Lipids and stroke: The opportunity of lipid-lowering treatment

Cerebrovascular Diseases

Volumn 20, Issue SUPPL. 2, 2005, Pages 53-67

  Vivancos Mora, José ^a   Gil Núñez, Antonio C ^b  

^a HOSPITAL UNIVERSITARIO DE LA PRINCESA   (Spain)

^b HOSPITAL GENERAL UNIVERSITARIO GREGORIO MARAÑÓN   (Spain)

Author keywords

Cholesterol; Coronary artery disease; Lipids; Prevention; Risk factor; Statins 3 hydroxy 3 methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase; Stroke

Indexed keywords

ANTILIPEMIC AGENT; ANTITHROMBOCYTIC AGENT; ATORVASTATIN; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CHOLESTEROL; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; FLUINDOSTATIN; GEMFIBROZIL; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; LIPID; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN; MEVINOLIN; PRAVASTATIN; SIMVASTATIN;

ACUTE CORONARY SYNDROME; ARTERY DISEASE; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CHOLESTEROL BLOOD LEVEL; CONFERENCE PAPER; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; DYSLIPIDEMIA; FAMILIAL HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; NEUROPROTECTION; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RISK FACTOR; STROKE; VASCULAR DISEASE; ANIMAL; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; ANTILIPEMIC AGENTS; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; DYSLIPIDEMIAS; HUMANS; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL-COA REDUCTASE INHIBITORS; LIPIDS; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 33644814044     PISSN: 10159770     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1159/000089357     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (218)

1. Vivancos-Mora J, Gil-Nuñez AC: El Ictus en la Mujer. Epidemiología Hospitalaria en España. Rev Neurol 2003;37:701-705.
2. Atkins D, Psaty BM, Koepsell TD, Longstreth WT Jr, Larson EB: Cholesterol reduction and the risk for stroke in men. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Ann Intern Med 1993;119:136-145.
3. Prospective Studies Collaboration: Cholesterol, diastolic blood pressure, and stroke: 13,000 strokes in 450,000 people in 45 prospective cohorts. Lancet 1995;346:1647-1653.
4. Kannel WB, Castelli WP, Gordon T, McNamara PM: Serum cholesterol, lipoproteins, and the risk of coronary heart disease. Ann Intern Med 1971;74:1-12.
5. Steinberg D, Gotto AM: Preventing coronary artery disease by lowering cholesterol levels. JAMA 1999;282:2043-2050.
6. Demchuk AM, Hess DC, Brass LM, Yatsu FM: Is cholesterol a risk factor for stroke/Yes. Arch Neurol 1999;56:1518-1520.
7. Landau WM: Is the cholesterol a risk factor for stroke? No. Arch Neurol 1999;56:1521-1524.
8. Díez-Tejedor E, Egido-Herrero JA, Gil-Núñez AC, González-Juanatey JR, López-Pastor A, Marta-moreno J, Matías-Guiu J, Moltó-Jordá JM, Mostaza-Prieto JM: ¿Están indicadas las estatinas en la prevención del infarto cerebral? Rev Neurol 1999;29:1335-1357.
9. Qizilbash N, Duffy SW, Warlow C, Mann J: Lipids are risk factors for ischemic stroke: overview and review. Cerebrovasc Dis 1992;2:127-136.
10. Kagan A, Popper JS, Rhoads GG: Factors related to stroke incidence in Hawaii Japanese men. The Honolulu Heart Study. Stroke 1980;11:14-21
11. Ueshima H, Iida M, Shimamoto T, Konishi M, Tsujioka K, Taniki M, Nakanishi N, Ozawa H, Kojima S, Komachi Y: Multivariate analysis of risk factors for stroke. Eight-year follow-up study of farming villages in Akita, Japan. Prev Med 1980;9:722-740.
12. Tanaka H, Ueda Y, Hayashi M, Date C, Baba T, Yamashita H, Shoji H, Tanaka Y, Owada K, Detels R: Risk factors for cerebral hemorrhage and cerebral infarction in a Japanese rural community. Stroke 1982;13:62-73.
13. Yano K, Reed DM, MacLean CJ: Serum cholesterol and hemorrhagic stroke in the Honolulu Heart Program. Stroke 1989;20:1460-1465.
14. Iso H, Jacobs DR Jr, Wentworth D, Neaton JD, Cohen JD, for the MRFIT Research Group: Serum cholesterol levels and six year mortality from stroke in 350,977 men screened for the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. N Engl J Med 1989;320:904-910.
15. Neaton JD, Blackburn H, Jacobs D, Kuller L, Lee DJ, Sherwin R, Shih J, Stamler J, Wentworth D: Serum cholesterol level and mortality finding for men screened in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trail Research Group. Arch Intern Med 1992;152:1490-1500.
16. Eastern Stroke, Coronary Heart Disease Collaborative Research Group: Blood pressure, cholesterol, and stroke in eastern Asia. Lancet 1998;352:1801-1807.
17. Benfante R, Yano K, Hwang L-J, Curb JD, Kagan A, Ross W: Elevated serum cholesterol is a risk factor for both coronary heart disease and thromboembolic stroke in Hawaiian Japanese men: implications of shared risk. Stroke 1994;25:814-820.
18. Konishi M, Iso H, Komachi, Iida M, Shimamoto T, Jacobs DR Jr, Terao A, Baba S, Sankai T, Ito M: Associations of serum total cholesterol, different types of stroke, and stenosis distribution of cerebral arteries. The Akita Pathology Study. Stroke 1993;24:954-964.
19. Fonte G, Bo M, Poli L, Fiandra U, Fabris F: Ischemic stroke and transient ischaemic attacks: a case-control study of the risk factors in elderly hospitalized patients. Recent Prog Med 1993;84:254-262.
20. Lindenstrom E, Boysen G, Nyboe J: Influence of total cholesterol, high density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglycerides on risk of cerebrovascular disease: the Copenhagen City Heart Study. Br Med J 1994;309:11-15.
21. Di Mascio R, Marchioli R, Vitullo F, Di Pascuale A, Cavasinni L, Tognoni G: Serum ChT and risk of ischaemic stroke: results of a case-control study. On behalf of PROGETTO 3A Investigators. Prev Med 1995;24:128-133.
22. Hachinski V, Graffagnino C, Beaudry M, Bernier G, Buck C, Donner A, Spence JD, Doig G, Wolfe BM: Lipids and stroke: a paradox resolved. Arch Neurol 1996;53:303-308.
