Features and future of the International System of Units (SI)

Advances in Imaging and Electron Physics

Volumn 138, Issue , 2005, Pages 251-320

  Valdés, Joaquín ^a  

^a UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE SAN MARTÍN   (Argentina)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ELECTRIC CURRENT MEASUREMENT; ELECTRIC RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT; MEASUREMENT THEORY; SOCIETIES AND INSTITUTIONS; THERMODYNAMICS; UNITS OF MEASUREMENT; VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT;

ELECTRICAL UNITS; INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI); LUMINOUS INTENSITY; THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE;

STANDARDS;

EID: 27744553733     PISSN: 10765670     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/S1076-5670(05)38005-0     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. Aczel A.D. Entanglement, the Greatest Mystery in Physics 2003 John Wiley & Sons Baffins Lane, Chichester, West Sussex, England
2. Alder K. The Measure of All Things: The Seven-Year Odyssey and Hidden Error that Transformed the World 2002 The Free Press, a Division of Simon & Schuster Inc. New York, USA
3. 60 molecules Nature 401 1999 680 682
4. Aspect A., Dalibard J., and Roger G. Experimental test of Bell's inequalities using time-varying analyzers Phys. Rev. Lett. 49 25 1982 1804 1807
5. Averin D.V., and Likharev K.K. Single-electronics: Correlated transfer of single electrons and Cooper pairs in small tunnel junctions B. Altschuler P. Lee R. Webb Mesoscopic Phenomena in Solids 1991 Elsevier Amsterdam 173 271
6. Barrett M.D., Chiaverini J., Schaetz T., Britton J., Itano M.W., Jost J.D., Knill E., Langer C., Leibfried D., Ozeri R., and Wineland D.J. Deterministic quantum teleportation of atomic qubits Nature 429 2004 737 739
7. Becker P., Bettin H., Danzebrink H.U., Gläser M., Kuetgens U., Nicolaus A., Schiel D., De Bièvre P., Valkiers S., and Taylor P. Determination of the Avogadro constant via the silicon route Metrologia 40 2003 271 287
8. Beer W., Jeanneret B., Jeckelmann B., Richard P., Courteville A., Salvade Y., and Dandliker R. A proposal for a new moving coil experiment IEEE Trans. Instrum. Measur. 48 2 1999 192 195
9. Born M., and Heisenberg W. La Mécanique des Quanta. Rapports et Discussions de Cinquième Conseil de Physique. Institut International de Physique Solvay 1928 Gauthier-Villars Paris 143 184
10. Braginsky V.B., Vorontsov Y.I., and Thorne K.S. Quantum nondemolition measurements Science 209 1980 547 557
11. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures - BIPM Sèvres The International System of Units (SI) 7th edition 1998
12. Burniston Brown G. A new treatment of the theory of dimensions Proc. Phys. Soc. Lond. 53 1941 418 432
13. Büttiker M. Absence of backscattering in the quantum Hall effect in multiprobe conductors Phys. Rev. B 38 14 1988 9375 9389
14. Caves C.M., Thorne K.S., Drever R.W.P., Sandberg V.D., and Zimmermann M. On the measurement of a weak classical force coupled to a quantum-mechanical oscillator. Part I. Issues of principle Rev. Modern Phys. 52 2; part I 1980 341 392
15. Chuang I.L. Quantum algorithm for distributed clock synchronization Phys. Rev. Lett. 85 9 2000 2006 2009
16. CIPM Recommendation 1: Representation of the volt by means of the Josephson effect Procès Verbaux of the CIPM 56 1988 44
17. Metrologia 26 1988 69
18. Cleland A.N., and Roukes M.L. Fabrication of high frequency nanometer scale mechanical resonators from bulk Si substrates Applied Phys. Lett. 69 1996 2653 2655
19. Committee on Data for Science and Technology 2002 CODATA Recommended Values Available at: The National Institute of Standards and Technology 2002 www.nist.gov web site
20. Cohen E.R. Variability of the physical constants V. De Sabbata V.N. Melnikov Gravitational Measurements, Fundamental Metrology and Constants 1988 Kluwer Academic Publishers Dordrecht, The Netherlands
