, 12, 338 344.
232. Wells, G.L. Leippe, M.R. (1981). How do triers of fact infer the accuracy of eyewitness identifications? Memory for peripheral detail can be misleading. Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 682 687.
233. Wells, G.L., Leippe, M.R. Ostrom, T.M. (1979). Guidelines for empirically assessing the fairness of a lineup. Law and Human Behavior, 3, 285 293.
234. Wells, G.L. Lindsay, R.C.L. (1980). On estimating the diagnosticity of eyewitness nonidentifications. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 776 784.
235. Wells, G.L., Lindsay, R.C.L. Ferguson, T.J. (1979). Accuracy, confidence, and juror perceptions in eyewitness identification. Journal of Applied Psychology, 64, 440 448.
236. Wells, G.L. Luus, E. (1990). Police lineups as experiments: Social methodology as a framework for properly conducted lineups. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16, 106 117.
237. Wells, G.L., Malpass, R.S., Lindsay, R.C.L., Fisher, R.P., Turtle, J.W. Fulero, S. (2000). From the lab to the police station: A successful application of eyewitness research. American Psychologist, 55, 581 598.
238. Wells, G.L. Murray, D.M. (1983). What can psychology say about the Neil vs. Biggers criteria for judging eyewitness identification accuracy? Journal of Applied Psychology, 68, 347 362.
239. Wells, G.L. Murray, D.M. (1984). Eyewitness confidence. In G.L. Wells E.F. Loftus (Eds.), Eyewitness testimony: Psychological perspectives (pp. 155 170). New York : Cambridge University Press.
240. Wells, G.L. Olson, E. (2002). Eyewitness identification: Information gain from incriminating and exonerating behaviors. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8, 155 167.
241. Wells, G.L., Olson, E. Charman, S. (2002). Eyewitness identification confidence. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 151 154.
242. Wells, G.L., Olson, E. Charman, S. (2003). Distorted retrospective eyewitness reports as functions of feedback and delay. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 9, 42 52.
243. Wells, G.L., Rydell, S.M. Seelau, E.P. (1993). On the selection of distractors for eyewitness lineups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 835 844.
244. Wells, G.L., Small, M., Penrod, S., Malpass, R.S., Fulero, S.M. Brimacombe, C.A.E. (1998). Eyewitness identification procedures: Recommendations for lineups and photospreads. Law and Human Behavior, 22, 603 647.
245. Wells, G.L. Turtle, J.W. (1986). Eyewitness identification: The importance of lineup models. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 320 329.
246. Westcott, H., Davies, G. Bull, R. (2002). Children's testimony: A handbook of psychological research and forensic practice. Chichester, England : Wiley.
247. Whipple, G.M. (1909). The obtaining of information: Psychology of observation and report. Psychological Bulletin, 8, 419 421.
248. Whipple, G.M. (1910). Recent literature on the psychology of testimony. Psychological Bulletin, 8, 365 368.
249. Whipple, G.M. (1911). The psychology of testimony. Psychological Bulletin, 9, 307 309.
250. Whipple, G.M. (1912). Psychology of testimony and report. Psychological Bulletin, 10, 264 269.
251. Wigmore, J.H. (1909). Professor Münsterburg and the psychology of testimony. Illinois Law Review, 3, 399 445.
252. Wogalter, M.S., Marwitz, D.B. Leonard, D.C. (1992). Suggestiveness in photospread lineups: Similarity induces distinctiveness. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 6, 443 453.
253. Wright, D.B., Boyd, C.E. Tredoux, C.G. (2003). Inter-racial contact and the own-race bias for face recognition in South Africa and England. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17, 365 373.
254. Wright, D.B. Loftus, E.F. (1998). How misinformation alters memories. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 71, 155 164.
255. Wright, D.B. McDaid, A.T. (1996). Comparing system and estimator variables using data from real lineups. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 10, 75 84.
256. Wright, D.B. Skagerberg, E.M. (in press). Post-identification feedback affects real eyewitnesses. Psychological Science.
257. Yarmey, A.D. (2004). Eyewitness recall and photo identification: A field experiment. Psychology, Crime and Law, 10, 53 68.
258. Yuille, J. Cutshall, J. (1986). A case study of eyewitnesses' memory of a crime. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 291 301.
259. Zaragoza, M.S., Payment, K.E., Ackil, J.K., Drivdahl, S.B. Beck, M. (2001). Interviewing witnesses: Forced confabulation and confirmatory feedback increase false memories. Psychological Science, 12, 473 477.