Is alcohol consumption a risk factor for weight gain and obesity?

Critical Reviews in Clinical Laboratory Sciences

Volumn 42, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 197-227

  Suter, Paolo M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL ZURICH   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

Alcohol; Calories; Energy metabolism; Ethanol; Obesity; Weight gain

Indexed keywords

ACETALDEHYDE; ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE; ALANINE AMINOTRANSFERASE; ALCOHOL DEHYDROGENASE; CATALASE; FAT; GAMMA GLUTAMYLTRANSFERASE; HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; LIVER ENZYME; NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE; ALCOHOL;

ABDOMEN; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ALCOHOL METABOLISM; ALCOHOL OXIDATION; ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGE; APPETITE; BODY WEIGHT; CALORIC INTAKE; CALORIE; CARBOHYDRATE INTAKE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CUSHINGOID SYNDROME; DISORDERS OF MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTIONS; DRINKING BEHAVIOR; ENERGY BALANCE; ENERGY EXPENDITURE; ENERGY RESOURCE; FATTY LIVER; FOOD INTAKE; GENETIC VARIABILITY; HEART INFARCTION; HEREDITY; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; LIPID DIET; LIPID OXIDATION; LIVER TOXICITY; MALNUTRITION; META ANALYSIS; MICROSOME; OBESITY; OXIDATION; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; THERMOGENESIS; WEIGHT GAIN; ANIMAL; CHEMICALLY INDUCED DISORDER; DRUG EFFECT; ENERGY METABOLISM; METABOLISM; METHODOLOGY; ORAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION; RISK ASSESSMENT;

ADMINISTRATION, ORAL; ALCOHOL DRINKING; ANIMALS; CLINICAL TRIALS; ENERGY METABOLISM; ETHANOL; HUMANS; OBESITY; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS; WEIGHT GAIN;

EID: 26944496134     PISSN: 10408363     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10408360590913542     Document Type: Review

References (196)

1. Haffner SM, Fong D, Hazuda HP, Pugh JA, Patterson JK. Hyperinsulinemia, upper body adiposity, and cardiovascular risk factors in non-diabetics. Metabolism 1988; 37: 338-345.
2. Wilson PW. Established risk factors and coronary artery disease: The Framingham Study. Am J Hypertens 1994; 7: 7S-12S.
3. Laakso M, Lehto S. Epidemiology of risk factors for cardiovascular disease in diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance. Atherosclerosis 1998; 137(Suppl): S65-S73.
4. Wajchenberg BL. Subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue: their relation to the metabolic syndrome. Endocrime Reviews 2000; 21: 697-738.
5. Aronne LJ. Classification of obesity and assessment of obesity-related health risks. Obes Res 2002; 10: 105S-115S.
6. Poirier P, Despres JP. Waist circumference, visceral obesity, and cardiovascular risk. J Cardiopulm Rehabil 2003; 23: 161-169.
7. Rimm EB, Williams P, Fosher K, Criqui M, Stampfer MJ. Moderate alcohol intake and lower risk of coronary artery disease: meta-analysis of effects on lipids and haemostatic factors. BMJ 1999; 319: 1523-1528.
8. Bjerre P. Ueber den Nährwerth des Alkohols. Skand Arch Physiol 1899; 9: 323-355.
9. Clopatt A. Ueber die Einwirkung des Alkohols auf den Stoffwechsel des Menschen. Scand Arch Physiol 1901; 11: 354-371.
10. Atwater WD, Benedict FG. An experimental inquiry regarding the nutritive value of alcohol. Mem Natl Acad Sci 1902; 8: 235-272.
11. Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Flegal KM. Epidemiologic trends in overweight and obesity. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2003; 32: 741-760.
12. Lieber CS. Metabolism of ethanol. Lieber CS, ed. Medical and nutritional complications of alcoholism. 1-35. New York: Plenum Publishing Corporation, 1992.
13. Lieber CS, DeCarli LM. Hepatic microsomal ethanol-oxidizing system: in vitro characteristics and adaptive properties in vivo. J Biol Chem 1970; 245: 2505-2512.
14. Lieber CS. Microsomal ethanol-oxidizing system (MEOS): the first 30 years (1968-1998)-a review. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1999; 23: 991-1007.
15. Lieber CS. Medical and nutritional complications of alcoholism, 1-579. New York: Plenum Publishing Corporation, 1992.
16. Flatt JP, Ravussin E, Acheson KJ, Jéquier E. Effects of dietary fat on postprandial substrate oxidation and on carbohydrate and fat balances. J Clin Invest 1985; 76: 1019-1024.
17. Flatt JP. The impact of dietary fat and carbohydrates on body weight maintenance. Altschul AM, Ed. Low-calorie foods handbook 441-477. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc., 1993.
18. Jequier E, Tappy L. Regulation of body weight in humans. Physiol Rev 1999; 79: 451-480.
19. Acheson KJ, Flatt JP, Jequier E. Glycogen synthesis versus lipogenesis after a 500 gram carbohydrate meal in man. Metabolism 1982; 31: 1234-1240.