21. Davis R.S. Mass metrology T. Quinn S. Leschiutta P. Tavella Proceedings of the International School of Physics "Enrico Fermi." Recent Advances in Metrology and Fundamental Constants 2001 Amsterdam, The Netherlands IOS Press 241 261 Course CXLVI
22. + ion Science 293 2001 825 828
23. Dirac P.A.M. The cosmological constants [Letters to the Editor] Nature 139 1937 323
24. Einstein A., Podolsky B., and Rosen N. Can quantum-mechanical description of physical reality be considered complete? Phys. Rev. 47 1935 777 780
25. Ekincl K.L., Yang Y.T., and Roukes M.L. Ultimate limits to inertial mass sensing based upon nanoelectromechanical systems J. Applied Phys. 95 5 2004 2682 2689
26. Ekincl K.L., Huang X., and Roukes M.L. Ultrasensitive nanoelectromechanical mass detection Applied Phys. Lett. 84 22 2004 4469 4471
27. Ferris T.L.J. A new definition of measurement Measurement 36 2004 101 109
28. Finkelstein L. Theory and philosophy of measurement P.H. Sydenham Handbook of Measurement Science Theoretical Fundamentals Vol. 1 1982 John Wiley & Sons Chichester - New York - Brisbane - Toronto - Singapore 30
29. Franson J.D. Bell inequality for position and time Phys. Rev. Lett. 62 19 1989 2205 2208
30. Fujii K., Waseda A., Kuramoto N., Mizushima S., Becker P., Bettin H., Nicolaus A., Kuetgens U., Valkiers S., Taylor P., De Bièvre P., Mana G., Massa E., and Matyi R. Present status of the Avogadro constant determination from silicon crystals with natural isotopic composition Extended abstract Tu3b1, Gareth Jones Proceedings of the 2004 Conference on Precision Electromagnetic Measurements 2004 144 145 http://www.cpem2004.npl.co.uk Available online at the National Physical Laboratory website:
31. Gao Y., and Bando Y. Carbon nanothermometer containing gallium Nature 415 2002 599
32. García N., Baró A.M., Miranda R., Rohrer H., Gerber Ch., García Cantú R., and Peña J.L. Surface Roughness Standards, Obtained with the Scanning Tunneling, Microscope Operated at Atmospheric Air Pressure Metrologia 21 1985 135 138
33. Geerligs L.J., Anderegg V.H., Holweg P.A.M., Mooij J.E., Pothier H., Esteve D., Urbina C., and Devoret M.H. Frequency-locked turnstile device for single electrons Phys. Rev. Lett. 64 1990 2691 2692
34. German S., and Drath P. Handbuch SI-Einheiten Friedr 1979 Vieweg & Sohn Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 9 10
35. Gillespie A.D., Fujii K., Newell D.V., Olsen P.T., Picard A., Steiner R.L., Stenbakken G.N., and Williams E.R. Alignment uncertainties of the NIST watt experiment IEEE Trans. Instrument Measure 46 2 1997 605 608
36. Gimzewski J.K., and Möller R. Transition from the tunneling regime to point contact studied using scanning tunneling microscopy Phys. Rev. B 36 1987 1284 1287
37. Gläser M. Tracing the atomic mass unit to the kilogram by ion accumulation Metrologia 40 2003 376 386
38. Gordon P. Numerical cognition without words: Evidence from Amazonia Science 306 2004 496 499
39. Guinea F., and García N. Scanning tunnelling microscopy, resonant tunnelling, and counting electrons: A quantum standard of current Phys. Rev. Lett. 65 3 1990 281 284
40. Heisenberg W. Ueber den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen kinematih und mechanik Z. F. Phys. 43 1927 172 198
41. Hess K., and Iafrate G.J. Approaching the quantum limit IEEE Spectrum July 1992 44
42. Husain A., Hone J., Postma H.W.Ch., Huang X.M.H., Drake T., Barbic M., Scherer A., and Roukes M.L. Nanowire-based very high frequency electromechanical resonator Appl. Phys. Lett. 83 6 2003 1240 1242
43. International Organization for Standardization, Bureau International des Poids et Measures, International Electrotechnical Commission, International Federation of Clinical Chemistry, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, International Union of Pure and Applied Physics, Organization International de Métrologie Légale International Vocabulary of Basic and General Terms in Metrology Second edition 1993 International Organization for Standardization, printed in Switzerland. CP56, CH-1211 Gènève.
