Chemoprevention of nonmelanoma skin cancer

Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology

Volumn 54, Issue 6, 2006, Pages 933-946

  Wright, Tina I ^a   Spencer, James M ^b   Flowers, Franklin P ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b MOUNT SINAI SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; BETA CAROTENE; CELECOXIB; CURCUMIN; DEOXYRIBONUCLEASE (PYRIMIDINE DIMER); EFLORNITHINE; EPIGALLOCATECHIN GALLATE; ETRETIN; ETRETINATE; GENISTEIN; GREEN TEA EXTRACT; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; ISOTRETINOIN; LIPOSOME; LYCOPENE; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; POLYPHENOL DERIVATIVE; RETINOID; RETINOL; SELENIUM; SILYMARIN;

ABNORMALLY HIGH SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION IN BLOOD; ALOPECIA; ARTHRALGIA; CANCER INHIBITION; CARCINOGENESIS; CHOLESTEROL BLOOD LEVEL; CLINICAL TRIAL; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG ACTIVITY; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG INDUCED HEADACHE; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG TOLERABILITY; DRY LIP; ENZYME BLOOD LEVEL; EPISTAXIS; GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX; GRAPE; HUMAN; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; HYPEROSTOSIS; HYPERTRIGLYCERIDEMIA; LABORATORY TEST; LIVER DISEASE; MYALGIA; NAUSEA; NONHUMAN; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SKELETON MALFORMATION; SKIN CANCER; SKIN MANIFESTATION; STATISTICAL ANALYSIS; STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE; TREATMENT OUTCOME; TRIACYLGLYCEROL BLOOD LEVEL; ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION; URINARY TRACT INFECTION; VOMITING; XERODERMA PIGMENTOSUM; XEROSIS; XEROSTOMIA;

ANIMALS; ANTICARCINOGENIC AGENTS; ANTIOXIDANTS; CHEMOPREVENTION; HUMANS; MICE; RETINOIDS; SKIN NEOPLASMS; VITAMIN A;

EID: 33646513058     PISSN: 01909622     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jaad.2005.08.062     Document Type: Review

References (102)

1. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Counseling to prevent skin cancer: recommendations and rationale of the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. MMWR Recomm Rep 52 (2003) 13-17
2. Hannuksela-Svahn A., Pukkala E., and Karvonen J. Basal cell carcinoma and other nonmelanoma skin cancers in Finland from 1956 through 1995. Arch Dermatol 135 (1999) 781-786
3. Hansen L.A., Sigman C.C., Andreola F., Ross S.A., Kelloff G.J., and De Luca L.M. Retinoids in chemoprevention and differentiation therapy. Carcinogenesis 21 (2000) 1271-1279
4. Schule R., Rangarajan P., Yang N., Kliewer S., Ransone L.J., Bolado J., et al. Retinoic acid is a negative regulator of AP-1-responsive genes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 88 (1991) 6092-6096
5. Moon T.E., Levine N., Cartmel B., Bangert J.L., Rodney S., Dong Q., et al. Effect of retinol in preventing squamous cell skin cancer in moderate-risk subjects: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Southwest Skin Cancer Prevention Study Group. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 6 (1997) 949-956
6. Kraemer K.H., DiGiovanna J.J., and Peck G.L. Chemoprevention of skin cancer in xeroderma pigmentosum. J Dermatol 19 (1992) 715-718
7. Bavinck J.N., Tieben L.M., Van der Woude F.J., Tegzess A.M., Hermans J., ter Schegget J., et al. Prevention of skin cancer and reduction of keratotic skin lesions during acitretin therapy in renal transplant recipients: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Oncol 13 (1995) 1933-1938
