A theoretical review of the misinformation effect: Predictions from an activation-based memory model

Psychonomic Bulletin and Review

Volumn 5, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 1-21

  Ayers, Michael S ^a   Reder, Lynne M ^a  

^a CARNEGIE MELLON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0000753266     PISSN: 10699384     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3758/BF03209454     Document Type: Article

References (103)

1. ANDERSON, J. R. (1974a). Retrieval of propositional information from long-term memory. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 451-474.
2. ANDERSON, J. R. (1974b). Verbatim and propositional representation of sentences in immediate and long-term memory. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 13, 149-162.
3. ANDERSON, J. R. (1976). Language, memory, and thought. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
4. ANDERSON, J. R. (1983). The architecture of cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
5. ANDERSON, J. R. (1993). Rules of the mind. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
6. ANDERSON, J. R., & BOWER, G. H. (1973). Human associative memory. Washington, DC: Winston.
7. ANDERSON, J. R., & REDER, L. M. (in press). The fan effect: New results and new theories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General.
8. BARNES, J. M., & UNDERWOOD, B. J. (1959). "Fate" of first-list associations in transfer theory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 97-105.
9. BEKERIAN, D. A.,& BOWERS, J. M. (1983). Eyewitness testimony: Were we misled? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 9, 139-145.
10. BELLI, R. F. (1989). Influences of misleading postevent information: Misinformation interference and acceptance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 118, 72-85.
11. BELLI, R. F. (1993). Failure of interpolated tests in inducing memory impairment with final modified tests: Evidence unfavorable to the blocking hypothesis. American Journal of Psychology, 106, 407-427.
12. BELLI, R. F., LINDSAY, D. S., GALES, M. S., & MCCARTHY, T. T. (1994). Memory impairment and source misattribution in postevent misinformation experiments with short retention intervals. Memory & Cognition, 22, 40-54.
13. BELLI, R. F., WINDSCHITL, P. D., MCCARTHY, T. T., & WINFREY, S. E. (1992). Detecting memory impairment with a modified test procedure: Manipulating retention interval with centrally presented event items. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 18, 356-367.
14. BOWER, G. H. (1996). Reactivating a reactivation theory of implicit memory. Consciousness & Cognition, 5, 27-72.
15. BOWERS, J. M., & BEKERIAN, D. A. (1984). When will postevent information distort eyewitness testimony? Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 466-472.
16. BOWMAN, L. L., & ZARAGOZA, M. S. (1989). Similarity of encoding context does not influence resistance to memory impairment following misinformation. American Journal of Psychology, 102, 249-264.
17. CECI, S. J., & BRUCK, M. (1993). Suggestibility of the child witness: A historical review and synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 403-439.
18. CECI, S. J., ROSS, D. F., & TOGLIA, M. P. (1987). Suggestibility of children's memory: Psycholegal implications. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 116, 38-49.
19. CHANDLER, C. C. (1989). Specific retroactive interference in modified recognition tests: Evidence for an unknown cause of interference. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 15, 256-265.
20. CHANDLER, C. C. (1991). How memory for an event is influenced by related events: Interference in modified recognition tests. Journal of Experimental Psychologic: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 17, 115-125.
21. CHANDLER, C. C., & GARGANO, G. J. (1995). Item-specific interference caused by cue-dependent forgetting. Memory & Cognition, 23, 701-708.
22. COLLINS, A. M., & LOFTUS, E. F. (1975). A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing. Psychological Review, 82, 407-428.
23. CROWDER, R. G. (1976). Principles of learning and memory. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
24. GARRY, M., MANNING, C. G., LOFTUS, E. F., & SHERMAN, S. J. (1996). Imagination inflation: Imagining a childhood event inflates confidence that it occurred. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 3, 208-214.
25. GREENBERG, R., & UNDERWOOD, B. J. (1950). Retention as a function of stage of practice. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40, 452-457.
26. GREENE, E., FLYNN, M. S., & LOFTUS, E. F. (1982). Inducing resistance to misleading information. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 21, 207-219.
27. HYMAN, I. E., JR., HUSBAND, T. H., & BILLINGS, F. J. (1995). False memories of childhood experiences. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 9, 181-197.
28. JACOBY, L. L., WOLOSHYN, V., & KELLEY, C. M. (1989). Becoming famous without being recognized: Unconscious influences of memory produced by divided attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 118, 72-85.
