Oxidative mechanisms at rest and during exercise

Clinica Chimica Acta

Volumn 383, Issue 1-2, 2007, Pages 1-20

  Ghanassia, Edouard ^a,b,c   Brun, Jean Frédéric ^a,b,c   Mercier, Jacques ^a,b,c   Raynaud, Eric ^a,b,c  

^a INSERM   (France)

^b LAPEYRONIE HOSPITAL   (France)

^c UNIV MONTPELLIER   (France)

Author keywords

Adipose tissue; Exercise; Liver; Metabolism; Skeletal muscle; Substrates

Indexed keywords

CARBOHYDRATE; GLUCAGON; INSULIN; LEPTIN; LIPID;

ADAPTATION; ADIPOSE TISSUE; CATABOLISM; CHEMICAL REACTION; ENERGY BALANCE; ENERGY EXPENDITURE; EXERCISE; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; HORMONE RELEASE; HUMAN; LIPID METABOLISM; NONHUMAN; NUTRIENT; OXIDATION; PANCREAS ISLET; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REST; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW;

ADIPOSE TISSUE; CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM; ENERGY METABOLISM; EXERCISE; HUMANS; LIPID METABOLISM; METABOLIC NETWORKS AND PATHWAYS; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; REST;

EID: 34347331179     PISSN: 00098981     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2007.04.006     Document Type: Review

References (122)