8. Tangrea J.A., Edwards B.K., Taylor P.R., Hartman A.M., Peck G.L., Salasche S.J., et al. Long-term therapy with low-dose isotretinoin for prevention of basal cell carcinoma: a multicenter clinical trial. Isotretinoin-Basal Cell Carcinoma Study Group. J Natl Cancer Inst 84 (1992) 328-332
9. McKenna D.B., and Murphy G.M. Skin cancer chemoprophylaxis in renal transplant recipients: 5 years of experience using low-dose acitretin. Br J Dermatol 140 (1999) 656-660
10. Kraemer K.H., DiGiovanna J.J., Moshell A.N., Tarone R.E., and Peck G.L. Prevention of skin cancer in xeroderma pigmentosum with the use of oral isotretinoin. N Engl J Med 318 (1988) 1633-1637
11. Levine N., Moon T.E., Cartmel B., Bangert J.L., Rodney S., Dong Q., et al. Trial of retinol and isotretinoin in skin cancer prevention: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Southwest Skin Cancer Prevention Study Group. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 6 (1997) 957-961
12. DiGiovanna J.J. Retinoid chemoprevention in patients at high risk for skin cancer. Med Pediatr Oncol 36 (2001) 564-567
13. Gibson G.E., O'Grady A., Kay E.W., and Murphy G.M. Low dose retinoid therapy for chemoprophylaxis of skin cancer in renal transplant recipients. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 10 (1998) 42-47
14. Ahmad N., Gilliam A.C., Katiyar S.K., O'Brien T.G., and Mukhtar H. A definitive role of ornithine decarboxylase in photocarcinogenesis. Am J Pathol 159 (2001) 885-892
15. O'Brien T.G. The induction of ornithine decarboxylase as an early, possibly obligatory, event in mouse skin carcinogenesis. Cancer Res 36 (1976) 2644-2653
16. Gilmour S.K., Verma A.K., Madara T., and O'Brien T.G. Regulation of ornithine decarboxylase gene expression in mouse epidermis and epidermal tumors during two-stage tumorigenesis. Cancer Res 47 (1987) 1221-1225
17. Rebel H., van Steeg H., Beems R.B., Schouten R., de Gruijl F.R., and Terleth C. Suppression of UV carcinogenesis by difluoromethylornithine in nucleotide excision repair-deficient Xpa knockout mice. Cancer Res 62 (2002) 1338-1342
18. Takigawa M., Verma A.K., Simsiman R.C., and Boutwell R.K. Inhibition of mouse skin tumor promotion and of promoter-stimulated epidermal polyamine biosynthesis by alpha-difluoromethylornithine. Cancer Res 43 (1983) 3732-3738
19. Takigawa M., Verma A.K., Simsiman R.C., and Boutwell R.K. Polyamine biosynthesis and skin tumor promotion: inhibition of 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-promoted mouse skin tumor formation by the irreversible inhibitor of ornithine decarboxylase alpha-difluoromethylornithine. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 105 (1982) 969-976
20. Weeks C.E., Herrmann A.L., Nelson F.R., and Slaga T.J. Alpha-difluoromethylornithine, an irreversible inhibitor of ornithine decarboxylase, inhibits tumor promoter-induced polyamine accumulation and carcinogenesis in mouse skin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 79 (1982) 6028-6032
21. Fischer S.M., Lee M., and Lubet R.A. Difluoromethylornithine is effective as both a preventive and therapeutic agent against the development of UV carcinogenesis in SKH hairless mice. Carcinogenesis 22 (2001) 83-88
22. Lan L., Trempus C., and Gilmour S.K. Inhibition of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) decreases tumor vascularization and reverses spontaneous tumors in ODC/Ras transgenic mice. Cancer Res 60 (2000) 5696-5703
23. Arbeit J.M., Riley R.R., Huey B., Porter C., Kelloff G., Lubet R., et al. Difluoromethylornithine chemoprevention of epidermal carcinogenesis in K14-HPV16 transgenic mice. Cancer Res 59 (1999) 3610-3620