23. Yoshinari M, Kaku R, Iwase M, Iino K, Yamamoto M, Satou Y, Minami M, Kodama T, Fujishima M: Development of ischaemic stroke in normotensive and hypertensive diabetic patients with or without antihypertensive treatment: an 8-year follow-up study. J Diabetes Complications 1997;11:9-14.
24. Emond MJ, Zareba W: Prognostic value of cholesterol in women of different ages. J Women Health 1997;6:295-307.
25. Horenstein RB, Smith DE, Mosca L: Cholesterol predicts stroke mortality in the Women's Pooling Project. Stroke 2002;33:1863-1868.
26. Lheto S, Ronnemaa T, Pyorala K, Laakso M: Predictors of stroke in middle-aged patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Stroke 1996;27:63-68.
27. Tanne D, Yaari S, Goldbourt U: High-density lipoprotein cholesterol and risk of ischemic stroke mortality. A 21-year follow-up of 8,586 men from the Israeli Ischemic Heart Disease Study. Stroke 1997;28:83-87.
28. Soyama Y, Miura K, Morikawa Y, Nishijo M, Nakanishi Y, Naruse Y, et al: Oyabe Study. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol and risk of stroke in Japanese men and women: the Oyabe Study. Stroke 2003;34:863-868.
29. Shahar E, Chambless LE, Rosamond WD, Boland LL, Ballantyne CM, McGovern PG, et al: Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Plasma lipid profile and incident ischemic stroke: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. Stroke 2003;34:623-631.
30. Weverling-Rijnsburger AW, Jonkers IJ, van Exel E, Gussekloo J, Westendorp RG: High-density vs low-density lipoprotein cholesterol as the risk factor for coronary artery disease and stroke in old age. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:1549-1554.
31. Curb JD, Abbott RD, Rodriguez BL, Masaki KH, Chen R, Popper JS, et al: High density lipoprotein cholesterol and the risk of stroke in elderly men: the Honolulu Heart Program. Am J Epidemiol 2004;160:150-157.
32. Shintani S, Kikuchi S, Hamaguchi H, Shiigai T: High serum lipoprotein (a) levels are an independent risk factor for cerebral infarction. Stroke 1993;24:965-969.
33. Jurgens G, Taddei-Peters WC, Koltringer P, Petek W, Chen Q, Greilberg J, Macomber PF, Butman BT, Stead AG, Ransom JH: Lipoprotein (a) serum concentration and apolipoprotein (a) phenotype correlate with severity and presence of ischemic cerebrovascular disease. Stroke 1995;26:1841-1848.
34. Stein JH, Rosenson RS: Lipoprotein Lp(a) excess and coronary heart disease. Arch Intern Med 1997;157:1170-1176.
35. Willeit J, Kiechl S, Santer P, Oberhollenzer F, Eggger G, Jarosch E, Mair A: Lipoprotein(a) and asymptomatic carotid artery disease. Evidence of a prominent role in the evolution of advanced carotid plaques: the Bruneck Study. Circulation 1995;26:1582-1587.
36. Nguyen TT, Ellefson RD, Hodge DO, Bailey KR, Kottke TE, Abu Lebdeh HS: Predictive value of electrophoretically detected lipoprotein(a) for coronary heart disease and cerebrovascular disease in a commonly-based cohort of 9,936 men and women. Circulation 1997;96;1390-1397.
37. Dahl T, Kontny F, Slagsvold E, Christophersen BC, Abildgaard U, Ödegaard OR, Morkrid L, Dale J: Lipoprotein (a), other lipoproteins and hemostatic profiles in patients with ischemic stroke: the relation to cardiogenic embolism. Cerebrovasc Dis 2000;10:110-117.
38. Robinson RW, Higano N, Cohen WD: Comparison of serum lipid levels in patients with cerebral thrombosis and in normal subjects. Ann Intern Med 1963;59:180-185.
39. Korn-Lubetzki I, Kleinman Y, Eliashiv S, Eliakim M: Correlation between serum lipids and stroke in an Israeli population. Neurol Res 1992;14(suppl 2):78-80.
40. Zeiler K, Siostrzonek P, Lang W, Gossinger H, Oder W, Ciciyasvilli H, Kollegger H, Mosslacher H, Deecke L: Different risk factor profiles in young and elderly stroke patients with special reference to cardiac disorders. J Clin Epidemiol 1992;45:1383-1389.
41. Sridharan R: Risk factors for ischemic stroke: a case-control analysis. Neuroepidemiology 1992;11:24-30.
42. Reed DM, Resch JA, Hayashi T, MacLean C, Yano K: A prospective study of cerebral artery atherosclerosis. Stroke 1988;19:820-825.
43. Palomaki H, Kaste M, Raininko R, Salonen O, Juvela S, Sarna S: Risk factors for cervical atherosclerosis in patients with transient ischemic attack or minor ischemic stroke. Stroke 1993;24:970-975.
44. Fine-Edelstein JS, Wolf PA, O'Leary DH, Poehlman H, Belanger AJ, Kase CS, D'Agostino RB: Precursors of extracranial carotid atherosclerosis in the Framingham Study. Neurology 1994;44:1046-1050.
45. Wilson PWF, Hoeg JM, D'Agostino RB, Silberhatz H, Belanger AM, Poehlmann H, O'Leary D, Wolf PA: Cumulative effect of high cholesterol levels, high pressure, and cigarette smoking on carotid stenosis. N Engl J Med 1997;337:516-522.
46. Salonen R, Seppanen K, Raeramaa R, Salonen JT: Prevalence of carotid atherosclerosis and serum cholesterol levels in Eastern Finland. Arteriosclerosis 1988;8:788-792.
47. Grotta JC, Yatsu FM, Pettigrew LC, Rhoades H, Bratina P, Vital D, Alam R, Earls R, Picone C: Prediction of carotid stenosis progression by lipid and hematologic measurements. Neurology 1989;39:1325-1331.
48. Heiss G, Sharrett AR, Barnes R, Chambless LE, Szklo M, Alzola D, and the ARIC Investigators: Carotid atherosclerosis measured by B-mode ultrasound in populations: associations with cardiovascular risk factors in the ARIC study. Am J Epidemiol 1991;134:250-260.
49. Crouse JR, Toole JF, McKinney Wm, Dignan MB, Howard G, Khal FR, McMahan MR, Harold GH: Risk factors for extracranial carotid artery atherosclerosis. Stroke 1987;18:990-996.