1. Leverve X. Homéostasie énergétique et métabolisme glucido-lipidique: pourquoi deux substrats différents?. Cah Nutr Diét 40 (2005) 161-165
2. DeFronzo R.A. Insulin secretion, insulin resistance, and obesity. Int J Obes 6 Suppl. 1 (1982) 73-82
3. Randle P.J., Garland P.B., Hales C.N., and Newsholme E.A. The glucose fatty-acid cycle. Its role in insulin sensitivity and the metabolic disturbances of diabetes mellitus. Lancet 13 (1963) 785-789
4. Stich V., and Berlan M. Physiological regulation of NEFA availability: lipolysis pathway. Proc Nutr Soc 63 (2004) 369-374
5. Shen W.J., Liang Y., Hong R., et al. Characterization of the functional interaction of adipocyte lipid-binding protein with hormone-sensitive lipase. J Biol Chem 276 (2001) 49443-49448
6. Kishida K., Kuriyama H., Funahashi T., et al. Aquaporin adipose, a putative glycerol channel in adipocytes. J Biol Chem 275 (2000) 20896-20902
7. Sengenes C., Verlan M., De Glisezinski I., Lafontan M., and Galitzky J. Natriuretic peptides: a new lipolytic pathway in human adipocytes. FASEB J 14 (2000) 1345-1351
8. Koonen D.P., Glatz J.F., Bonen A., and Luiken J.J. Long-chain fatty acid uptake and FAT/CD36 translocation in heart and skeletal muscle. Biochim Biophys Acta 1736 (2005) 163-180
9. Brunzell J.D., Schwartz R.S., Eckel R.H., and Goldberg A.P. Insulin and adipose tissue lipoprotein lipase activity in humans. Int J Obes 5 (1981) 685-694
10. Ranganath L.R., Beety J.M., Wright J., and Morgan L.M. Nutrient regulation of post-heparin lipoprotein lipase activity in obese subjects. Horm Metab Res 33 (2001) 57-61
11. Hellerstein M.K., Schwarz J.M., and Neese R.A. Regulation of hepatic de novo lipogenesis in humans. Annu Rev Nutr 16 (1996) 523-557
12. Nielsen S., Guo Z., Albu J.B., Klein S., O'Brien P.C., and Jensen M.D. Energy expenditure, sex, and endogenous fuel availability in humans. J Clin Invest 111 (2003) 981-988
13. Jensen M.D., Caruso M., Heiling V., and Miles J.M. Insulin regulation of lipolysis in nondiabetic and IDDM subjects. Diabetes 38 (1989) 1595-1601
14. Stich V., Pelikanova T., Wohl P., et al. Activation of alpha2-adrenergic receptors blunts epinephrine-induced lipolysis in subcutaneous adipose tissue during a hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp in men. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 285 (2003) E599-E607
15. Kovar J., Fejfarova V., Pelikanova T., and Poledne R. Hyperglycemia downregulates total lipoprotein lipase activity in humans. Physiol Res 53 (2004) 61-68
16. Soni K.G., Lehner R., Metalnikov P., et al. Carboxylesterase 3 (EC 3.1.1.1) is a major adipocyte lipase. J Biol Chem 24 279 (2004) 40683-40689
17. Havel P.J. Update on adipocyte hormones: regulation of energy balance and carbohydrate/lipid metabolism. Diabetes 53 Suppl. 1 (2004) S143-S151
18. Vague J. The distinction of android and gynoid obesities as the base for their prognosis. Sem Hop 31 (1955) 3503-3509
19. Alberti K.G., Zimmet P., and Shaw J. Metabolic syndrome-a new world-wide definition. A Consensus Statement from the International Diabetes Federation. Diabet Med 23 (2006) 469-480
20. Abate N., Burns D., Peshock R.M., Garg A., and Grundy S.M. Estimation of adipose tissue mass by magnetic resonance imaging: validation against dissection in human cadavers. J Lipid Res 35 (1994) 1490-1496
21. Seidell J.C., and Bouchard C. Visceral fat in relation to health: is it a major culprit or simply an innocent bystander?. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 21 (1997) 626-631
22. Meek S.E., Nair K.S., and Jensen M.D. Insulin regulation of regional free fatty acid metabolism. Diabetes 48 (1999) 10-14
23. Fried S.K., Russell C.D., Grauso N.L., and Brolin R.E. Lipoprotein lipase regulation by insulin and glucocorticoid in subcutaneous and omental adipose tissues of obese women and men. J Clin Invest 92 (1993) 2191-2198
24. Saleh J., Christou N., and Cianflone K. Regional specificity of ASP binding in human adipose tissue. Am J Physiol 276 (1999) E815-E821
25. Lundgren M., Buren J., Ruge T., Myrnas T., and Eriksson J.W. Glucocorticoids down-regulate glucose uptake capacity and insulin-signaling proteins in omental but not subcutaneous human adipocytes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89 (2004) 2989-2997
26. Virtanen K.A., Lonnroth P., Parkkola R., et al. Glucose uptake and perfusion in subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue during insulin stimulation in nonobese and obese humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87 (2002) 3902-3910