24. Carbone P.P., Pirsch J.D., Thomas J.P., Douglas J.A., Verma A.K., Larson P.O., et al. Phase I chemoprevention study of difluoromethylornithine in subjects with organ transplants. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 10 (2001) 657-661
25. Carbone P.P., Douglas J.A., Larson P.O., Verma A.K., Blair I.A., Pomplun M., et al. Phase I chemoprevention study of piroxicam and alpha-difluoromethylornithine. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 7 (1998) 907-912
26. Stege H. Effect of xenographic repair enzymes on photoimmunology and photocarcinogenesis. J Photochem Photobiol B 65 (2001) 105-108
27. Bito T., Ueda M., Nagano T., Fujii S., and Ichihashi M. Reduction of ultraviolet-induced skin cancer in mice by topical application of DNA excision repair enzymes. Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed 1 (1995) 9-13
28. Yarosh D., Alas L.G., Yee V., Oberyszyn A., Kibitel J.T., Mitchell D., et al. Pyrimidine dimmer removal enhanced by DNA repair liposomes reduces the incidence of UV skin cancer in mice. Cancer Res 52 (1992) 4227-4231
29. Yarosh D., Klein J., O'Connor A., Hawk J., Rafal E., and Wolf P. Effect of topically applied T4 endonuclease V in liposomes on skin cancer in xeroderma pigmentosum: a randomized study. Xeroderma Pigmentosum Study Group. Lancet 357 (2001) 926-929
30. Buckman S.Y., Gresham A., Hale P., Hruza G., Anast J., Masferrer J., and Pentland A.P. COX-2 expression is induced by UVB exposure in human skin: implications for the development of skin cancer. Carcinogenesis 19 (1998) 723-729
31. An K.P., Athar M., Tang X., Katiyar S.K., Russo J., Beech J., et al. Cyclooxygenase-2 expression in murine and human nonmelanoma skin cancers: implications for therapeutic approaches. Photochem Photobiol 76 (2002) 73-80
32. Grewe M., Trefzer U., Ballhorn A., Gyufko K., Henninger H., and Krutmann J. Analysis of the mechanism of ultraviolet (UV) B radiation-induced prostaglandin E2 synthesis by human epidermoid carcinoma cells. J Invest Dermatol 101 (1993) 528-531
33. Pentland A.P., Schoggins J.W., Scott G.A., Khan K.N., and Han R. Reduction of UV-induced skin tumors in hairless mice by selective COX-2 inhibition. Carcinogenesis 20 (1999) 1939-1944
34. Lozano Y., Taitz A., Petruzzelli G.J., Djordjevic A., and Young M.R. Prostaglandin E2-protein kinase A signaling and protein phosphatases-1 and -2A regulate human head and neck squamous cell carcinoma motility, adherence, and cytoskeletal organization. Prostaglandins 51 (1996) 35-48
35. Smith W.L., Garavito R.M., and DeWitt D.L. Prostaglandin endoperoxide H synthases (cyclooxygenases)-1 and -2. J Biol Chem 271 (1996) 33157-33160
36. Tsujii M., Kawano S., Tsuji S., Sawaoka H., Hori M., and DuBois R.N. Cyclooxygenase regulates angiogenesis induced by colon cancer cells. Cell 93 (1998) 705-716
37. Sheng H., Shao J., Morrow J.D., Beauchamp R.D., and DuBois R.N. Modulation of apoptosis and Bcl-2 expression by prostaglandin E2 in human colon cancer cells. Cancer Res 58 (1998) 362-366
38. Marks F., and Furstenberger G. Cancer chemoprevention through interruption of multistage carcinogenesis. The lessons learnt by comparing mouse skin carcinogenesis and human large bowel cancer. Eur J Cancer 36 (2000) 314-329
39. Bowden G.T. Prevention of non-melanoma skin cancer by targeting ultraviolet-B-light signalling. Nat Rev Cancer 4 (2004) 23-35
40. Mittal A., Elmets C.A., and Katiyar S.K. Dietary feeding of proanthocyanidins from grape seeds prevents photocarcinogenesis in SKH-1 hairless mice: relationship to decreased fat and lipid peroxidation. Carcinogenesis 24 (2003) 1379-1388