50. Prati P, Vanuzzo D, Casaroli M, Di Chiari A, De Biasi F, Feruglio GA, Touboul P-J: Prevalence and determinants of carotid atherosclerosis in a general population. Stroke 1992;23:1705-1711.
51. Sutton-Tyrrell K, Alcorn HG, Wolfson SK, Kelsey SF, Kuller LH: Predictors of carotid stenosis in older adults with and without isolated systolic hypertension. Stroke 1993;24:355-361.
52. Yamamoto M, Egusa G, Yamakido M: Carotid atherosclerosis and serum lipoprotein (a) concentrations in patients with NIDDM. Diabetes Care 1997;20:829-831.
53. Sacco RL, Boden-Albala B, Gan R, Chen X, Kargman DE, Shea S: Stroke incidence among white, black and Hispanic residents of an urban Community. Am J Epidemiol 1998;147:259-268.
54. Stewart JA, Dundas R, Howard RS, Rudd AG, Wolf CDA: Ethnic differences in incidence of stroke: prospective study with stroke register. Br Med J 1999;318,10:967-971.
55. Woo D, Gebel J, Miller R, Kothari R, Brott T, Khoury J, Ross JL, Raps E, Ozer MN, Brass LM, Malone ME, Goldberg ME, Booss J, Hanley DF, Toole JF, Greengold NL, Rhew DC: Incidence rates of first-ever ischemic stroke subtypes among blacks. A population-based study. Stroke 1999;30:2517-2522.
56. Cruickshank FB, Beevers D, Osbourne V, Haynes R, Corlett J, Selby S: Heart attack, stroke, diabetes and hypertension in West Indians, Asians and whites in Birmingham, England. Br Med J 1980;281:1108.
57. Law M, Wald N: Why heart disease mortality is low in France: the time lag explanation. Br Med J 1999;318:1471-1476.
58. De Lorgeril M, Salen P, Martin JL, Monjaud I, Delaye J, Mamelle N: Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction. Circulation 1999;99:779-785.
59. Gil de Castro R, Gil Núñez AC: Factores de riesgo del ictus isquémico. I Factores de riesgo convencionales. Rev Neurol 2000;31:314-323.
60. Straus SE, Majumdar SR, Mc Alister FA: New evidence for stroke prevention: scientific review. Lancet 2002;288:1388-1395.
61. Downs JR, Clearfield M, Weis S, Shapiro DR, Beere PA, Langendorfer A, Stein EA, Kruyer W, Gotto AM Jr; for the AFCAPS/TexCAPS Research Group: Primary prevention of acute coronary events with lovastatin in men and women with average cholesterol levels. JAMA 1998;279:1615-1622.
62. Shepherd J, Cobbe SM, Ford I, Isles CG, Lorimer AR, Macfarland PW, McKillop JH, Packard J; for the West Scotland Coronary Prevention Study Group: Prevention of coronary heart disease with pravastatin in men with hypercholesterolemia. N Engl J Med 1995;333:1301-1307.
63. Colhoun HM, Betteridge DJ, Durrington PN, Hitman GA, Neil HA, Livingstone SJ, Thomason MJ, Mackness MI, Charlton-Menys V, Fuller JH; CARDS investigators: Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with atorvastatin in type 2 diabetes in the Collaborative Atorvastatin Diabetes Study (CARDS): multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2004;364:685-696.
64. Sacks FM, Pfeffer MA, Moye LA, Rouleau JL, Rutherford JD, Cole TG, Brown L, Warnica JW, Arnol JMO, Wun CC, Davis BR, Braunwald E; for the Cholesterol and Recurrent Events Trial Investigators: The effect of pravastatin on coronary events after myocardial infarction in patients with average cholesterol levels. N Engl J Med 1996;335:1001-1009.
65. The Long-Term Intervention with Pravastatin in Ischaemic Disease (LIPID) Study Group: Prevention of cardiovascular events and death with pravastatin in patients with coronary heart disease and a broad range or initial cholesterol levels. N Engl J Med 1998;339:1349-1357.
66. Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study Group: Randomised trial of cholesterol lowering in 4,444 patients with coronary heart disease: the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S). Lancet 1994;344:1383-1389.
67. Gould AL, Rossouw JE, Santanello NC, Heyse JF, Furberg CD: Cholesterol reduction yields clinical benefit. Impact of statins trials. Circulation 1998;97:946-952.
68. Kumana CR, Cheung BMY, Lauder JL: Gauging the impact of statins using number needed to treat. JAMA 1999;282:1899-1901.
69. Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group: MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2002;360:7-22.
70. Shepherd J, Blauw GJ, Murphy MB, Bollen ELEM, Buckley BM, Cobbe SM, Ford I, Gaw A, Hyland M, Jukema JW, Kamper AM, Macfarlane PW, Meinders AE, Norrie J, Packard CJ, Perry IJ, Stott DJ, Sweeney BJ, Twomey C, Westendorp RGJ; on behalf of the PROSPER study group: Pravastatin in elderly individuals at risk of vascular disease (PROSPER): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2002;360:1623-1630.
71. Schwartz GG, Olsson AG, Ezekowitz MD, Ganz P, Oliver MF, Waters D, et al; Myocardial Ischemia Reduction with Aggressive Cholesterol Lowering (MIRACL) Study Investigators: Effects of atorvastatin on early recurrent ischemic events in acute coronary syndromes: the MIRACL study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2001;285:1711-1718.
72. Athyros VG, Parageorgeou AA, Mercouris BR, et al: Treatment with atorvastatin to the National Cholesterol Education Program Goal versus usual care in secondary coronary heart Disease prevention: the GREek Atorvastatin and Coronary Heart Disease Evaluation (GREACE) study. Curr Med Res Opin 2002;18:220-228.
73. Sever PS, Dahlöf B, Poulter NR, Wedel H, Beevers G, Caulfield M, et al; for the ASCOT investigators: Prevention of coronary and stroke events with atorvastatin in hypertensive patients who have average or lower-than-average cholesterol concentrations, in the AngloScandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial - Lipid Lowering Arm (ASCOT-LLA): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2003;361:1149-1158.
74. Serruys PW, de Feyter P, Macaya C, Kokott N, Puel J, Vrolix M, et al: Lescol Intervention Prevention Study (LIPS) Investigators. Fluvastatin for prevention of cardiac events following successful first percutaneous coronary intervention: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2002;287:3215-3222.
75. ALLHAT Officers and Coordinators for the ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group: The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial. Major outcomes in moderately hypercholesterolemic, hypertensive patients randomized to pravastatin vs usual care. JAMA 2002;288:2998-3007.