27. Giorgino F., Laviola L., and Eriksson J.W. Regional differences of insulin action in adipose tissue: insights from in vivo and in vitro studies. Acta Physiol Scand 183 (2005) 13-30
28. Mauriege P., Galitzky J., Berlan M., and Lafontan M. Heterogeneous distribution of beta and alpha-2 adrenoceptor binding sites in human fat cells from various fat deposits: functional consequences. Eur J Clin Invest 17 2 (1987) 156-165
29. Fried S.K., Leibel R.L., Edens N.K., and Kral J.G. Lipolysis in intraabdominal adipose tissues of obese women and men. Obes Res 1 (1993) 443-448
30. Yildiz B.O., and Haznedaroglu I.C. Rethinking leptin and insulin action: therapeutic opportunities for diabetes. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 38 (2006) 820-830
31. Barzilai N., Wang J., Massilon D., Vuguin P., Hawkins M., and Rossetti L. Leptin selectively decreases visceral adiposity and enhances insulin action. J Clin Invest 100 (1997) 3105-3110
32. Rossetti L., Massillon D., Barzilai N., et al. Short term effects of leptin on hepatic gluconeogenesis and in vivo insulin action. J Biol Chem 272 (1997) 27758-27763
33. Kamohara S., Burcelin R., Halaas J.L., Friedman J.M., and Charron M.J. Acute stimulation of glucose metabolism in mice by leptin treatment. Nature 389 (1997) 374-377
34. Dulloo A.G., Gubler M., Montani J.P., Seydoux J., and Solinas G. Substrate cycling between de novo lipogenesis and lipid oxidation: a thermogenic mechanism against skeletal muscle lipotoxicity and glucolipotoxicity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 28 Suppl. 4 (2004) S29-S37
35. Kieffer T.J., and Habener J.F. The adipoinsular axis: effects of leptin on pancreatic beta-cells. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 278 (2000) E1-E14
36. Mueller W.M., Stanhope K.L., Gregoire F., Evans J.L., and Havel P.J. Effects of metformin and vanadium on leptin secretion from cultured rat adipocytes. Obes Res 8 (2000) 530-539
37. Margetic S., Gazzola C., Pegg G.G., and Hill R.A. Leptin: a review of its peripheral actions and interactions. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 26 (2002) 1407-1433
38. Wolfe B.E., Jimerson D.C., Orlova C., and Mantzoros C.S. Effect of dieting on plasma leptin, soluble leptin receptor, adiponectin and resistin levels in healthy volunteers. Clin Endocrinol 61 (2004) 332-338
39. Berg A.H., Combs T.P., and Scherer P.E. ACRP30/adiponectin. An adipokine regulating glucose and lipid metabolism. Trends Endocrinol Metab 13 (2002) 84-89
40. Yamauchi T., Kamon J., Waki H., et al. The fat-derived hormone adiponectin reverses insulin resistance associated with both lipoatrophy and obesity. Nat Med 7 (2001) 941-946
41. Arita Y., Kihara S., Ouchi N., et al. Paradoxical decrease of an adipose-specific protein, adiponectin, in obesity. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 257 (1999) 79-83
42. Fruebis J., Tsao T.S., and Javorschi S. Proteolytic cleavage product of 30-kDa adipocyte complement-related protein increases fatty acid oxidation in muscle and causes weight loss in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98 4 (2001) 2005-2010
43. Berg A.H., Combs T.P., Du X., Brownlee M., and Scherer P.E. The adipocyte-secreted protein Acrp30 enhances hepatic insulin action. Nat Med 7 (2001) 947-953
44. Thamer C., Machann J., Tschritter O., et al. Relationship between serum adiponectin concentration and intramyocellular lipid stores in humans. Horm Metab Res 34 (2002) 646-649
45. Stefan N., Stumvoll M., Vozarova B., et al. Plasma adiponectin and endogenous glucose production in humans. Diabetes Care 26 (2003) 3315-3319
46. Lefebvre A.M., Laville M., Vega N., et al. Depot-specific differences in adipose tissue gene expression in lean and obese subjects. Diabetes 47 (1998) 98-103
47. Lihn A.S., Bruun J.M., He G., Pedersen S.B., Jensen P.F., and Richelsen B. Lower expression of adiponectin mRNA in visceral adipose tissue in lean and obese subjects. Mol Cell Endocrinol 219 (2004) 9-15
48. Grill V., and Ovigstad E. Fatty acids and insulin secretion. Br J Nutr 83 Suppl. 1 (2000) S79-S84
49. Stefan N., Stumvoll M., Bogardus C., and Tataranni P.A. Elevated plasma nonesterified fatty acids are associated with deterioration of acute insulin response in IGT but not NGT. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 284 (2003) E1156-E1161
50. Itoh Y., and Hinuma S. GPR40, a free fatty acid receptor on pancreatic beta cells, regulates insulin secretion. Hepatol Res 33 (2005) 171-173