44. Janssen T.J.B.M., and Hartland A. Accuracy of quantized single-electron current in a one dimensional channel Phys. B 284-288 2000 1790 1791
45. Jarvis D. Sound measurements Metrologia 36 1999 249 256
46. Jefferts S.R., Meekhof D.M., Shirley J.H., Stepanovic M., and Parker T.E.. Accuracy results from NIST-F1 laser cooled cesium primary frequency standard 2000 IEEE/EIA International Frequency Control Symposium and Exhibition 2000 714 717 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org Available online as IEEE Publication:
47. Jeffery A., Elmquist R.E., Shields J.Q., Lee L.H., Cage M.E., Shields S.H., and Dziuba R.F. Determination of the von Klitzing constant and the fine-structure constant through a comparison of the quantized Hall resistance and the ohm derived from the NIST calculable capacitor Metrologia 35 1998 83 94
48. Johnstone Stoney G. On the physical units of nature Philos. Mag. 11 1881 381 391
49. Josza R., Abrams D.S., Dowling J.P., and Williams C.P. Quantum clock synchronization based on shared prior entanglement Phys. Rev. Lett. 85 9 2000 2010 2013
50. Kauppinen J.P., Loberg K.T., Manninen A.J., and Pekola J.P. Coulomb blockade thermometer: Tests and instrumentation Rev. Sci. Instr. 69 12 1998 4166 4175
51. Keller M.W., Eichenberger A.L., Martinis J.M., and Zimmerman N.M. A capacitance standard based on counting electrons Science 285 1999 1706 1709
52. Keller M.W. Standards of current and capacitance based on single-electron tunneling devices Course CXLVI, T. Quinn S. Leschiutta P. Tavella Proceedings of the International School of Physics "Enrico Fermi." Recent Advances in Metrology and Fundamental Constants 2001 291 316 Amsterdam, The Netherlands
53. Kibble B.P., and Robinson I. "Feasibility Study for Moving Coil Apparatus to Relate the Electrical and Mechanical SI Inits." 1977 NPL Report DES No. 40.
54. Kind D., and Quinn T. Metrology: Quo vadis? IEEE Trans. Instrumen. Measure 44 2 1995 85 89
55. Kind D., and Quinn T. Metrology: Quo vadis? Physics Today Aug 1999 13 15
56. Kind D., and Lübbig H. Metrology, the present meaning of a historical term Metrologia 40 2003 255 257
57. Knobel R.G., and Cleland A.N. Nanometre-scale displacement sensing using a single electron transistor Nature 424 2003 291 293
58. Kochsiek M., and Gläser M. Comprehensive Mass Metrology 2000 Wiley-VCH Verlag Berlin
59. Kose V., Siebert B.R.L., and Wöger W. General principles for the definition of the base units in the SI Metrologia 40 2003 146 153
60. Kose V., and Melchert F. Quantenmasse in der Elektrischen Messtechnik: Josephson-Effekt, Quanten-Hall-Effekt, Fundamentalkonstanten, Masse der Klassischen Physik 1991 VCH Verlagsgesellschaft Weinheim, Federal Republic of Germany
61. Kula W. Las Medidas y los Hombres 1970 First edition in Spanish 1980, third edition 1998, edited by siglo veintiuno de españa editores s.a., Madrid, Spain, ISBN 968-23-0983-2.