76. Wood D: European and American recommendations for coronary heart disease prevention. Eur Heart J 1998;19(suppl A):A12-A19.
77. Pyörälä K, De Backer G, Graham I, Poole-Wilson P, Wood D; on behalf of the Task Force: Prevention of coronary heart disease in clinical practice. Recommendations of the European Society of Cardiology, European Atherosclerosis Society and European Society of Hypertension. Eur Heart J 1994;15:1300-1331.
78. Maron DJ, Fazio S, Linton MF: Current perspectives on statins. Circulation 2000;101:207-213.
79. Goldstein LB, Adams R, Becker K, Furberg CD, Gorelick PB, Hademenos G, et al: Primary prevention of ischemic stroke. A statement for healthcare professionals From the Stroke Council of the American Heart Association. Circulation 2001;103:163-182.
80. Pearson TA, Blair SN, Daniels SR, Eckel RH, Fair JM, Fortmann SP, et al: AHA Guidelines for Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease and Stroke: 2002 Update. AHA Scientific Statement. Consensus Panel Guide to Comprehensive Risk Reduction for Adult Patients Without Coronary or Other Atherosclerotic Vascular Diseases. Circulation 2002;106:388-391.
81. LaRosa JC, Grundy SM, Waters DD, Shear C, Barter P, Fruchart JC, Gotto AM, Greten H, Kastelein JJ, Shepherd J, Wenger NK, Treating to New Targets (TNT) Investigators: Intensive lipid lowering with atorvastatin in patients with stable coronary disease. N Engl J Med 2005;352:1425-1435.
82. Ridker PM, Cannon CP, Morrow D, Rifai N, Rose LM, McCabe CH, Pfeffer MA, Braunwald E; for the Pravastatin or Atorvastatin Evaluation and Infection Therapy-Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction 22 (PROVE IT-TIMI 22) Investigators: C-Reactive protein levels and outcomes after statin therapy. N Engl J Med 2005;352:20-28.
83. Pedersen TR, Kjekshus J, Pyorala K, Olsson AG, Cook TJ, Mulsner TA, Tobert JA, Haghfelt T: Effect of simvastatin on ischemic signs and symptoms in the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S). Am J Cardiol 1998;81:333-335.
84. Plehn JF, Davis BR, Sacks FM, Rouleau JL, Pfeffer MA, Berstein V, Cuddy TE, Moye LA, Piller LB, Rutherfor DJ, Simpson LM, Braunwald E; for the CARE Investigators: Reduction of stroke incidence after myocardial infarction with pravastatin: the Cholesterol and Recurrent Events (CARE) Study. Circulation 1999;99:216-223.
85. Blauw GJ, Lagaay AM, Smelt AHM, Westendorp RGJ: Stroke, statins, and cholesterol: a meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trials with HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors. Stroke 1997;28:946-950.
86. Hebert PR, Gaziano JM, Chan KS, Hennekens CH: Cholesterol lowering with statin drugs, risk of stroke, and total mortality. JAMA 1997;278:313-321.
87. Crouse JR III, Byington RP, Hoen HM, Furberg CD: Reductase inhibitor monotherapy and stroke prevention. Arch Intern Med 1997;157:1305-1310.
88. Bucher HC, Griffith LE, Guyatt GH: Effect of HMGCoA reductase inhibitors on stroke: a meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials. Ann Intern Med 1998;128:89-95.
89. Gil Nuñez AC, Villanueva JA: Advantages of lipid-lowering therapy in cerebral ischemia: role of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors. Cerebrovasc Dis 2001;11(suppl 1):85-95.
90. Collins R, Armitage J, Parish S, Sleight P, Peto R; Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group: Effects of cholesterol-lowering with simvastatin on stroke and other major vascular events in 20,536 people with cerebrovascular disease or other high-risk conditions. Lancet 2004;363:757-767.
91. Waters DD, Schwartz GG, Olsson AG, Zeiher A, Oliver MF, Ganz P, et al; for the MIRACL Study Investigators: Effects of atorvastatin on stroke in patients with unstable angina or non-Q-wave myocardial infarction. A Myocardial Ischemia Reduction with Aggressive Cholesterol Lowering. (MIRACL) Substudy. Circulation 2002;106:1690-1695.
92. Corvol JC, Bouzamondo A, Sirol M, Hulot JB, Sanchez P, Lechat P: Differential effects of lipid-lowering therapies on stroke prevention: A meta-analysis of randomized trials. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:669-676.
93. LaRosa JC, He J, Vupputuri S: Effect of statins on risk of coronary disease. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA 1999;282:2340-2346.
94. Lewis SJ, Moye LA, Sacks FM, Johnstone DE, Timmis G, Mitchell J, Limacher M, Kell S, Glasser SP, Grant J, Davis BR, Pfeffer MA, Braunwald E, for the CARE Investigators: Effect of pravastatin on cardiovascular events in older patients with myocardial infarction and cholesterol levels in the average range. Results of the Cholesterol and Recurrent Events (CARE) Trial. Ann Intern Med 1998;129:681-689.
95. Lewis SJ, Sacks FM, Mitchell JS, East C, Glasser S, Kell S, Letterer R, Limacher M, Moye LA, Rouleau JL, Pfeffer MA, Braunwald E, for the CARE Investigators: Effects of pravastatin on cardiovascular events in women after myocardial infarction: the Cholesterol and Recurrent Events (CARE) Trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998;32:140-146.
96. Miettinen TA, Pyorala K, Olsson AG, et al; for the Scandinavian Simvastatin Study Group: Cholesterol-lowering therapy in women and elderly patients with myocardial infarction or angina pectoris. Circulation 1997;96:4211-4218.
97. Maycock CAA, Muhlestein JB, Horne BD, et al: Statin therapy is associated with reduced mortality across all age groups of individuals with significant coronary disease, including very elderly patients. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002;40:1777-1785.
98. Lemaitre RN, Psaty BM, Heckbert SR, Kronmal RA, Newman AB, Burke GL: Therapy with hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors (statins) and associated risk of incident cardiovascular event in older adults: evidence from the Cardiovascular Health Study. Arch Intern Med 2002;162:1395-1400.
99. Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Rifkind BM, Kuller LH; for the Coordinating Committee of the National Cholesterol Education Program: Cholesterol lowering in the elderly population. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:1670-1678.
100. Mascio RD, Marchioli R, Tognoni G: Cholesterol reduction and stroke occurrence: an overview of randomized clinical trials. Cerebrovasc Dis 2000;10:85-92.