20. Flatt JP, Ravussin E, Acheson KJ, Jequier E. Effects of dietary fat on postprandial substrate oxidation and on carbohydrate and fat balances. J Clin Invest 1985; 76: 1019-1024.
21. Bray GA, Bouchard C, James WPT, Handbook of obesity, 1-1012 New York: Marcel Dekker Inc., 1998.
22. Lieber CS. The influence of alcohol on nutritional status. Nutr Rev 1988; 46: 241-254.
23. Hirschberg AL. Hormonal regulation of appetite and food intake. Ann Med 1998; 30: 7-20.
24. Schwartz MW, Baskin DG, Kaiyala KJ, Woods SC. Model for the regulation of energy balance and adiposity by the central nervous system. Am J Clin Nutr 1999; 69: 584-596.
25. Vettor R, Fabris R, Pagano C, Federspil G. Neuroendocrine regulation of eating behavior. J Endocrinol Invest 2002; 25: 836-854.
26. Tremblay A, Wouters E, Wenker M, St.-Pierre S, Bouchard C, Després JP. Alcohol and high-fat diet: a combination favoring overfeeding. Am J Clin Nutr 1995; 62: 639-644.
27. Tremblay A, St. Pierre S. The hyperphagic effect of a high-fat diet and alcohol intake persists after control for energy density. Am J Clin Nutr 1996; 63: 479-482.
28. Windham CT, Wyse BW, Hansen RG. Alcohol consumption and nutrient density of diets in the Nationwide Food Consumption Survey. J Am Diet Assoc 1983; 82: 364-373.
29. Rose D, Murphy SP, Hudes M, Viteri FE. Food energy remains constant with increasing alcohol intake. J Am Diet Assoc 1995; 95: 698-700.
30. Hillers VN, Massey LK. Interrelationship of moderate high alcohol consumption with diet and health status. Am J Clin Nutr 1985; 41: 356-362.
31. Rissanen A, Sarlio-Lahteenkorva S, Alfthan G, Gref CG, Keso L, Salaspuro M. Employed problem drinkers: a nutritional risk group? Am J Clin Nutr 1987; 45: 456-461.
32. Gruchow HW, Sobocinski KA, Barboriak JJ, Scheller JG. Alcohol consumption, nutrient intake and relative body weight among US adults. Am J Clin Nutr 1985; 42: 289-295.
33. Yki-Järvinen H, Koivisto VA, Ylikahri R, Taskinen MR. Acute effects of ethanol and acetate on glucose kinetics in normal subjects. Am J Physiol 1988; 254: E175-E180.
34. Siler SQ, Neese RA, Chrstiansen MP, Hellerstein MK. The inhibition of gluconeogenesis following alcohol in humans. Am JP hysiol 1998; 275: E897-E907.
35. DeCastro JM, Orozco S. Moderate alcohol intake and spontaneous eating patterns of humans: evidence of unregulated supplementation. Am J Clin Nutr 1990; 52: 246-253.
36. Forsander OA. Hypothesis: factors involved in the mechanisms regulating food intake affect alcohol consumption. Alcohol Alcohol 1994; 29: 503-512.
37. Poppitt SD, McCormack D, Buffenstein R. Short-term effects of macronutrient preloads on appetite and energy intake in lean women. Physiol Behav 1998; 64: 279-285.
38. Suter PM, Maire R, Vetter W. Alcohol consumption: a risk factor for abdominal fat accumulation in men. Addict Biol 1997; 2: 101-103.
39. Fisher M, Gordon T. The relation of drinking and smoking habits to diet: The Lipid Research Clinics Prevalence Study. Am J Clin Nutr 1985; 41: 623-630.
40. Westerterp-Plantenga MS, Verwegen CRT. The appetizing effect of an apéritif in overweight and normal-weight humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1999; 69: 205-212.
41. Appleby PN, Thorogood M, Mann JI, Key TJ. Low body mass index in non-meat eaters: the possible roles of animal fat, dietary fibre and alcohol. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1998; 22: 454-460.
42. Lands WEM, Zakhari S. The case of the missing calories. Am J Clin Nutr 1991; 54: 47-48.
43. Pirola RC, Lieber CS. The energy cost of the metabolism of drugs, including ethanol. Pharmacology 1972; 7: 185-196.
44. Pirola RC, Lieber CS. Energy wastage in rats given drugs that induce microsomal enzymes. J Nutr 1975; 105: 1544-1548.
45. Pirola RC, Lieber CS. Hypothesis: energy wastage in alcoholism and drug abuse: possible role of hepatic microsomal enzymes. Am J Clin Nutr 1976; 29: 90-93.
46. Lieber C. Perspectives: do alcohol calories count? Am J Clin Nutr 1991; 54: 976-982.
47. Israel Y, Kalant H, Orrego H, Khanna JM, Phillips MJ, Stewart DJ. Hypermetabolic state, oxygen availability, and alcohol-induced liver damage. Majchrowicz E, Noble EP, Eds. Biochemistry and Pharmacology of Ethanol-vol. 1. 433-444. New York: Plenum Press, 1979.
48. Cronholm T, Jones AW, Skagerberg S. Mechanism and regulation of ethanol elimination in humans: intermolecular hydrogen transfer and oxidoreduction in vivo. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1988; 12: 683-686.