41. Higashi Y., Kanekura T., and Kanzaki T. Enhanced expression of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 in human skin epidermal cancer cells: evidence for growth suppression by inhibiting COX-2 expression. Int J Cancer 86 (2000) 667-671
42. Orengo I.F., Gerguis J., Phillips R., Guevara A., Lewis A.T., and Black H.S. Celecoxib, a cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitor as a potential chemopreventive to UV-induced skin cancer: a study in the hairless mouse model. Arch Dermatol 138 (2002) 751-755
43. Fischer S.M., Lo H.H., Gordon G.B., Seibert K., Kelloff G., Lubet R.A., et al. Chemopreventive activity of celecoxib, a specific cyclooxygnease-2 inhibitor, and indomethacin against ultraviolet light-induced skin carcinogenesis. Mol Carcinog 25 (1999) 231-240
44. Pentland A.P., Schoggins J.W., Scott G.A., Khan K.N., and Han R. Reduction of UV-induced skin tumors in hairless mice by selective COX-2 inhibition. Carcinogenesis 20 (1999) 1939-1944
45. Barthelman M., Bair III W.B., Stickland K.K., Chen W., Timmermann B.N., Valcic S., et al. (-)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate inhibition of ultraviolet B-induced AP-1 activity. Carcinogenesis 19 (1998) 2201-2204
46. Lu Y.P., Lou Y.R., Xie J.G., Peng Q.Y., Liao J., Yang C.S., et al. Topical applications of caffeine or (-)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) inhibit carcinogenesis and selectively increase apoptosis in UVB-induced skin tumors in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99 (2002) 12455-12460
47. Katiyar S.K., Agarwal R., and Mukhtar H. Inhibition of both stage I and stage II skin tumor promotion in SENCAR mice by a polyphenolic fraction isolated from green tea: inhibition depends on the duration of polyphenol treatment. Carcinogenesis 14 (1993) 2641-2643
48. Katiyar S.K., Agarwal R., Wood G.S., and Mukhtar H. Inhibition of 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-caused tumor promotion in 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene-initiated SENCAR mouse skin by a polyphenolic fraction isolated from green tea. Cancer Res 52 (1992) 6890-6897
49. Huang M.T., Ho C.T., Wang Z.Y., Ferraro T., Finnegan-Olive T., Lou Y.R., et al. Inhibitory effect of topical application of a green tea polyphenol fraction on tumor initiation and promotion in mouse skin. Carcinogenesis 13 (1992) 947-954
50. Wang Z.Y., Huang M.T., Ferraro T., Wong C.Q., Lou Y.R., Reuhl K., et al. Inhibitory effect of green tea in the drinking water on tumorigenesis by ultraviolet light and 12-O tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate in the skin of SKH-1 mice. Cancer Res 52 (1992) 1162-1170
51. Katiyar S.K., Agarwal R., Wang Z.Y., Bhatia A.K., and Mukhtar H. (-)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate in Camellia sinensis leaves from Himalayan region of Sikkim: inhibitory effects against biochemical events and tumor initiation in Sencar mouse skin. Nutr Cancer 18 (1992) 73-83
52. Wang Z.Y., Agarwal R., Bickers D.R., and Mukhtar H. Protection against ultraviolet B radiation-induced photocarcinogenesis in hairless mice by green tea polyphenols. Carcinogenesis 12 (1991) 1527-1530
53. Lou Y.R., Lu Y.P., Xie J.G., Huang M.T., and Conney A.H. Effects of oral administration of tea, decaffeinated tea, and caffeine on the formation and growth of tumors in high-risk SKH-1 mice previously treated with ultraviolet B light. Nutr Cancer 33 (1999) 146-153
54. Huang M.T., Xie J.G., Wang Z.Y., Ho C.T., Lou Y.R., Wang C.X., et al. Effects of tea, decaffeinated tea, and caffeine on UVB light-induced complete carcinogenesis in SKH-1 mice: demonstration of caffeine as a biologically important constituent of tea. Cancer Res 57 (1997) 2623-2629