101. Rubins HB, Robins SJ, Collins D, Fye CL, Anderson JW, Elam MB, Faas FH, Linares E, Schaefer EJ, Schectman G, Wilt TJ, Wittes J; for the Veterans Affairs High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Intervention Trial Study Group: Gemfibrozil for the secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in men with low levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. New Engl J Med 1999;341:410-418.
102. Lemos JA, Blazing MA, Wiviott SD, Lewis EF, Fox KA, White HD, et al: A to Z Investigators. Early intensive vs a delayed conservative simvastatin strategy in patients with acute coronary syndromes: phase Z of the A to Z trial. JAMA 2004;292:1307-1316.
103. Nissen SE: High-dose statins in acute coronary syndromes: not just lipid levels. JAMA 2004;292:1365-1367.
104. Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study Group: Baseline cholesterol and treatment effect in the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S). Lancet 1995;345:1274-1275.
105. West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study Group: Influence of pravastatin and plasma lipids on clinical events in the West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study (WOSCOPS). Circulation 1998;97:1440-1445.
106. Sacks FM, Moye LA, Davis BR, Cole TG, Rouleau JL, Nash DT, Pfeffer NA, Braunwald E: Relationship between plasma LDL concentrations during treatment with pravastatin and recurrent coronary events in the Cholesterol and Recurrent Events trial. Circulation 1998;97:1446-1452.
107. Fox R: Statins: the new aspirin? Circulation 2001;104:e9051.
108. Furberg CD, Adams HP, Applegate WB, Byington RP, Espeland MA, Hartwell T, Hunninghake DB, Lefkowicz DS, Probstfield J, Riley WA, Young B; for ACAPS Research Group: Effect of lovastatin on early carotid atherosclerosis and cardiovascular events. Circulation 1994;90:1679-1687.
109. Salonen R, Nyssonen K, Prokkala E, Rummukainen J, Belder R, Park JS, Salonen JT; Kuopio Atherosclerosis Prevention Study (KAPS): A population-based primary prevention trial of effect of LDL lowering on atherosclerotic progression in carotid and femoral arteries. Circulation 1995;92:1758-1764.
110. Mercuri M, Bond MG, Sirtori CR, Vegglio F, Crepaldi G, Feruglio FS, Descovich G, Ricci G, Rubba P, Mancini M, Gallus G, Bianchi G, D'Alo G, Ventura A: Pravastatin reduces carotid intima-media thickness progression in an asymptomatic hypercholesterolemic Mediterranean population: the Carotid Atherosclerosis Italian Ultrasound Study. Am J Med 1996;101:627-634.
111. Crouse JR, Byington RP, Bond MG, Espeland MA, Craven TE, Spinkle JW, McGovern ME, Furberg CD: Pravastatin, lipids, and atherosclerosis in the carotid arteries (PLAC-II). Am J Cardiol 1995;75:455-459.
112. MacMahon S, Sharpe N, Gamble G, Hart H, Scott J, Simes J, White H: Effects of lowering average or below-average cholesterol levels on the progression of carotid atherosclerosis: results of the LIPID Atherosclerosis Substudy: LIPID Trial Research Group. Circulation 1998;97:1784-1790.
113. Hodis HN, Mack WJ, LaBree L, Selzer RH, Liu CR, Liu C, Alaupovic P, Kwong-Fu H, Azen SP: Reduction in carotid arterial wall thickness using lovastatin and dietary therapy: a randomized, controlled clinical trial. Ann Intern Med 1996;124:548-556.
114. Smilde TJ, van Wissen S, Wollersheim H, Trip MD, Kastelein JJ, Stalenhoef AF: Effect of aggressive versus conventional lipid lowering on atherosclerosis progression in familial hypercholesterolaemia (ASAP): a prospective, randomised, double-blind trial. Lancet 2001;357:577-581.
115. Kent SM, Coyle LC, Flaherty PJ, Markwood TT, Taylor AJ: Marked low-density lipoprotein cholesterol reduction below current national cholesterol education program targets provides the greatest reduction in carotid atherosclerosis. Clin Cardiol 2004;27:17-21.
116. Aronow HD, Topol EJ, Roe MT, Houghtaling PL, Wolski KE, Lincoff AM, et al: Effect of lipid-lowering therapy on early mortality after acute coronary syndromes: an observational study. Lancet 2001;357:1063-1068.
117. Tanne D, Goldbourt U, Zion M, Reicher-Reiss H, Kaplinsky E, Behar S; for the SPRINT Study Group: Frequency and prognosis of stroke/TIA among 4808 survivors of acute myocardial infarction. Stroke 1993;24:1490-1495.
118. Martin R, Bogousslavky J: Mechanisms of late stroke after myocardial infarct: the Laussanne Stroke Registry. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1993;56:760-764.
119. Loh E, Sutton MSJ, Wun CCC, Rouleau JL, Flaker GC, Gottlieb SS, Lamas GA, Moye LA, Goldhaber SZ, Pfeffer MA: Ventricular dysfunction and the risk of stroke after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1997;336:251-257.
120. Pullicino PM, Halperin JL, Thompson JLP: Stroke in patients with heart failure and reduced left ventricular ejection fraction. Neurology 2000;54:288-294.
121. Amarenco P; for the French Study of Aortic Plaques in Stroke Group: Atherosclerosis disease of the aortic arch as a risk factor for recurrent ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 1996;334:1216-1221.
122. Pitsavos CE, Aggeli KI, Barbetseat JD, Skoumas IN, Lambrou SG, Frogoudaki AA, Stefanidis, Toutozas PK: Effects of pravastatin on thoracic aortic atherosclerosis in patients with heterozygous familial hypercholesteroemia. Am J Cardiol 1998;82:1484-1488.
123. Inzitari D, Eliasziw M, Sharpe BL, Fox AJ, Barnett HJM; for the North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial Group: Risk factors and outcome of patients with carotid artery stenosis presenting with lacunar stroke. Neurology 2000;54:660-666.
124. Gorsselink EL, Peeters HP, Lodder J: Causes small deep infarcts detected by CT. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 1984;19:271-273.
125. Martí-Fábregas J, Gomis M, Arboix A, Aleu A, Pagonabarraga J, Belvís R, Cocho D, Roquer J, Rodríguez A, García MD, Molina-Porcel L, Díaz-Manera J, Martí-Vilalta J-L: Favorable outcome of ischemic stroke in patients pretreated with statins. Stroke 2004;35:1117-1123.