49. Cronholm T. Ethanol-acetaldehyde exchange in vivo and in isolated hepatocytes. Alcohol Alcohol 1987; (Suppl. 1): 265-269.
50. Levine JA, Harris MM, Morgan MY. Energy expenditure in chronic alcohol abuse. Eur J Clin Invest 2000; 30: 779-786.
51. Lucas D, Menez C, Girre C, Bodenez P, Hispard E, Menez JF. Decrease in cytochrome P4502E1 as assessed by the rate of chlorzoxazone hydroxylation in alcoholics during the withdrawal phase. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1995; 19: 362-366.
52. Mishin VM, Rosman AS, Basu P, Kessova I, Oneta CM, Lieber CS. Chlorzoxazone pharmacokinetics as a marker of hepatic cytochrome P4502E1 in humans. Am J Gastroenterol 1998; 93: 2154-2161.
53. Suter PM. The paradox of the alcohol paradox-another step towards the resolution of the "alcohol energy wastage" controversy. Eur J Clin Invest 2000; 30: 749-750.
54. Oneta CM, Lieber CS, Li J, Ruttimann S, Schmid B, Lattmann J, Rosman AS, Seitz HK. Dynamics of cytochrome P4502E1 activity in man: induction by ethanol and disappearance during withdrawal phase. J Hepatol 2002; 36: 47-52.
55. Hines LM, Stampfer MJ, Ma J, Gaziano M, Ridker PM, Hankinson SE, Sacks F, Rimm EB. Genetic Variation in alcohol dehydrogenase and the beneficial effect of moderate alcohol consumption on myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 549-555.
56. Addolorato G, Capristo E, Marini M, Santini P, Scognamiglio U, Attilia M, L, Messineo D, Sasso GF, Gasbarrini G, Ceccanti M. Body composition changes induced by chronic ethanol abuse: evaluation by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. Am J Gastroenterol 2000; 95: 2323-2327.
57. Addolorato G, Capristo E, Greco AV, Caputo F, Stefanini GF, Gasbarrini G. Three months of abstinence from alcohol normalizes energy expenditure and substrate oxidation in alcoholics: a longitudinal study. Am J Gastroenterol 1998; 93: 2476-2481.
58. Niemela O, Parkkila S, Juvonen RO, Viitala K, Gelboin HV, Pasanen M. Cytochromes P450 2A6, 2E1, and 3A and production of protein-aldehyde adducts in the liver of patients with alcoholic and non-alcoholic liver diseases. J Hepatol 2000; 33: 893-901.
59. Falck-Ytter Y, McCullough AJ. The effect of alcohol on body composition. Am J Gastroenterol 2000; 95: 2156-2159.
60. Muralidhara DV, Desautels M. Effects of ethanol consumption on brown adipose tissue thermogenic capacity in mice. Physiol Behav 1996; 60: 639-644.
61. Suter PM, Jéquier E, Schutz Y. Thermogenic effect of ethanol. FASEB J 1993; 7: A725.
62. Suter PM, Schutz Y, Jéquier E. The effect of ethanol on fat storage in healthy subjects. N Engl J Med 1992; 326: 983-987.
63. Murgatroyd PR, Van-de-Ven ML, Goldberg GR, Prentice AM. Alcohol and the regulation of energy balance: overnight effects on diet-induced thermogenesis and fuel storage. Br J Nutr 1996; 75: 33-45.
64. Perman ES. Increase in oxygen uptake after small ethanol doses in man. Acta Physiol Scand 1962; 55: 207-209.
65. Barnes EW, Cooke NJ, King A, Passmore AJ. Observations on the metabolism of alcohol in man. Br J Nutr 1965; 19: 485-489.
66. Reinus JF, Heymsfield SB, Wiskind R, Casper K, Galambos JT. Ethanol: relative fuel value and metabolic effects in vivo. Metabolism 1989; 38: 125-135.
67. Suter PM, Jéquier E, Schutz Y The effect of ethanol on energy expenditure. Am J Physiol 1994; 266: R1204-R1212.
68. Perkins KA, Sexton JE, DiMarco A. Acute thermic effects of nicotine and alcohol in healthy male and female smokers. Physiol Behav 1996; 60: 305-309.
69. Seitz HK, Egerer G, Simanowski UA, Waldherr R, Eckey R, Agarwal DP, Goedde HW, von-Wartburg JP. Human gastric alcohol dehydrogenase activity: effect of age, gender and alcoholism. Gut 1993; 34: 1433-1436.
70. Seitz HK, Osswald BR. Alkohol und Alter. Seitz HK, Lieber CS, Simanowski U, Eds. Handbuch Alkohol, Alhoholismus, alkoholbedingte Organschäden, 121-134. Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth Verlagesgesellschat, 1995.
71. Suter PM, Schuppisser T, Vetter W. Effect of aging on the thermogenesis of ethanol. FASEB J 1996; 10:A504.
72. Maher JJ. Alcoholic liver disease. Feldman M, Scharschmidt BF, Sleisenger MH, Eds. Sleisenger & Fordtran's gastrointestinal and liver diseases, 2. 1199-1214. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1998.