62. Leach R., Haycocks J., Jackson K., Lewis A., Oldfield S., and Yacoot A. Advances in traceable nanometrology at the National Physical Laboratory Nanotechnology 12 2001 R1 R4
63. Lévy-Leblond J.M. The importance of being (a) constant G. Toraldo di Francia Proceedings of the International School of Physics Enrico Fermi: Problems in the Foundations of Physics, Course LXXII, Varenna July 25-Aug. 6th, 1977 Vol. 19 1979 North-Holland Publishing Co. 237 263
64. Li C.Z., Bogozi A., Huang W., and Tao N.J. Fabrication of stable metallic nanowires with quantized conductance Nanotechnology 10 1999 221 223
65. Likharev K.K., and Zorin A.B. Theory of the Bloch-Wave Oscillations in Small Josephson Junctions J. Low Temp. Phys. 59 1985 347 382
66. Likharev K.K. Single-electron devices and their applications Proc. IEEE 87 4 1999 606 632
67. Locke C.R., Tobar M.E., and Ivanov E.N. Progress towards measuring the standard quantum limit using a monolithic sapphire transducer IEEE catalog number: 00CH37031, ISBN 0-7803-5744-2, John Hunter Leigh Johnson Proceedings of the 2000 Conference on Precision Electromagnetic Measurements 2000 194 195 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org Available online as IEEE Publication:
68. Locke C.R., Munro S., Tobar M.E., Ivanov E.N., and Santarelli G. Constructing the next generation cryogenic sapphire oscillator (ISSN: 1075-6787 ISBN: 0-7803-7688-9), Proceedings of the 2003 IEEE International Frequency Control Symposium jointly with the 17th European Frequency and Time Forum 2003 350 354 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org Available online as IEEE publication:
69. Mamin H., and Rugar D. Sub-attonewton force detection at millikelvin temperature Applied Phys. Lett. 79 2001 3358 3360
70. Mills I.M. Unity as a unit Metrologia 31 1994/95 537 541
71. Mills I.M., Taylor B.N., and Thor A.J. Definition of the units radian, neper, bel and decibel Metrologia 38 2001 353 361
72. Mohanty P., Harrington D., and Roukes M.L. Measurement of small forces in micron-sized resonators Phys. B 284-288 2000 2143 2144
73. Nairz O. "Experimente zur Quanteninterferenz von Fullerenen" [Doctoral Thesis] 2001 University of Wien Directed by A. Zeilinger and presented at the
74. Nairz O., Arndt M., and Zeilinger A. Experimental verification of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle for hot fullerene molecules Phys. Rev. A 65 2002 032109-1-032109-4.