55. Katiyar S.K., Rupp C.O., Korman N.J., Agarwal R., and Mukhtar H. Inhibition of 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate and other skin tumor-promoter-caused induction of epidermal interleukin-1 alpha mRNA and protein expression in SENCAR mice by green tea polyphenols. J Invest Dermatol 105 (1995) 394-398
56. Valcic S., Timmermann B.N., Alberts D.S., Wachter G.A., Krutzsch M., Wymer J., et al. Inhibitory effect of six green tea catechins and caffeine on the growth of four selected human tumor cell lines. Anticancer Drugs 7 (1996) 461-468
57. Zhao J., Wang J., Chen Y., and Agarwal R. Anti-tumor-promoting activity of a polyphenolic fraction isolated from grape seeds in the mouse skin two-stage initiation-promotion protocol and identification of procyanidin B5-3'-gallate as the most effective antioxidant constituent. Carcinogenesis 20 (1999) 1737-1745
58. Bhatia N., Agarwal C., and Agarwal R. Differential responses of skin cancer-chemopreventive agents silibinin, quercetin, and epigallocatechin 3-gallate on mitogenic signaling and cell cycle regulators in human epidermoid carcinoma A431 cells. Nutr Cancer 39 (2001) 292-299
59. Zhao J., Lahiri-Chatterjee M., Sharma Y., and Agarwal R. Inhibitory effect of a flavonoid antioxidant silymarin on benzoyl peroxide-induced tumor promotion, oxidative stress and inflammatory responses in sencar mouse skin. Carcinogenesis 21 (2000) 811-816
60. Zhao J., Sharma Y., and Agarwal R. Significant inhibition by the flavonoid antioxidant silymarin against 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate-caused modulation of antioxidant and inflammatory enzymes, and cyclooxygenase 2 and interleukin-1alpha expression in SENCAR mouse epidermis: implications in the prevention of stage I tumor promotion. Mol Carcinog 26 (1999) 321-333
61. Zi X., and Agarwal R. Modulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase activation and cell cycle regulators by the potent skin cancer preventive agent silymarin. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 263 (1999) 528-536
62. Ahmad N., Gali H., Javed S., and Agarwal R. Skin cancer chemopreventive effects of a flavonoid antioxidant silymarin are mediated via impairment of receptor tyrosine kinase signaling and perturbation in cell cycle progression. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 247 (1998) 294-301
63. Lahiri-Chatterjee M., Katiyar S.K., Mohan R.R., and Agarwal R. A flavonoid antioxidant, silymarin, affords exceptionally high protection against tumor promotion in the SENCAR mouse skin tumorigenesis model. Cancer Res 59 (1999) 622-632
64. Katiyar S.K., Korman N.J., Mukhtar H., and Agarwal R. Protective effects of silymarin against photocarcinogenesis in a mouse skin model. J Natl Cancer Inst 89 (1997) 556-566
65. Shemesh M., Lindner H.R., and Ayalaoan N. Affinity of rabbit uterine oestradiol receptor for phyto-oestrogens and its use in a competitive protein-binding radioassay for plasma coumestrol. J Reprod Fertil 29 (1972) 1-9
66. Wet L.G., Birac P.M., and Pratt D.E. Separation of the isomeric isoflavones from soybeans by high-performance liquid chromatograph. J Chromatogr 150 (1978) 266-268
67. Wei H., Zhang X., Wang Y., and Lebwohl M. Inhibition of ultraviolet light-induced oxidative events in the skin and internal organs of hairless mice by isoflavone genistein. Cancer Lett 185 (2002) 21-29
68. Wei H., Bowen R., Cai Q., Barnes S., and Wang Y. Antioxidant and antipromotional effects of the soybean isoflavone genistein. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 208 (1995) 124-130