73. Seitz HK, Suter PM. Ethanol toxicity and the nutritional status. Kotsonis FN, Mackey M, Hjelle J, Eds. Nutritional toxicology, 95-116. New York: Raven Press, 1994.
74. Muller MJ, Bottcher J, Selberg O, Weselmann S, Boker KH, Schwarze M, von-zur-Muhlen A, Manns MP. Hypermetabolism in clinically stable patients with liver cirrhosis. Am J Clin Nutr 1999; 69:1194-1201.
75. Yamanaka H, Genjida K, Yokota K, Taketani Y, Morita K, Miyamoto KI, Miyake H, Tashiro S, Takeda E. Daily pattern of energy metabolism in cirrhosis. Nutrition 1999; 15: 749-754.
76. Akanji AO, Bruce MA, Frayn KN. Effect of acetate infusion on energy expenditure and substrate oxidation rates in non-diabetic and diabetic subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr 1989; 43: 107-115.
77. Chioléro R, Mavrocordatos P, Burnier P, Cayeux MC, Schindler C, Jéquier E, Tappy L. Effects of infused sodium acetate, sodium lactate, and sodium β-hydroxybutyrate on energy expenditure and substrate oxidation rates in lean humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1993; 58: 608-613.
78. Hellerstein MK, Schwarz JM, Neese RA. Regulation of hepatic de novo lipogenesis in humans. Annu Rev Nutr 1996; 16: 523-557.
79. Siler SQ, Neese RA, Hellerstein MK. De novo lipogenesis, lipid kinetics, and whole-body lipid balances in humans after acute alcohol consumption. Am J Clin Nutr 1999; 70: 928-936.
80. Mokdad AH, Ford ES, Bowman BA, Dietz WH, Vinicor F, Bales VS, Marks JS. Prevalence of obesity, diabetes, and obesity-related health risk factors, 2001. JAMA 2003; 289: 76-79.
81. Statistical Tables, Charts, and Graphs, CDC-NCHS (Table: Overweight). http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/datawh/statab/pubd.htm 2000.
82. Bebb HT, Houser HB, Witschi JC, Littell AS, Fuller RK. Calorie and nutrient contribution of alcoholic beverages to the usual diets of 155 adults. Am J Clin Nutr 1971; 24: 1042-1052.
83. Block G, Dresser CM, Hartman AM, Carroll MD. Nutrient sources in the American diet: Quantitative data from the NHANES II survey. Am J Epidemiol 1985; 122: 27-40.
84. Cade JE, Margetts BM. Nutrient sources in the English diet: quantitative data from three English towns. Int J Epidemiol 1988; 17: 844-848.
85. Liu S, Serdula MK, Williamson DF, Mokad AH, Byers T. A prospective study of alcohol intake and change in body weight among US Adults. Am J Epidemiol 1994; 140: 912-920.
86. Gordon T, Kannel WB. Drinking and its relation to smoking, blood pressure, blood lipids and uric acid. The Framingham Study. Arch Intern Med 1983; 143: 1366-1374.
87. Gordon T, Doyle JT. Alcohol consumption and its relationship to smoking, weight, blood pressure, and blood lipids. The Albany Study. Arch Intern Med 1986; 146: 262-265.
88. Couzigou P, Begleiter H, Kiianmaa K. Alcohol and genetics. Macdonald I, Ed. Health issues related to alcohol consumption, 64-102. Washington DC: ILSI, 1999.
89. Li TK. Pharmacogenetics of responses to alcohol and genes that influence alcohol drinking. J Stud Alcohol 2000; 61: 5-12.
90. White IR. The level of alcohol consumption at which all-cause mortality is least. J Clin Epidemiol 1999; 52: 967-975.
91. Klatsky AL, Friedman GD, Siegelaub AB, Gérard MJ. Alcohol consumption and blood pressure: Kaiser-Permanente multiphasic health examination data. N Engl J Med 1977; 296: 1194-1200.
92. Meyer R, Suter PM, Vetter W. Alcohol-a risk factor for overweight? Schweiz Rundsch Med Prax 1999; 88: 1555-1561.
93. Colditz GA, Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Rosner B, Speizer FE, Gordis E, Willett WC. Alcohol intake in relation to diet and obesity in women and in men. Am J Clin Nutr 1991; 54: 49-55.
94. Gutiérrez-Fisac JL, Rodriguez-Artaleja F, Rodriguez-Blas C, del-Rey-Calero J. Alcohol consumption and obesity in the adult population of Spain. J Epidemiol Community Health 1995; 49: 108-109.
95. Rissanen AM, Heliövaara M, Knekt P, Reunanen A, Aromaa A. Determinants of weight gain and overweight in adult Finns. Eur J Clin Nutr 1991; 45: 419-430.
96. Kromhout D, Saris WHM, Horst CH. Energy intake, energy expenditure and smoking in relation to body fatness: the Zutphen Study. Am J Clin Nutr 1988; 49: 320-325.
97. Sarlio-Lahteenkorva S, Rissannen A, Kaprio J. A descriptive study of weight loss maintenance: 6 and 15 year follow-up of initially overweight adults. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000; 24: 116-125.