51. Hirasawa A., Tsumaya K., Awaji T., et al. Free fatty acids regulate gut incretin glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion through GPR120. Nat Med 11 (2005) 90-94
52. Meier J.J., and Nauck M.A. The potential role of glucagon-like peptide 1 in diabetes. Curr Opin Investig Drugs 5 4 (2004) 402-410
53. Jensen M.D. Fate of fatty acids at rest and during exercise: regulatory mechanisms. Acta Physiol Scand 178 (2003) 385-390
54. Romanski S.A., Nelson R.M., and Jensen M.D. Meal fatty acid uptake in adipose tissue: gender effects in nonobese humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 279 (2000) E455-E462
55. Timlin M.T., Barrows B.R., and Parks E.J. Increased dietary substrate delivery alters hepatic fatty acid recycling in healthy men. Diabetes 54 (2005) 2694-2701
56. Ferrannini E., Barrett E.J., Bevilacqua S., and DeFronzo R.A. Effect of fatty acids on glucose production and utilization in man. J Clin Invest 72 (1983) 1737-1747
57. Boden G., Cheung P., Stein T.P., Kresge K., and Mozzoli M. FFA cause hepatic insulin resistance by inhibiting insulin suppression of glycogenolysis. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 283 (2002) E12-E19
58. Stingl H., Krssak M., Krebs M., et al. Stingl lipid-dependent control of hepatic glycogen stores in healthy humans. Diabetologia 44 (2001) 48-54
59. Bergman R.N. Non-esterified fatty acids and the liver: why is insulin secreted into the portal vein?. Diabetologia 43 (2000) 946-952
60. Fisher S.J., and Kahn C.R. Insulin signaling is required for insulin's direct and indirect action on hepatic glucose production. J Clin Invest 111 (2003) 463-468
61. Jenssen T., Nurjhan N., Consoli A., and Gerich J.E. Failure of substrate-induced gluconeogenesis to increase overall glucose appearance in normal humans. Demonstration of hepatic autoregulation without a change in plasma glucose concentration. J Clin Invest 86 (1990) 489-497
62. Clore J.N., Helm S.T., and Blackard W.G. Loss of hepatic autoregulation after carbohydrate overfeeding in normal man. J Clin Invest 96 (1995) 1967-1972
63. Huang W., Dedousis N., Bandi A., Lopaschuk G.D., and O'Doherty R.M. Liver triglyceride secretion and lipid oxidative metabolism are rapidly altered by leptin in vivo. Endocrinology 147 (2006) 1480-1487
64. Andreelli F., Foretz M., Knauf C., et al. Liver adenosine monophosphate-activated kinase-alpha2 catalytic subunit is a key target for the control of hepatic glucose production by adiponectin and leptin but not insulin. Endocrinology 147 (2006) 2432-2441
65. Saltin B., and Gollnick P.D. Skeletal muscle adaptability : significance for metabolism and performance. In: Peachey L.D., Adrian R., and Geiger S.R. (Eds). Handbook of physiology. Section 10: skeletal muscle (1983), Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore 555-632
66. McGarry J.D., Mannaerts G.P., and Foster D.W. A possible role for malonyl-CoA in the regulation of hepatic fatty acid oxidation and ketogenesis. J Clin Invest 60 (1977) 265-270
67. max of palmitate uptake and oxidation in perfused skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 84 (1998) 1788-1794
68. Jensen M.D., Ekberg K., and Landau B.R. Lipid metabolism during fasting. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 281 (2001) E789-E793
69. Sacchetti M., Saltin B., Olsen D.B., and van Hall G. High triacylglycerol turnover rate in human skeletal muscle. J Physiol 561 (2004) 883-891
70. Hopp J.F., and Palmer W.K. Effect of glucose and insulin on triacylglycerol metabolism in isolated normal and diabetic skeletal muscle. Metabolism 40 (1991) 223-225
71. Langfort J., Donsmark M., Ploug T., Holm C., and Galbo H. Hormone-sensitive lipase in skeletal muscle: regulatory mechanisms. Acta Physiol Scand 178 (2003) 397-403
72. Van Loon L.J., and Goodpaster B.H. Increased intramuscular lipid storage in the insulin-resistant and endurance-trained state. Pflugers Arch 451 (2006) 606-616
73. Frayn K.N. The glucose-fatty acid cycle: a physiological perspective. Biochem Soc Trans 31 (2003) 1115-1119
74. Boden G., and Laakso M. Lipids and glucose in type 2 diabetes: what is the cause and effect?. Diabetes Care 27 (2004) 2253-2259
75. McGarry J.D., and Brown N.F. The mitochondrial carnitine palmitoyltransferase system. From concept to molecular analysis. Eur J Biochem 244 (1997) 1-14
76. Ha J., Lee J.K., Kim K.S., Witters L.A., and Kim K.H. Cloning of human acetyl-CoA carboxylase-beta and its unique features. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 93 (1996) 11466-11470
