Effects of alcohol on energy metabolism and body weight regulation: Is alcohol a risk factor for obesity?

Nutrition Reviews

Volumn 55, Issue 5, 1997, Pages 157-171

  Suter, Paolo M ^a   Häsler, Erik ^a   Vetter, Wilhelm ^a  

^a UNIVERSITÄTSSPITAL ZÜRICH   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL;

ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; BASAL METABOLIC RATE; BODY FAT; BODY WEIGHT; CALORIC INTAKE; DIETARY INTAKE; ENERGY BALANCE; ENERGY EXPENDITURE; ENERGY METABOLISM; HUMAN; OBESITY; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; THERMOGENESIS;

EID: 1842333841     PISSN: 00296643     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.1997.tb06470.x     Document Type: Review

References (179)

1. Denke MA, Sempos CT, Grundy SM. Excess body weight: an underrecognized contributor to dyslipidemia in white American women. Arch Intern Med 1994;154:401-10
2. Hariawala MD, Deshmukh W, Sellke FW. Insulin resistance: a common factor in the triad of dyslipidemia, hypertension, and coronary artery disease? Am J Med Sci 1997;313:104-6
3. Kuczmarski RJ, Flegal KM, Campbell SM, Johnson CL. Increasing prevalence of overweight among US adults: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1960-1991. J Am Med Assoc 1994;272:205-11
4. Anonymous. Update: prevalence of overweight among children, adolescents, and adults-United States, 1988-1994. MMWR 1997;46:199-202
5. Flatt JP. The impact of dietary fat and carbohydrates on body weight maintenance. In: Altschul AM, ed. Low-calorie foods handbook. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc, 1993;441-77
6. Flatt JP. The biochemistry of energy expenditure. In: Bray G, ed. Recent advances in obesity research. II. Proceedings of the 2nd International Congress on Obesity. London: Newman Publishing Ltd, 1977;211-28
7. Flatt JP, Importance of nutrient balance in body weight regulation. Diabetes Metab Rev 1988;4:571-81
8. Ravussin E, Fontvieille AM, Swinburn BA, Bogardus C. Risk factors for the development of obesity. Ann NY Acad Sci 1993;683:141-50
9. Block G, Dresser CM, Hartman AM, Carroll MD. Nutrient sources in the American diet: quantitative data from the NHANES II survey. Am J Epidemiol 1985;122:27-40
10. Bebb HT, Houser HB, Witschi JC, et al. Calorie and nutrient contribution of alcoholic beverages to the usual diets of 155 adults. Am J Clin Nutr 1971;24:1042-52
11. Suter PM. How much do alcohol calories count? J Am Coll Nutr 1997;16:105-6
12. Suter PM, Schutz Y, Jéquier E. The effect of ethanol on fat storage in healthy subjects. N Engl J Med 1992;326:983-7
13. Suter PM, Jéquier E, Schutz Y. Thermogenic effect of ethanol. FASEB Journal 1993;7:A725
14. Murgatroyd PR, Van de Ven ML, Goldberg GR, Prentice AM. Alcohol and the regulation of energy balance: overnight effects on diet-induced thermogenesis and fuel storage. Br J Nutr 1996;75:33-45
15. Sonko BJ, Prentice AM, Murgatroyd PR, et al. Effect of alcohol on postmeal fat storage. Am J Clin Nutr 1994;59:619-25
16. Macdonald I, Debry G, Westerterp K. Alcohol and overweight. In: Verschuren PM, ed. Health issues related to alcohol consumption. Washington DC: ILSI Press, 1993;264-79
17. Arkwright PD, Beilin LJ, Armstrong BK, Vandongen R. Alcohol: effect on blood pressure and predisposition to hypertension. Clin Sci 1981;61:373s-5s