75. Niskanen A.O., Kivioja J., Pekola J.P., and Seppä H. Cooper pair sluice: A fast and accurate single island charge pump Extended abstract W1b3, Gareth Jones Proceedings of the 2004 Conference on Precision Electromagnetic Measurements 2004 http://www.cpem.2004.npl.co.uk Available online at the National Physical Laboratory website:
76. Petley B.W. Electrical units - The last thirty years Metrologia 32 1994/95 495 502
77. Petley B.W. The mole and the unified atomic mass unit Metrologia 33 1996 261 264
78. Peuto A.M., and Pettorruso S. Density measurements for the Avogadro constant: Discrepancy and systematic effects Extended abstract W4c62, Proceedings of the 2004 Conference on Precision Electromagnetic Measurements 2004 449 450 http://www.cpem.2004.npl.co.uk Available online at the National Physical Laboratory website:
79. Picard A. The BIPM flexure-strip balance FB-2 Metrologia 41 2004 319 329
80. Quinn T.J., Speake C.C., and Davis R.S. A 1 kg mass standard comparator using flexure-strip suspensions: preliminary results Metrologia 23 1987 87 100
81. Quinn T.J. Practical realization of the definition of the metre Metrologia 36 1991 211 244
82. Quinn T.J. Fundamental constants: Measuring big G Nature 408 2000 919 921
83. Quinn T.J., Speake C.C., Richman S.J., Davis R.S., and Picard A. A new determination of G using two methods Physical Review Letters 87 11 2001 111101-1-111101-4
84. Rarity J.G., and Tapster P.R. Experimental violation of Bell's inequality based on phase and momentum Phys. Rev. Lett. 64 21 1990 2495 2498
85. Reymann D., Witt T.J., Eklund G., Pajander H., Nilsson H., Behr R., Funck T., and Müller F. A three way, on site comparison of the 10 V Josephson voltage standards of the PTB, the SP, and the BIPM IEEE Trans. Instrument Measure 48 2 1999 257 261
86. Riebe M., Häffner H., Roos C.F., Hänsel W., Benhelm J., Lancaster G.P.T., Körber T.W., Becher C., Schmidt-Kaler F., James D.F.V., and Blatt R. Deterministic quantum teleportation with atoms Nature 429 2004 734 737
87. Robinson I., and Kibble B.P. The NPL moving-coil apparatus for measuring Planck's constant and monitoring the kilogram IEEE Trans. Instrument Measure 46 2 1997 596 600
88. Roukes M.L. Nanoelectromechanical systems face the future Phys. World Feb. 2001 2001 25
89. Schmidt D.R., Yung C.S., and Cleland A.N. Nanoscale radio-frequency thermometry Applied Phys. Lett. 83 5 2003 1002 1004
90. Schrader H.J. Die Basiseinheiten der Elektrodynamik - Möglichkeiten einer Neudefinition und ihre Konsequenzen PTB Mitteilungen 85 1/75 1975 29 32
91. Sergienko A.V. Quantum metrology with entangled photons T. Quinn S. Leschiutta P. Tavella Proceedings of the International School of Physics "Enrico Fermi." Recent Advances in Metrology and Fundamental Constants. Course CXLVI 2001 IOS Press Amsterdam, The Netherlands 715 746
92. Small G.W., Ricketts B.W., Coogan P.C., Pritchard B.J., and Sovierzoski M.M.R. A new determination of the quantized Hall resistance in terms of the NML calculable cross capacitor Metrologia 34 1997 241 243
93. Smith D.P.E. Quantum point contact switches Science 269 1995 371 373
94. Sommerfeld A. Über die Dimensionen der elektromagnetischen Grössen Annal. Phys. 5 1939 335 339 Folge, Band 36
95. Stein J.Y. Digital Signal Processing: A Computer Science Perspective 2000 John Wiley & Sons 117 121
96. Steiner R.L., Gillespie A.D., Fujii K., Williams E.R., Newell D.B., Picard A., Stenbakken G.N., and Olsen P.T. The NIST watt balance: Progress toward monitoring the kilogram IEEE Trans. Instrument Measure 46 2 1997 601 604
97. Tapster P.R., Rarity J.G., and Owens P.C.M. Violation of Bell's inequalities over 4 km of optical fiber Phys. Rev. Lett. 73 14 1994 1923 1926
98. Taylor B.N. The possible role of the fundamental constants in replacing the kilogram IEEE Trans. Instrument Measure 40 2 1991 86 91