69. Wang Y., Zhang X., Lebwohl M., DeLeo V., and Wei H. Inhibition of ultraviolet B (UVB)-induced c-fos and c-jun expression in vivo by a tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein. Carcinogenesis 19 (1998) 649-654
70. Cai Q., and Wei H. Effect of dietary genistein on antioxidant enzyme activities in SENCAR mice. Nutr Cancer 25 (1996) 1-7
71. Sarkar F.H., and Li Y. Mechanisms of cancer chemoprevention by soy isoflavone genistein. Cancer Metastasis Rev 21 (2002) 265-280
72. Wei H., Saladi R., Lu Y., Wang Y., Palep S.R., Moore J., et al. Isoflavone genistein: photoprotection and clinical implications in dermatology. J Nutr 133 Suppl 1 (2003) 3811S-3819S
73. Wei H., Bowen R., Zhang X., and Lebwohl M. Isoflavone genistein inhibits the initiation and promotion of two-stage skin carcinogenesis in mice. Carcinogenesis 19 (1998) 1509-1514
74. Shyong E.Q., Lu Y., Lazinsky A., Saladi R.N., Phelps R.G., Austin L.M., et al. Effects of the isoflavone 4', 5, 7 trihydroxyisoflavone (genistein) on psoralen plus ultraviolet A radiation (PUVA)-induced photodamage. Carcinogenesis 23 (2002) 317-321
75. Shah R.G., and Netrawali M.S. Evaluation of mutagenic activity of turmeric extract containing curcumin, before and after activation with mammalian cecal microbial extract of liver microsomal fraction, in the Ames Salmonella test. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 40 (1988) 350-357
76. Limtrakul P., Lipigorngoson S., Namwong O., Apisariyakul A., and Dunn F.W. Inhibitory effect of dietary curcumin on skin carcinogenesis in mice. Cancer Lett 116 (1997) 197-203
77. Azuine M.A., and Bhide S.V. Chemopreventive effect of turmeric against stomach and skin tumors induced by chemical carcinogenesis in Swiss mice. Nutr Cancer 17 (1992) 77-83
78. Conney A.H., Lysz T., Ferraro T., Abidi T.F., Manchand P.S., Laskin J.D., and Huang M.T. Inhibitory effect of curcumin and some related dietary compounds on tumor promotion and arachidonic acid metabolism in mouse skin. Adv Enzyme Regul 31 (1991) 385-396
79. Huang M.T., Lysz T., Ferraro T., Abidi T.F., Laskin J.D., and Conney A.H. Inhibitory effects of curcumin on in vitro lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase activities in mouse epidermis. Cancer Res 51 (1991) 813-819
80. Limtrakul P., Lipigorngoson S., Namwong O., Apisariyaku A., and Dunn F.W. Inhibitory effect of dietary curcumin on skin carcinogenesis in mice. Cancer Lett 116 (1997) 197-203
81. Nakamura Y., Ohto Y., Murakami A., Osawa T., and Ohigashi H. Inhibitory effects of curcumin and tetrahydrocurcuminoids on the tumor promoter-induced reactive oxygen species generation in leukocytes in vitro and in vivo. Jpn J Cancer Res 89 (1998) 361-370
82. Huang M.T., Ma W., Yen P., Xie J.G., Han J., Frenkel K., et al. Inhibitory effects of topical application of low doses of curcumin on 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced tumor promotion and oxidized DNA bases in mouse epidermis. Carcinogenesis 18 (1997) 83-88
83. Huang M.T., Ma W., Lu Y.P., Chang R.L., Fisher C., Manchand P.S., et al. Effects of curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, bisdemethoxycurcumin and tetrahydrocurcumin on 12-O tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced tumor promotion. Carcinogenesis 16 (1995) 2493-2497
84. Huang M.T., Smart R.C., Wong C.Q., and Conney A.H. Inhibitory effect of curcumin, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, and ferulic acid on tumor promotion in mouse skin by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate. Cancer Res 48 (1988) 5941-5946