18. Colditz GA, Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, et al. Alcohol intake in relation to diet and obesity in women and in men. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;54:49-55
19. Arkwright PD, Beilin LJ, Rouse I, et al. Effects of alcohol use and other aspects of lifestyle on blood pressure levels and prevalence of hypertension in a working population. Circulation 1982;66:60-6
20. Camargo CA, Vranizan KM, Dreon DM, et al. Alcohol, calorie intake, and adiposity in overweight men. J Am Coll Nutr 1987;6:271-8
21. Barboriak JJ, Rooney CB, Leitschuh TH, et al. Alcohol and nutrient intake of elderly men. J Am Diet Assoc 1978;72:493-5
22. Gruchow HW, Sobocinski KA, Barboriak JJ. Alcohol, nutrient intake, and hypertension in US adults. J Am Med Assoc 1985;253:1567-70
23. Criqui MH, Wallace RB, Mishkel M, et al. Alcohol consumption and blood pressure: the Lipid Clinics Prevalence Study. Hypertension 1981;3:557-65
24. Cooke KM, Frost GW, Thornell IR, Stokes GS. Alcohol consumption and blood pressure: survey of the relationship at a health screening clinic. Med J Aust 1982;1:65-9
25. Higgins MW, Kjelsberg M. Characteristics of smokers and non-smokers in Tecumseh, Michigan. Am J Epidemiol 1967;86:60-77
26. Jones BR, Barrett-Connor E, Criqui MH, Holdbrook MJ. A community study of the calorie and nutrient intake in drinkers and nondrinkers of alcohol. Am J Clin Nutr 1982;35:135-9
27. Donahue RP, Abbott RD, Reed DM, Yano K. Alcohol and hemorrhagic stroke: the Honolulu Heart Program. J Am Med Assoc 1986;255:2311-4
28. Dyer AR, Stamler J, Paul O, et al. Alcohol consumption, cardiovascular risk factors, and mortality in two Chicago epidemiologic studies. Circulation 1977;56:1067-74
29. Klatsky AL, Friedman GD, Siegelaub AB, Gérard MJ. Alcohol consumption and blood pressure: Kaiser-Permanente multiphasic health examination data. N Engl J Med 1977;296:1194-1200
30. Fisher M, Gordon T. The relation of drinking and smoking habits to diet: the Lipid Research Clinics Prevalence Study. Am J Clin Nutr 1985;41:623-30
31. Ferro-Luzzi A, Mobarhan S, Maiani G, et al. Habitual alcohol consumption and nutritional status of the elderly. Eur J Clin Nutr 1988;42:5-13
32. Shah M, Jeffrey RW, Hannan PJ, et al. Relationship between socio-demographic and behaviour variables, and body mass index in a population with high-normal blood pressure: Hypertension Prevention Trial. Eur J Clin Nutr 1989;43:583-96
33. Gordon T, Doyle JT. Alcohol consumption and its relationship to smoking, weight, blood pressure, and blood lipids: the Albany study. Arch Intern Med 1986;146:262-5
34. Garg R, Wagener DK, Madans JH. Alcohol consumption and risk of ischemic heart disease in women. Arch Intern Med 1993;153:1211-6
35. Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC, et al. A prospective study on moderate alcohol consumption and the risk of coronary artery disease and stroke in women. N Engl J Med 1988;319:267-73
36. Gruchow HW, Sobocinski KA, Barboriak JJ, Scheller JG. Alcohol consumption, nutrient intake and relative body weight among US adults. Am J Clin Nutr 1985;42:289-95
37. Gyntelberg F, Meyer J. Relationship between blood pressure and physical fitness, smoking and alcohol consumption in Copenhagen males aged 40-50. Acta Med Scand 1974;195:375-80