99. Taylor B.N., and Mohr P.J. The role of fundamental constants in the International System of Units (SI): Present and future IEEE Trans. Instrument Measure 50 2 2001 563 567
100. Thompson A.M., and Lampard D.G. Nature 177 1956 888
101. Thorne, Drever R.W.P., Caves C.M., Zimmermann M., and Sandberg V.D. Quantum nondemolition measurements of harmonic oscillators Phys. Rev. Lett. 40 11 1978 667 671
102. Thorne K.S., Caves C.M., Sandberg V.D., and Zimmermann M. The quantum limit for gravitational-wave detectors and methods of circumventing it L. Smarr Sources of Gravitational Radiation 1979 Cambridge University Press Cambridge 49 68
103. Tittel W., Brendel B., Gisin B., Herzog T., Zbinden H., and Gisin N. Experimental demonstration of quantum correlations over more than 10 km Phys. Rev. A 57 5 1998 3229 3232
104. K in terms of the BNM calculable capacitor - Fifteen years of investigations Metrologia 40 2003 159 171
105. Valdés J. Probleme bei der Numerischen Spektralanalyse Niederfrequenter Rauschsignale [Doctoral Thesis] 1984 University of Braunschweig, Faculty for Electrotechnical Engineering
106. Valdés J., Löbbe E.E., and Porfiri M.E. Spectrum analysis of surface roughness signals obtained with the scanning tunneling microscope Surface Sci. 181 1987 262 266
107. Valdés J., and Choleva E. Possible evidences of single electron tunneling with the scanning tunneling microscope at room temperature J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A8 1 1990 598 602
108. Valdés J., Porfiri M.E., Löbbe E.E., Kornblit F., Passarino M.N., and Leiblich J.A. Long term fluctuations associated with different standards IEEE Trans. Instrument Measure 42 2 1993 269 272
109. Valdés J. The unit one, the neper, the bel and the future of the SI Metrologia 39 2002 543 850
110. Van Bees B.J., van Houton H., Kouwenhoven L.P., van der Marel D., and Foxon C.T. Quantized conductance of point contacts in a two-dimensional electron gas Phys. Rev. Lett. 60 9 1988 848 850
111. Van Dyck R.S. Jr., Schwinberg P.B., and Dehmelt H.G. New high-precision comparison of electron and positron g factors Phys. Rev. Lett. 59 1 1987 26 29
112. Von Helmholtz H. Zählen und Messen erkenntnis-theoretisch betrachtet Translation by, C.L. Bryan Philosophische Aufsätze, Eduard Zeller gewidmet, Leipzig Counting and Measuring 1887 van Nostrand Princeton, NJ 14 52 1930.
113. Von Klitzing K., Dorda G., and Pepper M. New method for high-accuracy determination of the fine structure constant based on quantised Hall resistance Phys. Rev. Lett. 45 1980 494 497
114. Wharam D.A., Thornton T.J., Newbury R., Pepper M., Ahmed H., Frost J.E.F., Peacock D.C., Ritchie D.A., and Jones G.A.C. One-dimensional transport and the quantisation of the ballistic resistance J. Phys. C Solid State Phys. 21 1988 L209 L214
115. th European Frequency and Time Forum 2003 68 71 Available online as IEEE publication.
116. Witt T.J., and Reymann D. Using power spectra and Allan variance to characterize the noise of Zener-diode voltage standards IEEE Proc. Sci. Measure. Technol. 147 4 2000 177 182
117. Wolf P., Bize S., Clairon A., Luiten A.N., Santarelli G., and Tobar M.E. Tests of Lorentz invariance using a microwave resonator Phys. Rev. Lett. 90 6 2003 060402-1-060402-4
118. Xie F.Q., Nittler L., Obermair Ch., and Schimmel Th. Gate-controlled atomic quantum switch Phys. Rev. Lett. 93 12 2004 128303-1-128303-4
119. Zbinden H., Brenden J., Gisin N., and Tittel W. Experimental test of nonlocal quantum correlation in relativistic configurations Phys. Rev. A 63 2001 022111-1-022111-10
120. Zorin A.B., Lotkhov S.V., Zangerle H., and Niemeyer J. Coulomb blockade and cotunneling in single electron circuits with on-chip resistors: Towards the implementation of the R pump J. Applied Phys. 88 5 2000 2665 2670