98. Marques-Vidal P, Arveiler D, Evans A, Montaye M, Bingham A, Ruidavets JB, McMaster D, Haas B, Amouyel P, Ducimetiere P. Patterns of alcohol consumption in middle aged men from France and Northern Ireland. The PRIME study. Eur J Clin Nutr 2000; 54: 321-328.
99. Shankar S, Nanda JP, Bonney G, Kofie V. Obesity differences between African-American men and women. J Natl Med Assoc 2000; 92: 22-28.
100. Cahalan D. Quantifying alcohol consumpion: patterns and problems. Circulation 1981; 64 (Suppl III): III7-III14.
101. Block G. A review of validations of dietary assessment methods. Am J Epidemiol 1982; 115: 492-505.
102. Santolaria-Fernandez FJ, Gomez-Sirvent JL, Gonzalez-Reimers CE, Batista-Lopez JN, Jorge-Hernandez JA, Rodriguez-Moreno F, Martinez-Riera A, Hernandez-Garcia MT. Nutritional assessment of drug addicts. Drug Alcohol Depend 1995; 38: 11-18.
103. Klag MJ, Moore RD, Whelton PK, Sakai Y, Comstock GW. Alcohol consumption and blood pressure: a comparison of native Japanese to American men. J Clin Epidemiol 1990; 43: 1407-1414.
104. Männistö S, Pietinen P, Haukka J, Ovaskainen ML, Albanes D, Virtamo J. Reported alcohol intake, diet and body mass index in male smokers. Eur J Clin Nutr 1996; 50: 239-245.
105. Ikai E, Honda R, Yamada Y. Serum gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase level and blood pressure in nondrinkers: a possible pathogenetic role of fatty liver in obesity-related hypertension. J Hum Hypertens 1994; 8: 95-100.
106. Steffensen FH, Sorensen HT, Brock A, Vilstrup H, Lauritzen T. Alcohol consumption and serum liver-derived enzymes in a Danish population aged 30-50 years. Int J Epidemiol 1997; 26: 92-99.
107. Burns CJ, Boswell JM, Olsen GW. Liver enzyme activity and body mass index. J Occup Environ Med 1996; 38: 1248-1252.
108. Kornhuber HH, Kornhuber J, Wanner W, Kornhuber A, Kaiserauer CH. Alcohol, smoking and body build: obesity as a result of the toxic effect of "social" alcohol consumption. Clin Physiol Biochem 1989; 7: 203-216.
109. Higuchi H, Gores GJ. Mechanisms of liver injury: an overview. Curr Mol Med 2003; 3: 483-490.
110. Lieber CS, Jones DP, DeCarli LM. Effects of prolonged ethanol intake: production of fatty liver despite adequate diets. J Clin Invest 1965; 44: 1009-1021.
111. Fraser GE, Anderson JT, Foster N, Goldberg R, Jacobs D, Blackburn H. The effect of alcohol on serum high density lipoprotein (HDL). A controlled experiment. Atherosclerosis 1983; 46: 275-286.
112. Välimäki M, Taskinen MR, Ylikahri R, Roine R, Kuusi T, Nikkila EA. Comparison of the effects of two different doses of alcohol on serum lipoproteins, HDL-subfractions and apolipoproteins A-1 and A-2: a controlled study. Em J Clin Invest 1988; 18: 472-480.
113. Contaldo F, D'Arrigo E, Carandente V, Cortese C, Coltorti A, Mancini M, Taskinen MR, Nikkilä EA. Short-term effects of moderate alcohol consumption on lipid metabolism and energy balance in normal men. Metabolism 1989; 38: 166-171.
114. Cordain L, Bryan ED, Melby CL, Smith MJ. Influence of moderate daily wine consumption on body weight regulation and metabolism in healthy free living males. J Am Coll Nutr 1997; 16: 134-139.
115. McDonald JT, Margen S. Wine versus ethanol in human nutrition. 1.Nitrogen and calorie balance. Am J Clin Nutr 1976; 29: 1093-1103.
116. Crouse JR, Grundy SM. Effects of alcohol on plasma lipoproteins and cholesterol and triglyceride metabolism in man. J Lipid Res 1984; 25: 486-496.
117. Puddey IB, Beilin LJ, Vandongen R, Rouse IL, Rogers P. Evidence of a direct effect of alcohol consumption on blood pressure in normotensive men. A randomized controlled trial. Hypertension 1985; 7: 707-713.
118. Burke V, Croft KD, Puddey IB, Cox KL, Beilin LJ, Vandongen R. Effects of alcohol intake on plasma fatty acids assessed independently of diet and smoking habits. Clin Sci 1991; 81: 785-791.
119. Cox KL., Puddey IB, Morton AR, Masarei JRL, Vandongen R, Beilin LJ. Controlled comparison of effects of exercise and alcohol on blood pressure and serum high density lipoprotein cholesterol in sedentary males. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 1990; 17: 251-255.
120. Westerterp KR, Meijer EP, Goris AH, Kester AD. Alcohol energy intake and habitual physical activity in older adults. Br J Nutr 2004; 91: 149-152.
121. Suter PM, Häsler E, Meyer R, Vetter W. Modulation of the alcohol effects on body weight by the family history of overweight. Int J Obesity 1999; 23(Suppl 5): S94.