29. JOHNSON, M. K. (1988). Reality monitoring: An experimental phenomenological approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 117, 390-394.
30. JOHNSON, M. K., HASHTROUDI, S., & LINDSAY, D. S. (1993). Source monitoring. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 3-28.
31. JOHNSON, M. K., & RAYE, C. L. (1981). Reality monitoring. Psychological Reviev, 88, 67-85.
32. KAMAS, E. N., & REDER, L. M. (1994). The role of familiarity in cognitive processing. In E. O'Brien & R. Lorch (Eds.), Sources of coherence in text comprehension: A festschrift in honor of Jerome L. Myers (pp. 177-202). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
33. KAMAS, E. N., REDER, L. M., & AYERS, M. S. (1996). Partial matching in the Moses illusion: Response bias not sensitivity. Memory & Cognition, 24, 687-699.
34. KELLEY, C. M., & JACOBY, L. L. (1996). Memory attributions: Remembering, knowing, and feeling of knowing. In L. M. Reder (Ed.), Implicit memory and metacognition (pp. 287-307). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
35. KEPPEL, G., & UNDERWOOD, B. J. (1962). Proactive inhibition in short-term retention of single items. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 1, 153-161.
36. LINDSAY, D. S. (1990). Misleading suggestions can impair eyewitnesses' ability to remember event details. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 16, 1077-1083.
37. LINDSAY, D. S. (1991). CHARMed but not convinced: Comment on Metcalfe (1990). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 120, 101-105.
38. LINDSAY, D. S., & JOHNSON, M. K. (1987). Reality monitoring and eyewitness suggestibility: Young children's ability to discriminate among memories from different sources. In J. Ceci, M. P. Toglia, & D. F. Ross (Eds.), Children's eyewitness memory (pp. 92-121). New York: Springer-Verlag.
39. LINDSAY, D. S., & JOHNSON, M. K. (1989a). The eyewitness suggestibility effect and memory for source. Memory & Cognition, 17, 349-358.
40. LINDSAY, D. S., & JOHNSON, M. K. (1989b). The reversed eyewitness suggestibility effect. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 27, 111-113.
41. LINDSAY, D. S., & READ, J. D. (1994). Psychotherapy and memories of childhood sexual abuse: A cognitive perspective. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 8, 281-338.
42. LOFTUS, E. F. (1975). Leading questions and the eyewitness report. Cognitive Psychology, 7, 560-572.
43. LOFTUS, E. F. (1979). Reactions to blatantly contradictory information. Memory & Cognition, 7, 368-374.
44. LOFTUS, E. F. (1991). Made in memory: Distortions in recollection after misleading information. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 27, pp. 187-215). San Diego: Academic Press.
45. LOFTUS, E. F., DONDERS, K., HOFFMAN, H. G., & SCHOOLER, J. W. (1989). Creating new memories that are quickly accessed and confidently held. Memory & Cognition, 17, 607-616.
46. LOFTUS, E. F., & HOFFMAN, H. G. (1989). Misinformation and memory: The creation of new memories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 118, 100-104.
47. LOFTUS, E. F., & KETCHAM, K. (1994). The myth of repressed memory. New York: St. Martin's Press.
48. LOFTUS, E. F., MILLER, D. G., & BURNS, H. J. (1978). Semantic integration of verbal information into a visual memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory, 4, 19-31.
49. LOFTUS, E. F., & PALMER, J. C. (1974). Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 13, 585-589.
50. LOFTUS, E. F., SCHOOLER, J. W., & WAGENAAR, W. (1985). The fate of memory: Comment on McCloskey and Zaragoza. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 114, 375-380.
51. LOVETT, M. C., & ANDERSON, J. R. (1996). History of success and current context in problem solving: Combined influences on operator selection. Cognitive Psychology, 31, 168-217.
52. MCCLELLAND, J. L., & RUMELHART, D. E. (1986). Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructures of cognition: Vol 2. Psychological and biological models. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
53. MCCLOSKEY, M., & ZARAGOZA, M. (1985a). Misleading postevent information and memory for events: Arguments and evidence against memory impairment hypotheses. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 114, 1-16.