85. Nagabhushan M., and Bhide S.V. Curcumin as an inhibitor of cancer. J Am Coll Nutr 11 (1992) 192-198
86. Jee S.H., Shen S.C., Tseng C.R., Chiu H.C., and Kuo M.L. Curcumin induces a p53-dependent apoptosis in human basal cell carcinoma cells. J Invest Dermatol 111 (1998) 656-661
87. Bush J.A., Cheung Jr. K.J., and Li G. Curcumin induces apoptosis in human melanoma cells through a Fas receptor/caspase-8 pathway independent of p53. Exp Cell Res 271 (2001) 305-314
88. Cheng A.L., Hsu C.H., Lin J.K., Hsu M.M., Ho Y.F., Shen T.S., et al. Phase I clinical trial of curcumin, a chemopreventive agent, in patients with high-risk or pre-malignant lesions. Anticancer Res 21 (2001) 2895-2900
89. Kim D.J., Takasuka N., Nishino H., and Tsuda H. Chemoprevention of lung cancer by lycopene. Biofactors 13 (2000) 95-102
90. Narisawa T., Fukaura Y., Hasebe M., Nomura S., Oshima S., Sakamoto H., et al. Prevention of N-methylnitrosourea-induced colon carcinogenesis in F344 rats by lycopene and tomato juice rich in lycopene. Jpn J Cancer Res 89 (1998) 1003-1008
91. Clinton S.K., Emenhiser C., Schwartz S.J., Bostwick D.G., Williams A.W., Moore B.J., et al. Cis-trans lycopene isomers, carotenoids, and retinol in the human prostate. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 5 (1996) 823-833
92. Kobayashi T., Iijima K., Mitamura T., Toriizuka K., Cyong J.C., and Nagasawa H. Effects of lycopene, a carotenoid, on intrathymic T cell differentiation and peripheral CD4/CD8 ratio in a high mammary tumor strain of SHN retired mice. Anticancer Drugs 7 (1996) 195-198
93. Nagasawa H., Mitamura T., Sakamoto S., and Yamamoto K. Effects of lycopene on spontaneous mammary tumour development in SHN virgin mice. Anticancer Res 15 (1995) 1173-1178
94. Nahum A., Hirsch K., Danilenko M., Watts C.K., Prall O.W., Levy J., et al. Lycopene inhibition of cell cycle progression in breast and endometrial cancer cells is associated with reduction in cyclin D levels and retention of p27(Kip1) in the cyclin E-cdk2 complexes. Oncogene 20 (2001) 3428-3436
95. Levy J., Bosin E., Feldman B., Giat Y., Miinster A., Danilenko M., et al. Lycopene is a more potent inhibitor of human cancer cell proliferation than either alpha-carotene or beta-carotene. Nutr Cancer 24 (1995) 257-266
96. Fazekas Z., Gao D., Saladi R.N., Lu Y., Lebwohl M., and Wei H. Protective effects of lycopene against ultraviolet B-induced photodamage. Nutr Cancer 47 (2003) 181-187
97. Wernighaus K., Meydani M., Bhawan J., Margolis R., Blumberg J.B., and Gilchrest B.A. Evaluation of the photoprotective effect of oral vitamin E supplementation. Arch Dermatol 130 (1994) 1257-1261
98. Stahl W., et al. Carotenoids and carotenoids plus vitamin E protect against ultraviolet light-induced erythema in tumors. Am J Clin Nutr 71 (2000) 797-798
99. Matther-Roth M.M., Pathak M.A., Parish J., et al. A clinical trial of the effect of oral beta-carotene on the response of human skin to solar radiation. J Invest Dermatol 59 (1972) 349-353
100. Greenberg E.R., Baron J.A., Stukel T.A., et al. A clinical trial of beta-carotene to prevent basal-cell and squamous-cell cancers of the skin. N Engl J Med 323 (1990) 789-795
101. Frieling U, Schaumberg D, Kupper T, Muntwyler J, Hennekens C. A randomized, 12-year primary-prevention trial of beta carotene supplementation for nonmelanoma skin cancer in the Physicians' Health Study. Arch Dermatol 200;136:179-84.
102. Clark L.C., Combs G.F., Turnbull B.W., et al. Effects of selenium supplementation for cancer prevention in patients with carcinoma of the skin. JAMA 276 (1996) 1957-1963