122. Naveau S, Giraud V, Borotto E, Aubert A, Capron F, Chaput JC. Excess weight risk factor for alcoholic liver disease. Hepatology 1997; 25: 108-111.
123. Clevidence BA, Taylor PR, Campbell WS, Judd JT. Lean and heavy women may not use energy from alcohol with equal efficiency. J Nutr 1995; 125: 2536-2540.
124. Mayer EJ, Newman B, Quesenberry CP, Friedman GD, Selby JV Alcohol consumption and insulin concentrations. Role of insulin in associations of alcohol intake with high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglycerides. Circulation 1993; 88: 2190-2197.
125. Lazarus R, Sparrow D, Weiss ST. Alcohol intake and insulin levels. The Normative Aging Study. Am J Epidemiol 1997; 145: 909-916.
126. Van-de-Wiel A. Alcohol and insulin sensitivity. Neth J Med 1998; 52: 91-94.
127. Day CP. Pathogenesis of steatohepatitis. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2002; 16: 663-678.
128. Dixon JB, Bhathal PS, Hughes NR, O'Brien PE. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: improvement in liver histological analysis with weight loss. Hepatology 2004; 39: 1647-1654.
129. Fujikawa K, Ohata K, Honda T, Miyazoe S, Ichikawa T, Ishikawa H, Hamasaki K, Nakao K, Toriyama K, Eguchi K. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis with improved hepatic fibrosis after weight reduction. Intern Med 2004; 43: 289-294.
130. Levine JA, Eberhardt NL, Jensen MD. Role of nonexercise activity thermogenesis in resistance to fat gain in humans. Science 1999; 283: 212-214.
131. Björntorp P. Regional obesity. Björntorp P, Brodoff BN, Eds. Obesity, 579-586. New York: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1992.
132. Kissebah A, Krakower GR. Regional adiposity and morbidity. Physiol Rev 1994; 74: 761-811.
133. Björntorp P. Obesity. Lancet 1997; 423-426.
134. Groop L, Orho-Melander M. The dysmetabolic syndrome. J Intern Med 2001; 250: 105-120.
135. Larsson B, Svaerdsudd K, Welin L, Wilhelmsen L, Bjoerntorp P, Tibbelin G. Abdominal adipose tissue distribution, obesity, and risk of cardiovascular disease and death: 13-year follow up of participants in the study of men born in 1913. BMJ 1984; 288: 1401-1404.
136. Larsson B, Seidell J, Svardsudd K, Willhemen L, Welin L, Tibblin G, Bjorntorp P. Obesity, adipose tissue distribution and health in men. The study of men born in 1913. Appetite 1989; 13: 37-44.
137. Troisi RJ, Weiss ST, Segal MR, Cassano PA, Vokonas PS, Landsberg L. The relationship of body fat distribution to blood pressure in normotensive men: The Normative Aging Study. Int J Obesity 1990; 14: 515-525.
138. Laws A, Terry RB, Barrett-Connor E. Behavioral covariates of waist-to-hip ratio in Rancho Bernardo. Am J Public Health 1990; 80.
139. Slattery ML, McDonald A, Bild DE, Caan BJ, Hilner JE, Jacobs DR, Liu K. Associations of body fat and its distribution with dietay intake, physical activity, alcohol, and smoking in blacks and whites. Am J Clin Nutr 1992; 55: 943-949.
140. Duncan BB, Chambless LE, Schmidt MI, Folsom AR, Szhlo M, Grouse JR, Carepenter MA. Association of the waist-to-hip ratio is different with wine than beer or hard liquor. Am J Epidemiol 1995; 142: 1034-1038.
141. Sakurai Y, Umeda T, Shinchi K, Honjo S, Wakabayashi K, Todoroki I, Nishikawa H, Ogawa S, Katsurada M. Relation of total and beverage-specific alcohol intake to body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio: a study of self-defense officials in Japan. Eur J Epidemiol 1997; 13: 893-898.
142. Gonzalez CA, Pera G, Agudo A, Amiano P, Barricarte A, Beguiristain JM, Chirlaque MD, Dorronsoro M, Martinez C, Navarro C, Quiros JR, Rodriguez M, Tormo MJ. Factors associated with the accumulation of abdominal fat estimated with anthropometrie indexes. Med Clin (Barc) 2000; 25: 401-406.
143. Tremblay A, Buemann B, Thériault G, Bouchard C. Body fatness in active individuals reporting low lipid and alcohol intake. Eur J Clin Nutr 1995; 49: 824-831.
144. Laitinen J, Pietilainen K, Wadsworth M, Sovio U, Jarvelin MR. Predictors of abdominal obesity among 31-y-old men and women born in Northern Finland in 1966. Eur J Clin Nutr 2004; 58: 180-190.
145. Koh-Banerjee P, Chu NF, Spiegelman D, Rosner B, Colditz G, Willett W, Rimm E. Prospective study of the association of changes in dietary intake, physical activity, alcohol consumption, and smoking with 9-y gain in waist circumference among 16 587 US men. Am J Clin Nutr 2003; 78: 719-727.