38. Schatzkin A, Jones DY Hoover RN, et al. Alcohol consumption and breast cancer in the Epidemiologic Follow-up Study of the First National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. N Engl J Med 1987;316:1169-73
39. Hillers VN, Massey LK. Interrelationship of moderate high alcohol consumption with diet and health status. Am J Clin Nutr 1985;41:356-62
40. Jacobsen BK, Thelle DS. The Tromso Heart Study: the relationship between food habits and the body mass index. J Chron Dis 1987;40:795-800
41. Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, et al. Moderate alcohol consumption and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 1987;316:1174-80
42. Kromhout D. Changes in energy and macronutrients in 871 middle-aged men during 10 years of follow-up (the Zutphen study). Am J Clin Nutr 1983;37:287-94
43. Kivelä SL, Nissinen A, Ketola A, et al. Alcohol consumption and mortality in aging or aged Finnish men. J Clin Epidemiol 1989;42:61-8
44. Kozararevic DJ, Vojvodic N, Dawber T, et al. Frequency of alcohol consumption and morbidity and mortality: the Yugoslavia Cardiovascular Disease Study. Lancet 1980;i:613-6
45. MacMahon SW, Blacket RB, Macdonald GJ, Hall W. Obesity, alcohol consumption and blood pressure in Australian men and women: the National Heart Foundation of Australia Risk Factor Prevalence Study. J Hypertens 1984;2:85-91
46. Lang T, Degoulet P, Aime F, et al. Relationship between alcohol consumption and hypertension prevalence and control in a French population. J Chron Dis 1987;40:713-20
47. Milon H, Froment A, Gaspard P, et al. Alcohol consumption and blood pressure in a French epidemiological study. Eur Heart J 1982;3(suppl C):59-61
48. Rissanen AM, Heliövaara M, Knekt P, et al. Determinants of weight gain and overweight in adult Finns. Eur J Clin Nutr 1991;45:419-30
49. Shaper AG, Phillips AN, Pocock SJ, Walker M. Alcohol and ischaemic heart disease in middle aged British men. Br Med J 1987;294:733-7
50. Simko V, Connell AM, Banks B. Nutritional status in alcoholics with and without liver disease. Am J Clin Nutr 1982;35:197-203
51. Seppä K, Sillanaukee P, Pitkäjärvi T, et al. Moderate and heavy alcohol consumption have no favorable effect on lipid values. Arch Intern Med 1992;152:297-300
52. Weissfeld JL, Johnson EH, Brock BM, Hawthorne VM. Sex and age interactions in the association between alcohol and blood pressure. Am J Epidemiol 1988;128:559-69
53. Savdie E, Grosslight GM, Adena MA. Relation of alcohol and cigarette consumption to blood pressure and serum creatinine levels. J Chron Dis 1984;37:617-23
54. Suter PM, Maire R, Vetter W. Is an increased waist:hip ratio the cause of alcohol-induced hypertension? the AIR94 study. J Hypertens 1995;13:1857-62
55. Shephard RJ, Jones G, Ishii K, et al. Factors affecting body density and thickness of subcutaneous fat: data on 518 Canadian city dwellers. Am J Clin Nutr 1969;22:1175-89
56. Trevisan M, Krogh V, Farinaro E, et al. Alcohol consumption, drinking patterns and blood pressure: analysis of data from the Italian National Research Council Study. Int J Epidemiol 1987;16:520-7
57. Tofler OB, Saker BM, Rollo KA, et al. Electrocardiogram of the social drinker in Perth, Western Australia. Br Heart J 1969;31:306-13