126. Greisenegger S, Mullner M, Tentschert S, Lang W, Lalouschek W: Effect of pretreatment with statins on the severity of acute ischemic cerebrovascular events. J Neurol Sci 2004;221:1-2.
127. Endres M, Laufs U, Huang Z, Nakamura T, Huang P, Moskowitz MA, Liao JK: Stroke prevention by 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl (HMG)-CoA reductase inhibitors mediated by endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998;95:8880-8885.
128. Vaughan CJ, Murphy MB, Buckley BM: Statins do more than just lower cholesterol. Lancet 1996;348:1079-1082.
129. Endres M, Laufs U: Effects of statins on endothelium and signaling mechanisms. Stroke 2004;35:2708-2711.
130. Lee T-S, Chang C-C, Zhu Y, Shyy JY-J: Simvastatin induces heme oxygenase-1. A novel mechanism of vessel protection. Circulation 2004;110:1296-1302.
131. Koh KK: Effects of statins on vascular wall: vasomotor function, inflammation, and plaque stability. Cardiovasc Res 2000;47:648-657.
132. Rogler G, Lackner KJ, Schmitz G: Effectos of fluvastatin on growth of porcine and human vascular smooth cells in vitro. Am J Cardiol 1995;76:A114-A116.
133. Rosenson RS, Tangney CC: Antiatherothrombotic properties of statins. Implications for cardiovascular event reduction. JAMA 1998;279:1643-1650.
134. Rosenson RB: Biological basis for statin therapy in stroke prevention. Curr Opin Neurol 2000;13:57-62.
135. Vaughan CJ, Gotto AM, Basson CT: The evolving role of statins in the management of atherosclerosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000;35:1-10.
136. Farmer JA: Pleiotropic effects of statins. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2000;2:208-217.
137. Ridker PM, Cushman M, Stampfer MJ, Tracy RP, Hennekens CH: Inflammation, aspirin, and risks of cardiovascular disease in apparently healthy men. N Engl J Med 1997;336:973-979.
138. Ridker PM, Rifai N, Pfeffer MA, Sacks FM, Moye LA, Goldman S, Flaker GC, Braunwald E; for the CARE Investigators: Inflammation, pravastatin, and the risk of coronary events after myocardial infarction in patients with average cholesterol levels. Circulation 1998;98:839-844.
139. Strandberg TE, Vanhanen H, Tikkanen MJ: Effect of statins on C-reactive protein in patients with coronary artery disease. Lancet 1999;353:118-119.
140. Balk EM, Lau J, Goudas LC, Jordan HS, Kupelnick B, Kim LU, Karas RH: Effects of statins on nonlipid serum markers associated with cardiovascular disease: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med 2003,139:670-682.
141. Libby P, Ridker PM, Maseri A: Inflammation and atherosclerosis. Circulation 2002;105:1135-1143.
142. Szmitko PE, Wang CH, Weisel RD, de Almeida JR, Anderson TJ, Verma S: New markers of inflammation and endothelial cell activation. I. Circulation 2003;108:1917-1923.
143. Verma S, Szmitko PE, Yeh ET: C-reactive protein: structure affects function. Circulation 2004;109:1914-1917.
144. Nissen SE, Tuzcu EM, Schoenhagen P, Crowe T, Sasiela WJ, Tsai J, Orazem J, Magorien RD, O'Shaughnessy C, Ganz P; for the Reversal of Atherosclerosis with Aggressive Lipid lowering (REVERSAL) investigators: Statin therapy, LDL cholesterol C-reactive protein, and coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 2005;352:29-38.
145. Vaughan CJ, Delanty N: Neuroprotective properties of statins in cerebral ischemia and stroke. Stroke 1999;30:1969-1973.
146. Gil Núñez A: Nuevos enfoques en la prevención del ictus. Rev Neurol 2002;35:801-805.
147. Sanderdcock PAG, Warlow CP, Jones LN, Starkey IR: Predisposing factors for cerebral infarction: the Oxforshire Community Stroke Proyect. Br Med J 1989;298:75-80.
148. Ronning OM, Guldvog B: Stroke units versus general medical ward. I. Twelve- and eighteen-month survival. A randomized controlled trial. Stroke 1998;29:58-62.
149. Broderick JP, Phillips SJ, O'Fallon WM, Frye RL, Whisnant JP: Relationship of cardiac disease to stroke occurrence, recurrence and mortality. Stroke 1992;23:1250-1256.
150. Kalra L, Perez I, Melbourn A: Stroke risk management. Changes in mainstream practice. Stroke 1998;29:53-57.
151. Rothrock JF, Lyden PD, Brody ML, Taft-Alvarez B, Kelly N, Mayer J, Wiederholt WC: An analysis of ischemic stroke in an urban southern California population. Arch Intern Med 1993;153:619-624.
152. Caicoya Gómez-Morán M, Corrales Canel C, Lasheras Mayo C, Cuello Rocas R, Rodríguez Álvarez T: Asociación entre accidente cerebrovascular y enfermedad vascular periférica: estudio de casos y controles en Asturias, España. Rev Clin Esp 1995;195:830-835.
153. CAPRIE Steering Committee: A randomised, blinded trial of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients at risk of ischemic events (CAPRIE). Lancet 1996;348:1329-1339.
154. Bogousslavsky J, Van Melle G, Regli F: The Lausanne Stroke Register: analysis of 1,000 consecutive patients with first stroke. Stroke 1988;19:1083-1092.
155. Aronow WS, Ahn AC: Prevalence of coexistence of coronary artery disease, peripheral arterial disease, and atherothrombotic brain infarction in men and women > or = 62 years of age. Am J Cardiol 1994;74:64-65.
156. Ness J, Aronow WS: Prevalence of coexistence of coronary artery disease, ischemic stroke, and peripheral arterial disease in older persons, mean age 80 years, in an academic hospital-based geriatrics practice. J Am Geriatr Soc 1999;47:1255-1256.
157. Rokey R, Rolak LA, Harati Y, Kutka N, Verani MS: Coronary artery disease in patients with cerebrovascular disease: a prospective study. Ann Neurol 1984;16:50-53.
158. Di Pascuale G, Pinelli G, Grazi P, Andreoli A, Corbelli C, Manini GL, Urbinati S, Carini GC: Incidence of silent myocardial ischaemia in patient with cerebral ischaemia. Eur Heart J 1988;9(suppl N):104-109.