146. Greenfield JR, Samaras K, Jenkins AB, Kelly PJ, Spector TD, Campbell LV. Moderate alcohol consumption, dietary fat composition, and abdominal obesity in women: evidence for gene-environment interaction. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 88: 5381-5386.
147. Racette SB, Horowitz JF, Mittendorfer B, Klein S. Racial differences in lipid metabolism in women with abdominal obesity. Am J Physiol 2000; 279: R944-R950.
148. Thulstrup AM, Norgard B, Steffensen FH, Vilstrup H, Sorensen HT, Lauritzen T. Waist circumference and body mass index as predictors of elevated alanine transaminase in Danes aged 30-50 years. Dan Med Bull 1999; 46: 429-431.
149. van-Berneveld T, Seidell JC, Traag N, Hautvast JGA. Fat distribution and gamma-glutamyl transferase in relation to serum lipids and blood pressure in 38-year old Dutch males. J Clin Nutr 1989; 43: 809-818.
150. Egger G, Bolton A, O'Neil M, Freeman D. Effectiveness of an abdominal obesity reduction programme in men: the GutBuster "Waist Loss" programme. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1996; 20: 227-231.
151. Rees LH, Besser GM, Jeffcote WJ. Alcohol induced Pseudo-Cushing's syndrome. Lancet 1977; i: 726-728.
152. Zakhari S, Alcohol and the endocrine system. Bethesda, MD, USA. NIH-NLAAA, 1993. Research Monograph No. 23. pp. 1-411.
153. Stokes PE. Adrenocortical activation in alcoholics during chronic drinking. Ann NY Acad Sci 1973; 215: 77-83.
154. Cobb CF, van Thiel DH. Mechanisms of ethanol-induced adrenal stimulation. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1982; 6: 202-206.
155. Aguilera MT, de la Sierra A, Coca A, Estruch R, Fernandez-Sola J, Urbano-Marquez A. Effect of alcohol abstinence on blood pressure: assessment by 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. Hypertension 1999; 33: 653-657.
156. Suter PM, Vetter W. The effect of alcohol on blood pressure. Nutr Clin Care 2000; 3: 24-34.
157. Suter PM, Maire R, Vetter W. Is an increased waist:hip ratio the cause of alcohol-induced hypertension. The AIR94 study. J Hypertens 1995; 13: 1857-1862.
158. Davy KP, Hall JE. Obesity and hypertension: two epidemics or one? Am J Physiol 2004; 286: R803-R813.
159. Klatsky AL. Is it the drink or the drinker? Circumstantial evidence only raises a probability. Am J Clin Nutr 1999; 69: 2-3.
160. Suter PM, Häsler E, Vetter W. Effects of alcohol on energy metabolism and body weight regulation: Is alcohol a risk factor for obesity? Nutr Reviews 1997; 55: 157-171.
161. Camargo CA, Vranizan KM, Dreon DM, Frey-Hewitt B, Wood PD. Alcohol, calorie intake, and adiposity in overweight men. J Am Coll Nutr 1987; 6: 271-278.
162. Arkwright PD, Beilin LJ, Armstrong BK, Vandongen R. Alcohol: effect on blood pressure and predisposition to hypertension. Clin Sci 1981; 61: 373s-375s.
163. Gruchow HW, Sobocinski KA, Barboriak JJ. Alcohol, nutrient intake, and hypertension in US adults. JAMA 1985; 253: 1567-1570.
164. Arkwright PD, Beilin LJ, Rouse I, Armstrong BK, Vandongen R. Effects of alcohol use and other aspects of lifestyle on blood pressure levels and prevalence of hypertension in a working population. Circulation 1982; 66: 60-66.
165. Higgins MW, Kjelsberg M. Characteristics of smokers and non-smokers in Tecumseh, Michigan. Am J Epidemiol 1967; 86: 60-77.
166. Cooke KM, Frost GW, Thornell IR, Stokes GS. Alcohol consumption and blood pressure: survey of the relationship at a health screening clinic. Med J Aust 1982; 1: 65-69.
167. Barboriak JJ, Rooney CB, Leitschuh TH, Anderson AJ. Alcohol and nutrient intake of elderly men. J Am Diet Assoc 1978; 72: 493-495.
168. Jacobsen BK, Thelle DS. The Tromso Heart Study: the relationship between food habits and the body mass index. J Chron Dis 1987; 40: 795-800.
169. Criqui MH, Wallace RB, Mishkel M, Barrett-Connor E, Heiss G. Alcohol consumption and blood pressure: The Lipid Clinics Prevalence Study. Hypertension 1981; 3: 557-565.
170. Jones BR, Barrett-Connor E, Criqui MH, Holdbrook MJ. A community study of the calorie and nutrient intake in drinkers and nondrinkers of alcohol. Am J Clin Nutr 1982; 35: 135-139.
171. Donahue RP, Abbott RD, Reed DM, Yano K. Alcohol and hemorrhagic stroke. The Honolulu Heart Program. JAMA 1986; 255: 2311-2314.
172. Dyer AR, Stamler J, Paul O, Berkson DM, Leppler MH, McKean H, Shekelle RB, Lindberg H.A., Garside D. Alcohol consumption, cardiovascular risk factors, and mortality in two Chicago epidemiologic studies. Circulation 1977; 56: 1067-1074.