58. Wannamethee G, Shaper AG. Men who do not drink: a report from the British Regional Heart Study. Int J Epidemiol 1988;17:307-16
59. Weatherall R, Shaper AG. Overweight and obesity in middle-aged British men. Eur J Clin Nutr 1988;42:221-31
60. Shaper AG, Wannamethee SG, Walker M. Body weight: implications for the prevention of coronary heart disease, stroke, and diabetes mellitus in a cohort study of middle aged men. Br Med J 1997;314:1311-7
61. Suter PM, Weisser B, Grüne S, et al. HEUREKA-Studie: Prävalenz des Uebergewichtes und der Adipositas in der Schweiz. Schweiz Rundsch Med Prax 1993;82:1359-62
62. Suter PM, Weisser B, Huss R, Vetter WJ. Prevalence of obesity in Switzerland: a study in 11,993 subjects. Int J Obes 1993;17(suppl 2):103
63. Epstein FH, Higgins M. Epidemiology of obesity. In: Björntorp P, Brodoff BN, eds. Obesity. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott Company, 1992;330-42
64. Bray GA. Overweight is risking fate: definition, classification, prevalence and risks. Ann NY Acad Sci 1987;499:14-28
65. Wurtmann RJ, Wurtmann JJ. Human obesity. New York: NY Academy of Sciences, 1987;1-349
66. Stunkard AJ, Wadden TA. Obesity: theory and therapy. New York: Raven Press, Ltd, 1993;1-377
67. Ravussin E, Swinburn BA. Energy metabolism. In: Stunkard AJ, Wadden TA, eds. Obesity: theory and therapy. New York: Raven Press, 1993;97-123
68. Flatt JP, Ravussin E, Acheson KJ, Jéquier E. Effects of dietary fat on postprandial substrate oxidation and on carbohydrate and fat balances. J Clin Invest 1985;76:1019-24
69. Schutz Y, Flatt JP, Jéquier E. Failure of dietary fat intake to promote fat oxidation: a factor favoring the development of obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 1989;50:307-14
70. Tremblay A, Wouters E, Wenker M, et al. Alcohol and high-fat diet: a combination favoring overfeeding. Am J Clin Nutr 1995;62:639-44
71. Tremblay A, St Pierre S. The hyperphagic effect of a high-fat diet and alcohol intake persists after control for energy density. Am J Clin Nutr 1996;63:479-82
72. Suter PM, Jéquier E, Schutz Y. The effect of ethanol on energy expenditure. Am J Physiol 1994;266:R1204-12
73. Devlin JT, Horton ES. Energy requirements. In: Brown ML, ed. Present knowledge in nutrition, 6th ed. Washington, DC: International Life Sciences Institute-Nutrition Foundation, 1990;1-6
74. Williams MH. Nutritional aspects of human physical activity and athletic performance. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas Publisher, 1985;1-565
75. Cordain L, Bryan ED, Melby CL, Smith MJ. Influence of moderate daily wine consumption on body weight regulation and metabolism in healthy free living males. J Am Coll Nutr 1997;16:134-9
76. US Department of Health and Human Services. Alcohol and health: 8th Special Report to the U.S. Congress. Washington, DC: DHHS, 1993
77. Cade JE, Margetts BM. Nutrient sources in the English diet: quantitative data from three English towns. Int J Epidemiol 1988;17:844-8
78. McElduff P, Dobson AJ. How much alcohol and how often? population based case-control study of alcohol consumption and risk of a major coronary event. Br Med J 1997;314:1159-64
79. Russell M, Cooper L, Frone MR, Weite JW. Alcohol drinking patterns and blood pressure. Am J Public Health 1991;81:452-7