77. Merrill G.F., Kurth E.J., Hardie D.G., and Winder W.W. AICA riboside increases AMP-activated protein kinase, fatty acid oxidation, and glucose uptake in rat muscle. Am J Physiol 273 (1997) E1107-E1112
78. Hardie D.G., and Carling D. The AMP-activated protein kinase-fuel gauge of the mammalian cell?. Eur J Biochem 246 (1997) 259-273
79. Carling D., Fryer L.G., Woods A., Daniel T., Jarvie S.L., and Whitrow H. Bypassing the glucose/fatty acid cycle: AMP-activated protein kinase. Biochem Soc Trans 31 (2003) 1157-1160
80. Minokoshi Y., Kim Y.B., Peroni O.D., et al. Leptin stimulates fatty-acid oxidation by activating AMP-activated protein kinase. Nature 415 (2002) 339-343
81. Viru A. Plasma hormones and physical exercise. Int J Sports Med 13 (1992) 201-209
82. Peters S.J., Dyck D.J., Bonen A., and Spriet L.L. Effects of epinephrine on lipid metabolism in resting skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol 275 (1998) E300-E309
83. Broadstone V.L., Pfeifer M.A., Bajaj V., Stagner J.I., and Samols E. Alpha-adrenergic blockade improves glucose-potentiated insulin secretion in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Diabetes 36 (1987) 932-937
84. Clutter W.E., Bier D.M., Shah S.D., and Cryer P.E. Epinephrine plasma metabolic clearance rates and physiologic thresholds for metabolic and hemodynamic actions in man. J Clin Invest 66 (1980) 94-101
85. Marliss E.B., and Vranic M. Intense exercise has unique effects on both insulin release and its roles in glucoregulation: implications for diabetes. Diabetes 51 Suppl. 1 (2002) S271-S283
86. Wasserman D.H., O'Doherty R.M., and Zinker B.A. Role of the endocrine pancreas in control of fuel metabolism by the liver during exercise. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 19 Suppl. 4 (1995) S22-S30
87. Guezennec C.Y., Portero P., Satabin P., and Seyfried D. Carbohydrate nutrition before and during exercise. Sci Mot 5 (1988) 39-45
88. Sotsky M.J., Shilo S., and Shamoon H. Regulation of counterregulatory hormone secretion in man during exercise and hypoglycemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 68 (1989) 9-16
89. Marliss E.B., Simantirakis E., Miles P.D., et al. Glucose turnover and its regulation during intense exercise and recovery in normal male subjects. Clin Invest Med 15 (1992) 406-419
90. Sigal R.J., Fisher S., Halter J.B., Vranic M., and Marliss E.B. The roles of catecholamines in glucoregulation in intense exercise as defined by the islet cell clamp technique. Diabetes 45 (1996) 148-156
91. Sengenes C., Moro C., Galitzky J., Berlan M., and Lafontan M. Natriuretic peptides: a new lipolytic pathway in human fat cells. Med Sci (Paris) 21 (2005) 29-33
92. Lafontan M., Moro C., Sengenes C., Galitzky J., Crampes F., and Berlan M. An unsuspected metabolic role for atrial natriuretic peptides: the control of lipolysis, lipid mobilization, and systemic nonesterified fatty acids levels in humans. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 25 (2005) 2032-2042
93. Wolfe R.R., Klein S., Carraro F., and Weber J.M. Role of triglyceride-fatty acid cycle in controlling fat metabolism in humans during and after exercise. Am J Physiol 258 (1990) E382-E389
94. Romijn J.A., Coyle E.F., Sidossis L.S., et al. Regulation of endogenous fat and carbohydrate metabolism in relation to exercise intensity and duration. Am J Physiol 265 (1993) E380-E391
95. Winder W.W. Control of hepatic glucose production during exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 17 (1985) 2-5
96. Febbraio M.A., Hiscock N., Sacchetti M., Fischer C.P., and Pedersen B.K. Interleukin-6 is a novel factor mediating glucose homeostasis during skeletal muscle contraction. Diabetes 53 (2004) 1643-1648
97. Kiens B. Skeletal muscle lipid metabolism in exercise and insulin resistance. Physiol Rev 86 (2006) 205-243
98. Horowitz K.F., and Klein S. Lipid metabolism during endurance exercise. Am J Clin Nutr 72 (2000) 558S-563S [Suppl]
99. McGarry J.D. Banting Lecture 2001: dysregulation of fatty acid metabolism in the etiology of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 51 (2002) 7-18
100. Odland L.M., Heigenhauser G.J., Lopaschuk G.D., and Spriet L.L. Human skeletal muscle malonyl-CoA at rest and during prolonged submaximal exercise. Am J Physiol 270 (1996) E541-E544
101. Raney M.A., Yee A.J., Todd M.K., and Turcotte L.P. AMPK activation is not critical in the regulation of muscle FA uptake and oxidation during low-intensity muscle contraction. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 288 (2005) E592-E598