173. Ferro-Luzzi A, Mobarhan S, Maiani G, Scaccini C, Sette S, Nicastro A, Ranaldi L, Polito A, Azzini E, Torre SD, Jama MA. Habitual alcohol consumption and nutritional status of the elderly. Eur J Clin Nutr 1988; 42: 5-13.
174. Garg R, Wagener DK, Madans JH. Alcohol consumption and risk of ischemic heart disease in women. Arch Intern Med 1993; 153: 1211-1216.
175. Schatzkin A, Jones DY, Hoover RN, Taylor PR, Brinton LA, Ziegler RG, Harvey EB, Carter CL, Licitra LM, Dufour MC, et al. Alcohol consumption and breast cancer in the Epidemiologic Follow-up Study of the First National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. N Engl J Med 1987; 316: 1169-1173.
176. Shah M, Jeffery RW, Hannan PJ, Onstad L. Relationship between socio-demographic and behaviour variables, and body mass index in a population with high-normal blood pressure: Hypertension Prevention Trial. Eur J Clin Nutr 1989; 43: 583-596.
177. Gyntelberg F, Meyer J. Relationship between blood pressure and physical fitness, smoking and alcohol consumption in Copenhagen males aged 40-50. Acta Med Scand 1974; 195: 375-380.
178. Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Speizer FE, Hennekens CH. A prospective study on moderate alcohol consumption and the risk of coronary artery disease and stroke in women. N Engl J Med 1988; 319: 267-273.
179. Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Rosner BA, Hennekens CH, Speizer FE. Moderate alcohol consumption and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 1987; 316: 1174-1180.
180. Kivelä SL, Nissinen A, Ketola A, Punsar S, Puska P, Karvonen M. Alcohol consumption and mortality in aging or aged Finnish men. J Clin Epidemiol 1989; 42: 61-68.
181. Kozararevic DJ, McGee D, Vojvodic N, Racic Z, Dawber T, Gordon T, Zukel W. Frequency of alcohol consumption and morbidity and mortality: The Yugoslavia Cardiovascular Disease Study. Lancet 1980; i: 613-616.
182. Milon H, Froment A, Gaspard P, Guidollet J, Ripoll JP. Alcohol consumption and blood pressure in a French epidemiological study. Eur Heart J 1982; 3(Suppl. C): 59-61.
183. Kozarevic D, Demirovic J, Gordon T, Kaelber CT, McGee D, Zukel WJ. Drinking habits and coronary heart disease. The Yugoslavia cardiovascular disease study. Am J Epidemiol 1982; 116: 748-758.
184. MacMahon SW, Blacket RB, Macdonald GJ, Hall W. Obesity, alcohol consumption and blood pressure in Australian men and women. The National Heart Foundation of Australia Risk Factor Prevalence Study. J Hypertension 1984; 2: 85-91.
185. Kromhout D. Changes in energy and macronutrients in 871 middle-aged men during 10 years of follow-up (the Zutphen study). Am J Clin Nutr 1983; 37: 287-294.
186. Pomerleau J, McKeigue PM, Chaturvedi N. Factors associated with obesity in South Asian, Afro-Caribbean and European women. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1999; 23: 25-33.
187. Lang T, Degoulet P, Aime F, Devries C, Jacquinet-Salord MC, Fouriaud C. Relationship between alcohol consumption and hypertension prevalence and control in a French population. J Chron Dis 1987; 40: 713-720.
188. Simko V, Connell AM, Banks B. Nutritional status in alcoholics with and without liver disease. Am J Clin Nutr 1982; 35: 197-203.
189. Weissfeld JL, Johnson EH, Brock BM, Hawthrne VM. Sex and age interactions in the association between alcohol and blood pressure. Am J Epidemiol 1988; 128: 559-569.
190. Savdie E, Grosslight GM, Adena MA. Relation of alcohol and cigarette consumption to blood pressure and serum creatinine levels. J Chron Dis 1984; 37: 617-623.
191. Seppä K, Sillanaukee P, Pitkäjärvi T, Nikkilä M, Koivula T. Moderate and heavy alcohol consumption have no favorable effect on lipid values. Arch Intern Med 1992; 152: 297-300.
192. Shaper AG, Phillips AN, Pocock SJ, Walker M. Alcohol and ischaemic heart disease in middle aged British men. Br Med J 1987; 294: 733-737.
193. Shephard RJ, Jones G, Ishii K, Kaneko M, Olbrecht AJ. Factors affecting body density and thickness of subcutaneous fat. Data on 518 Canadian city dwellers. Am J Clin Nutr 1969; 22: 1175-1189.
194. Trevisan M, Krogh V, Farinaro E. Alcohol consumption, drinking pattern and blood pressure: analysis of data from the Italian National Research Council Study. Int J Epidemiol 1987; 16: 520-527.
195. Wannamethee G, Shaper AG. Men who do not drink: A report from the British Regional Heart Study. Int J Epidemiol 1988; 17: 307-316.
196. Weatherall R, Shaper AG. Overweight and obesity in middle-aged British men. Eur J Clin Nutr 1988; 42: 221-231.