54. MCCLOSKEY, M., & ZARAGOZA, M. (1985b). Postevent information and memory: Reply to Loftus, Schooler, and Wagenaar. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 114, 381-387.
55. MCDERMOTT, K. B. (1996). The persistence of false memories in list recall. Journal of Memory & Language, 35, 212-230.
56. MCGEOCH, J. A. (1932). Forgetting and the law of disuse. Psychological Review, 39, 352-370.
57. MCGEOCH, J. A. (1942). The psychology of human learning, New York: Longmans, Green.
58. MCGEOCH, J. A., & MCDONALD, W. T. (1931). Meaningful relation and retroactive inhibition. American Journal of Psychology, 43, 579-588.
59. MELTON, A. W., & IRWIN, J. M. (1940). The influence of degree of interpolated learning on retroactive inhibition and the overt transfer of specific responses. American Journal of Psychology, 53, 173-203.
60. METCALFE, J. (1990). Composite holographic associative recall model (CHARM) and blended memories in eyewitness testimony. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 119, 145-160.
61. METCALFE, J. (1991). Representations, predictions and remembrances in CHARM: A reply to Lindsay (1991). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 120, 313-315.
62. METCALFE, J., & BJORK, R. A. (1991). Composite models never (well hardly ever) compromise: Reply to Schooler and Tanaka (1991). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 120, 203-210.
63. METCALFE, J., SCHWARTZ, B. L., & JOAQUIM, S. G. (1993). The cue familiarity heuristic in metacognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 19, 851-861.
64. MILLER, N. E., & STEVENSON, S. S. (1936). Agitated behavior of rats during experimental extinction and a curve of spontaneous recovery. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 21, 205-231.
65. MITCHELL, K. J., & ZARAGOZA, M. S. (1996). Repeated exposure to suggestion and false memory: The role of contextual variability. Journal of Memory & Language, 35, 246-260.
66. MORTON, J., HAMMERSLEY, R. H., & BEKERIAN, D. A. (1985). Headed records: A model for memory and its failures. Cognition, 20, 1-23.
67. NHOUYVANISVONG, A., & REDER, L. M. (in press). Rapid feeling-of-knowing: A strategy selection mechanism. In V. Y. Yzerbyt, G. Lories, & B. Dardenne, Metacognition: Cognitive and social dimensions. London: Sage.
68. OSGOOD, C. E. (1949). The similarity paradox in human learning: A resolution. Psychological Review, 56, 132-143.
69. PAYNE, D. G., ELIE, C. J., BLACKWELL, J. M., & NEUSCHATZ, J. S. (1996). Memory illusions: Recalling, recognizing, and recollecting events that never occurred. Journal of Memory & Language, 35, 261-285.
70. PAYNE, D. G., TOGLIA, M. P., & ANASTASI, J. S. (1994). Recognition performance level and the magnitude of the misinformation effect in eyewitness memory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 1, 376-382.
71. POSTMAN, L., & UNDERWOOD, B. J. (1973). Critical issues in interference theory. Memory & Cognition, 1, 19-40.
72. RANTZEN, A., & MARKHAM, R. (1992). The reversed eyewitness testimony design: More evidence for source monitoring. Journal of General Psychology, 119, 37-43.
73. RATCLIFF, R. A., & MCKOON, G. (1981). Does activation really spread? Psychological Review, 88, 454-462.
74. READ, J. D. (1996). From a passing thought to a false memory in 2 minutes: Confusing real and illusory events. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 3, 105-111.
75. REDER, L. M., & ANDERSON, J. R. (1980). A partial resolution of the paradox of interference: The role of integrating knowledge. Cognitive Psychology, 12, 447-472.
76. REDER, L. M., & GORDON, J. S. (1997). Subliminal perception: Nothing special, cognitively speaking. In J. Cohen & J. Schooler (Eds.), Cognitive and neuropsychological approaches to the study of consciousness (pp. 125-134). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
77. REDER, L. M., & KUSBIT, G. W. (1991). Locus of the Moses illusion: Imperfect encoding, retrieval, or match? Journal of Memory & Language, 30, 385-406.
78. REDER, L. M., NHOUYVANISVONG, A., AYERS, M. S., SCHUNN, C. D., ANGSTADT, P., & HIRAKI, K. (1998). Modeling the word frequency mirror effect in a remember/know paradigm. Manuscript submitted for publication.