159. Urbinati S, Di Pascuale G, Andreoli A, Lusa AM, Ruffini M, Lanzino G, Pinelli G: Frequency and prognostic significance of silent coronary artery disease in patients with cerebral ischemia undergoing carotid endarterectomy. Am J Cardiol 1992;69:1166-1170.
160. Love BB, Grover-McKay M, Biller J, Rezai K, McKay CR: Coronary artery disease and cardiac events with asymptomatic and symptomatic cerebrovascular disease. Stroke 1992;23:939-945.
161. Rihal CS, Gersh BJ, Whisnant JP, Rooke TW, Sundt TM Jr, O'Fallon WM, Ballard DJ: Influence of coronary heart disease on morbidity and mortality after carotid endarterectomy: a population-based study in Olmsted County, Minnesota (1970-1988). J Am Coll Cardiol 1992;19:1254-1260.
162. Sacco RL, Shi T, Zamanillow MC, Kargman D: Predictors of mortality and recurrence after hospitalized cerebral infarction in an urban community: the Northern Manhattan Stroke Study. Neurology 1994;44:626-636.
163. Petty GW, Brown RD Jr, Whisnant JP, Sicks JD, O'Fallon WM, Wiebers DO: Survival and recurrence after first cerebral infarction: a population-based study in Rochester, Minnesota, 1975 through 1989. Neurology 1998;50:208-216.
164. Sacco RL, Wolf PA, Kannel WB, McNamara PM: Survival and recurrence following stroke: the Framingham study. Stroke 1982;13:290-295.
165. Warlow CP: Epidemiology of stroke. Lancet 1998;352(suppl III):1-4.
166. Heyman A, Wilkinson WE, Hurwitz BJ, Haynes CS, Utley CM, Rosati RA, Burch JG, Gore TB: Risk of ischemic heart disease in patients with TIA. Neurology 1984;34:626-630.
167. Hag IU, Jackson PR, Yeo WW, Ramsay LE: A comparison of methods for targeting CHD risk for primary prevention. Heart 1997;77(suppl 1):36.
168. Dyslipidaemia Advisory Group, on behalf of the Scientific Committee of the National Heart Foundation of New Zealand: 1996 National Heart Foundation guidelines for assessment and management of dyslipidaemia. N Z Med J 1996;109:224-232.
169. Working Party of the British Cardiac Society, British Hyperlipidaemia Association and British Hypertension Society: Joint British recommendations on prevention of coronary heart disease in clinical practice. Heart 1998;80(suppl 2):S1-S29.
170. Robson J, Boomla K, Hart B, Feder G: Estimating cardiovascular risk for primary prevention: outstanding questions for primary care. Br Med J 2000;320:702-704.
171. Jackson R: Updated New Zealand cardiovascular disease risk-benefit prediction guide. Br Med J 2000;320:709-710.
172. Wood D, De Backer G, Faergeman O, Graham I, Mancia G, Pyorola K: Prevention of coronary heart disease in clinical practice: recommendations of the Second Joint Task Force of European and others Societies on Coronary Prevention. Atherosclerosis 1998;140:199-270.
173. Samsa GP, Bian J, Lipscomb J, Matchar DB: Epidemiology of recurrent cerebral infarction: a medicare claims-based comparison of first and recurrent strokes on 2-year survival and cost. Stroke 1999;30:338-349.
174. Hier DB, Foulkes MA, Swiontoniowski M, Sacco RL, Gorelick PB, Mohr JP, Price TR, Wolf PA: Stroke recurrence within 2 years after ischemic infarction. Stroke 1991;22:155-161.
175. Hankey GJ, Jamrozik K, Broadhurst RJ, Forbes S, Burvill PW, Anderson CS, et al: Five-year survival after first-ever stroke and related prognostic factors in the Perth Community Stroke Study. Stroke 2000;31:2080-2086.
176. Hartmann A, Rundek T, Mast H, Paik MC, Boden-Albala B, Mohr JP, Sacco RL: Mortality and causes of death after first ischemic stroke: the Northern Manhattan Stroke Study. Neurology 2001;57:2000-2005.
177. Ansell BJ, Watson KE, Fogelman AM: An evidence-based assessment of the NCEP adult treatment panel II guidelines. JAMA 1999;282:2051-2057.
178. Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults: Executive Summary of the Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 2001;285:2486-2497.
179. Third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NECP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III): Final report. US Department of Health and Human Services: Public Health Service; National Institutes of Health; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NIH Publication No. 02-5215. September 2002). Circulation 2002;106:3143-3420.
180. Smith SC, Blair SN, Bonow RO, Brass LM, Cerqueira MD, Dracup K, et al: AHA/ACC guidelines for preventing heart attack and death in patients with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: 2001 update: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association and the American College of Cardiology. Circulation 2001;104:1577-1579.
181. Gotto M: Safety and statin therapy:reconsidering the risks and benefits. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:657-659.
182. Szucs TD: Pharmaco-ecomonic aspects of lipid-lowering therapy: is it worth the price? Eur Heart J 1998;19(suppl M):M22-M28.
183. Grover SA, Coupai L, Paquet S, Zowall H: Cost-effectiveness of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase inhibitors in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease: forecasting the incremental benefits of preventing coronary and cerebrovascular events. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:593-600.
184. Caro J, Klittich W, McGuire A, Ford I, Pettitt D, Norrie J, Shepherd J; for the WOSCOPS Economic Analysis Committee: International economic analysis of primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with pravastatin in WOSCOPS. West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study. Eur Heart J 1999;20:263-268.
185. Perreault S, Hamilton VH, Lavoie F, Grover SA: Treating hyperlipidemia for the primary prevention of coronary disease. Are higher dosages of lovastatin cost-effective? Arch Intern Med 1998;157:375-381.
186. Jacobson TA, Schein JR, Williamson A, Ballantyne CM: Maximizing the cost-effectiveness of lipid-lowering therapy. Arch Intern Med 1998;158:1977-1989.
187. British Cardiac Society, British Hyperlipidaemia Association, British Hypertension Society, British Diabetic Association: Joint British recommendations on prevention of coronary heart disease in clinical practice: summary. Br Med J 2000;320:705-708.
188. Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Bairey Merz CN, Brewer B Jr, Clark LT, Hunninghake DB, Pasternak RC, Smith SC Jr, Stone NJ; for the Coordinating Committee of the National Cholesterol Education Program: Implications of recent clinical trial for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III Guidelines. Circulation 2004;110:227-239.
189. European Society of Hypertension-European Society of Cardiology Guidelines Committee: 2003 European Society of Hypertension/European Society of Cardiology guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. J Hypertens 2003;21:1011-1053.