102. Roepstorff C., Vistisen B., Roepstorff K., and Kiens B. Regulation of plasma long-chain fatty acid oxidation in relation to uptake in human skeletal muscle during exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 287 (2004) E696-E705
103. Van Loon L.J., Greenhaff P.L., Constantin-Teodosiu D., Saris W.H., and Wagenmakers A.J. The effects of increasing exercise intensity on muscle fuel utilisation in humans. J Physiol 536 (2001) 295-304
104. Koopman R., Manders R.J., Jonkers R.A., Hul G.B., Kuipers H., and van Loon L.J. Intramyocellular lipid and glycogen content are reduced following resistance exercise in untrained healthy males. Eur J Appl Physiol 96 (2006) 525-534
105. Helge J.W., Watt P.W., Richter E.A., Rennie M.J., and Kiens B. Fat utilization during exercise: adaptation to a fat-rich diet increases utilization of plasma fatty acids and very low density lipoprotein-triacylglycerol in humans. J Physiol 537 (2001) 1009-1020
106. Kiens B., Lithell H., Mikines K.J., and Richter E.A. Effects of insulin and exercise on muscle lipoprotein lipase activity in man and its relation to insulin action. J Clin Invest 84 (1989) 1124-1129
107. Kiens B., and Richter E.A. Utilization of skeletal muscle triacylglycerol during postexercise recovery in humans. Am J Physiol 275 (1998) E332-E337
108. Douen A.G., Ramlal T., Rastogi S., et al. Exercise induces recruitment of the "insulin-responsive glucose transporter". Evidence for distinct intracellular insulin- and exercise-recruitable transporter pools in skeletal muscle. J Biol Chem 265 (1990) 13427-13430
109. Cheatham B., Vlahos C.J., Cheatham L., Wang L., Blenis J., and Kahn C.R. Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase activation is required for insulin stimulation of pp70 S6 kinase, DNA synthesis, and glucose transporter translocation. Mol Cell Biol 14 (1994) 4902-4911
110. Okada T., Kawano Y., Sakakibara T., Hazeki O., and Ui M. Essential role of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase in insulin-induced glucose transport and antilipolysis in rat adipocytes. Studies with a selective inhibitor wortmannin. J Biol Chem 269 (1994) 3568-3573
111. Pocock G., and Richards C.D. Human physiology: the basis of medicine (1999), Oxford University Press, Oxford
112. Brooks G.A., and Mercier J. Balance of carbohydrate and lipid utilization during exercise: the "crossover" concept. J Appl Physiol 76 (1994) 2253-2261
113. Henriksson J., and Reitman J.S. Time course of changes in human skeletal muscle succinate dehydrogenase and cytochrome oxidase activities and maximal oxygen uptake with physical activity and inactivity. Acta Physiol Scand 99 (1977) 91-97
114. Mole P.A., Oscai L.B., and Holloszy J.O. Adaptation of muscle to exercise. Increase in levels of palmityl CoA synthetase, carnitine palmityltransferase, and palmityl CoA dehydrogenase, and in the capacity to oxidize fatty acids. J Clin Invest 50 (1971) 2323-2330
115. Deuster P.A., Chrousos G.P., Luger A., et al. Hormonal and metabolic responses of untrained, moderately trained, and highly trained men to three exercise intensities. Metabolism 38 (1989) 141-148
116. Kjaer M., Farrell P.A., Christensen N.J., and Galbo H. Increased epinephrine response and inaccurate glucoregulation in exercising athletes. J Appl Physiol 61 (1986) 1693-1700
117. Green H.J., Helyar R., Ball-Burnett M., Kowalchuk N., Symon S., and Farrance B. Metabolic adaptations to training precede changes in muscle mitochondrial capacity. J Appl Physiol 72 (1992) 484-491
118. Friedman J.E., Sherman W.M., Reed M.J., Elton C.W., and Dohm G.L. Exercise training increases glucose transporter protein GLUT-4 in skeletal muscle of obese Zucker (fa/fa) rats. FEBS Lett 268 (1990) 13-16
119. Kern M., Wells J.A., Stephens J.M., et al. Insulin responsiveness in skeletal muscle is determined by glucose transporter (Glut4) protein level. Biochem J 270 (1990) 397-400
120. Ren J.M., Semenkovich C.F., Gulve E.A., Gao J., and Holloszy J.O. Exercise induces rapid increases in GLUT4 expression, glucose transport capacity, and insulin-stimulated glycogen storage in muscle. J Biol Chem 269 (1994) 14396-14401
121. Weltan S.M., Bosch A.N., Dennis S.C., and Noakes T.D. Influence of muscle glycogen content on metabolic regulation. Am J Physiol 274 (1998) E72-E82
122. Steinacker J.M., Lormes W., Reissnecker S., and Liu Y. New aspects of the hormone and cytokine response to training. Eur J Appl Physiol 91 (2004) 382-391