79. REDER, L. M., NHOUYVANISVONG. A., SCHUNN, C. D., AYERS, M. S., ANGSTADT, P., & HIRAKI, K. (1997). Modeling the mirror effect in a continuous remember/know paradigm. Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 644-649). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
80. REDER, L. M., & RITTER, F. E. (1992). What determines initial feeling of knowing? Familiarity with question terms, not with the answer. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 18, 435-451.
81. REDER, L. M., & ROSS, B. H. (1983). Integrated knowledge in different tasks: The role of retrieval strategy on fan effects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 9, 55-72.
82. REDER, L. M., & SCHUNN, C. D. (1996). Metacognition does not imply awareness: Strategy choice is governed by implicit learning and memory. In L. M. Reder (Ed.), Implicit memory and metacognition (pp. 45-77). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
83. REDER, L. M., & WIBLE, C. (1984). Strategy use in question-answering: Memory strength and task constraints on fan effects. Memory & Cognition, 12, 411-419.
84. ROEDIGER, H. L., III, JACOBY, D., & MCDERMOTT, K. B. (1996). Misinformation effects in recall: Creating false memories through repeated retrieval. Journal of Memory & Language, 35, 300-318.
85. ROEDIGER, H. L., III, & MCDERMOTT, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 21, 803-814.
86. ROEDIGER, H. L., III, & SCHMIDT, S. R. (1980). Output interference in the recall of categorized and paired associate lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory, 6, 91-105.
87. SCHOOLER, J. W., FOSTER, R. A., & LOFTUS, E. F. (1988). Some deleterious consequences of the act of recollection. Memory & Cognition, 16, 243-251.
88. SCHOOLER, J. W., & TANAKA, J. W. (1991). Composites, compromises, and CHARM: What is the evidence for blend memory representations? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 120, 96-100.
89. SCHUNN, C. D., REDER, L. M., NHOUYVANISVONG, A., RICHARDS, D. R., & STROFFOLINO, P. J. (1997). To calculate or not calculate: A source activation confusion model of problem familiarity's role in strategy selection. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 23, 3-29.
90. SMITH, A. D. (1971). Output interference and organized recall from long-term memory. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 10, 400-408.
91. TULVING, E. (1985). Memory and consciousness. Canadian Psychologist, 26, 1-12.
92. TVERSKY, B., & TUCHIN, M. (1989). A reconciliation of the evidence on eyewitness testimony: Comments on McCloskey and Zaragoza. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 118, 86-91.
93. UNDERWOOD, B. J. (1957). Interference and forgetting. Psychological Review, 64, 49-60.
94. UNDERWOOD, B. J. (1965). False recognition produced by implicit verbal responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 70, 122-129.
95. WARREN, A. R., & LANE, P. (1995). Effects of timing and type of questioning on eyewitness accuracy and suggestibility. In M. S. Zaragoza, J. R. Graham, G. C. N. Hall, R. Hirschman, & Y. S. Ben-Porath (Eds.), Memory and testimony in the child witness (pp. 44-60). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
96. WEINGARDT, K. R., LOFTUS, E. F., & LINDSAY, D. S. (1995). Misinformation revisited: New evidence on the suggestibility of memory. Memory & Cognition, 23, 72-82.
97. WELLS, G. L., & TURTLE, J. W. (1987). Eyewitness testimony research: Current knowledge and emergent controversies. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 19, 363-388.
98. WHEELER, M. A. (1995). Improvement in recall over time without repeated testing: Spontaneous recovery revisited. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 21, 173-184.
99. WINDSCHITL, P. D. (1996). Memory for faces: Evidence of retrieval-based impairment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 22, 1101-1122.
100. ZARAGOZA, M. S., & KOSHMIDER, J. W., III (1989). Misled subjects may know more than their performance implies. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 15, 246-255.
101. ZARAGOZA, M. S., & LANE, S. M. (1994). Source misattributions and the suggestibility of eyewitness memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 20, 934-945.
102. ZARAGOZA, M. S., MCCLOSKEY, M., & JAMIS, M. (1987). Misleading postevent information and recall of the original event: Further evidence against the memory impairment hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 13, 36-44.
103. ZARAGOZA, M. S., & MITCHELL, K. J. (1996). Repeated exposure to suggestion and the creation of false memories. Psychological Science, 7, 294-300.