190. Williams B, Poulter NR, Brown M J, Davis M, McInnes GT, Potter, et al: British Hypertension Society guidelines for hypertension management 2004 (BHS-IV): summary. Br Med J 2004;328:634-640.
191. Diez Tejedor E, Fuentes B, Gil Núñez AC, Gil Peralta A, Matias Guiu J; por el comité ad hoc del Grupo de Estudio de Enfermedades Cerebrovasculares de la SEN: Guía para el tratamiento preventivo de la isquemia cerebral; in Diez Tejedor E (ed): Guía para el tratamiento y la prevención del ictus. GEECV-SEN. Barcelona, Prous Science, in press.
192. De Backer G, Ambrosioni E, Borch-Johnsen K, Brotons C, Cifkova R, Dallongeville J; Third Joint Task Force of European and Other Societies on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice: European guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice. Third Joint Task Force of European and Other Societies on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice. Eur Heart J 2003;24:1601-1610.
193. Brotons C, Royo-Bordonada MA, Alvarez-Sala L, Armario P, Artigao R, Conthe P, et al: Comite Espanol Interdisciplinario para la Prevencion Cardiovascular. Spanish adaptation of the European Guidelines on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention. Neurologia 2004;19:438-439.
194. Leys D, Kwiecinsky H, Bogousslavsky J, Bath P, Brainin M, Diener HC, et al; for the EUSI Executive Committee and the EUSI Writing Committee: Prevention. Cerebrovasc Dis 2004;17(suppl 2):15-29.
195. The Stroke Council: Statins after ischemic stroke and transient ischemic attack. An advisory statement from the Stroke Council, American Heart Association and American Stroke Association. Stroke 2004;35:1023.
196. Baxter C, Jones R, Corr L: Time trend analysis in prescribing lipid lowering drugs in general practice. Br Med J 1998;317;1134-1135.
197. Miller M, Byington R, Hunninghake D, Pitt B, Furberg CD; for the Prospective Randomized Evaluation of the Vascular Effects of Norvasc Trial (PREVENT) Investigators: Sex bias and underutilization of lipid-lowering therapy in patients with coronary artery disease at academic medical centers in the United States and Canada. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:343-347.
198. Hulley S, Grady D, Bush T, Furberg C, Herrigton D, Riggs B, Vittinghoff E; for the Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Research Group: Randomized trial of estrogen plus progestin for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in post-menopausal women. JAMA 1998;280:605-613.
199. Schrott HG, Bittner V, Vittinghoff E, Herrington DM, Hulley S; for the HERS Research Group: Adherence to National Cholesterol Education Program treatment goals in postmenopausal women with heart disease: the Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study (HERS). JAMA 1997;277:1281-1286.
200. Pearson TA, Laurora I, Chu H, Kafonek S: The Lipid Assessment Project (L-TAP). A multicenter survey to evaluate the percentages of dyslipidemic patients receiving lipid-lowering therapy and achieving low-density lipoprotein cholesterol goals. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:459-467.
201. Schectman G, Hyatt J: Drug therapy for hypercholesterolemia in patients with cardiovascular disease: factors limiting achievement of lipids goals. Am J Med 1996;100:197-204.
202. Marcelino JJ, Feingold KR: Inadequate treatment with HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors by health care providers. Am J Med 1996;100:605-610.
203. Pearson TA, Kris-Etherton P, Mitchell D, Rader J, Jenkins P, Lewis C, Shannon B: Improving compliance with step I and step II cholesterol-lowering diets: the rural lipid resource center. Circulation 1995;91:936.
204. Stroke Prevention by Aggressive Reduction in Cholesterol Levels (SPARCL). Major Ongoing Stroke Trial. Stroke 2001;32:589.
205. Murray CJL, López AD: Mortality by cause for eight regions of the world: global burden of disease study. Lancet 1997;349:1269-1276.
206. Olalla MT, Medrano MJ, Sierra MJ, Almazán J: Time trends, cohort effect and spatial distribution of cerebrovascular disease mortality in Spain. Eur J Epidemiol 1999;15:331-339.
207. Institute Nacional de Estadistica: Defunciones según la causa de muerte 2000. www.ine.es, 30 Diciembre 2002.
208. Williams GR, Jiang, Matchar DB, Samsa GP: Incidence and ocurrence of total (first-ever and recurrent) stroke. Stroke 1999;30:2523-2538.
209. Fuster V: Epidemic of cardiovascular disease and stroke: the three main challenges. Presented at the 71st scientific session of the American Heart Association. Dallas, Texas. Circulation 1999;99:1132-1137.
210. Previsiones de cambio en la población. Organización Mundial de la Salud 2002. http://www.who.int/home-page/index.es.shtml.
211. Gil-Núñez AC, Vivancos-Mora J, Gabriel R, Nombela-Merchan; for the Cerebrovascular Diseases Study Group for the Spanish Society of Neurology: Assessment of ischemic stroke diagnostic and secondary prevention practices, in Spain. The DIAPRESIC Study. Cerebrovasc Dis 2004;17(suppl 5):52-53.
212. Furberg CD: Natural statins and stroke risk. Circulation 1999;99:185-188.
213. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators: Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med 2000;342:145-153.
214. Chen J, Zhang ZG, Li Y, Wang Y, Wang L, Jiang H, Zhang C, Lu M, Katakowski M, Feldkamp CS, Chopp M: Statins induce angiogenesis, neurogenesis, and synaptogenesis after stroke. Ann Neurol 2003;53:743-751.
215. Jonsson N, Asplund K: Does pre-treatment with statins improve clinical outcome after stroke? A pilot case-referent study. Stroke 2001;32:1112-1115.
216. Montaner J, Chacón P, Krupinski J, Rubio F, Millán M, Escudero D, et al: Safety and efficacy of statin in the acute phase of ischemic stroke: the MISTICS Trial (abstract). Stroke 2004;35:293.
217. Moonis M, Kane K, Schwiderski U, Sandage BW, Fisher M: HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors improve acute ischemic stroke outcome. Stroke 2005;36:1298-1300.
218. Vivancos, J, Moro MA, Nombela F, Blanco M, Castellanos M, Leirra R, Serena J, Lizasoain I, Antonio Dávalos A, Castillo J: Withdrawal of statins is associated with poor outcome and larger brain injury in patients with acute atherothrombotic ischemic stroke (abstract). Cerebrovasc Dis 2004;17(suppl 5):107.