80. Suter et al. Unpublished data.
81. Frezza M, di Padova C, Pozzato G, et al. High blood alcohol levels in women: role of decreased gastric alcohol dehydrogenase activity and first pass metabolism. N Engl J Med 1990;132:281-6
82. Forbes GB. Human body composition: growth, aging, nutrition, and activity. New York: Springer Verlag, 1987;350
83. Klag MJ, Moore RD, Whelton PK, et al. Alcohol consumption and blood pressure: a comparison of native Japanese to American men. J Clin Epidemiol 1990;43:1407-14
84. Rosman AS, Lieber CS. Biological markers of alcoholism. In: Lieber CS, ed. Medical and nutritional complications of alcoholism: mechanisms and management. New York: Plenum Publishing Corporation, 1992;531-63
85. Cahalan D. Quantifying alcohol consumpion: patterns and problems. Circulation 1981;64(suppl III):III7-14
86. Gordon T, Kannel WB. Drinking and its relation to smoking, BP, blood lipids and uric acid: the Framingham study. Arch Intern Med 1983;143:1366-74
87. Nilssen O, Forde OH, Brenn T. The Tromso study: distribution and population determinants of gama-glutamyltransferase. Am J Epidemiol 1990;132:318-26
88. Salvaggio A, Periti M, Miano L, et al. Analysis of the relation between blood pressure and both self-reported and biochemically inferred alcohol consumption. J Hypertens 1991;9(suppl 6):S276-7
89. Fagerberg B, Lindstedt G, Berglund G. Effects of alcohol intake and obesity on serum liver enzyme activity in obese men with mild hypertension. J Intern Med 1993;233:477-84
90. Kornhuber HH, Kornhuber J, Wanner W, et al. Alcohol, smoking and body build: obesity as a result of the toxic effect of "social" alcohol consumption. Clin Physiol Biochem 1989;7:203-16
91. Robinson D, Whitehead TP. Effects of body mass and other factors on serum liver enzyme levels in men attending for well population screening. Ann Clin Biochem 1989;26:393-400
92. Yamada Y, Ishizaki M, Kido T, et al. Relationship between serum gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase activity and blood pressure in middle-aged male and female non-drinkers. J Hum Hypertens 1990;4:609-14
93. Steffensen FH, Sorensen HT, Brock A, et al. Alcohol consumption and serum liver-derived enzymes in a Danish population aged 30-50 years. Int J Epidemiol 1997;26:92-9
94. Thomas L. Labor und Diagnose. Marburg, Germany: Medizinische Verlagsgesellschaft, 1988;1568
95. Ikai E, Honda R, Yamada Y. Serum gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase level and blood pressure in nondrinkers: a possible pathogenetic role of fatty liver in obesity-related hypertension. J Hum Hypertens 1994;8:95-100
96. Villalpando S, Flores-Huerta S, Fajardo A, Hernandez-Beltran MJ. Ethanol consumption during pregnancy and lactation: changes in the nutritional status of predominantly breastfeeding mothers. Arch Med Res 1993;24:333-8
97. Hofstetter A, Schutz Y, Jéquier E, Wahren J. Increased 24-hour energy expenditure in cigarette smokers. New Engl J Med 1986;314:79-82
98. Männistö S, Pietinen P, Haukka J, et al. Reported alcohol intake, diet and body mass index in male smokers. Eur J Clin Nutr 1996;50:239-45
99. Tofler OB, Woodings TL. A 13-year follow-up of social drinkers. Med J Aust 1981;2:479-81
100. Mezey E, Faillace LA. Metabolic impairment and recovery time in acute ethanol intoxication. J Nerv Ment Dis 1971;153:445-52
101. Pirola RC, Lieber CS. The energy cost of the metabolism of drugs, including ethanol. Pharmacology 1972;7:185-96
102. Reinus JF, Heymsfield SB, Wiskind R, et al. Ethanol: relative fuel value and metabolic effects in vivo. Metabolism 1989;38:125-35
103. Lieber CS, Jones DP, DeCarli LM. Effects of prolonged ethanol intake: production of fatty liver despite adequate diets. J Clin Invest 1965;44:1009-21
104. Fraser GE, Anderson JT, Foster N, et al. The effect of alcohol on serum high density lipoprotein (HDL): a controlled experiment. Atherosclerosis 1983;46: 275-86
105. Välimäki M, Taskinen MR, Ylokajri R, et al. Comparison of the effect of two different doses of alcohol on serum lipoproteins, HDL-subfractions and apolipoproteins A-I and A-II: a controlled study. Eur J Clin Invest 1988;18:472-80
106. Contaldo F, D'Arrigo E, Carandente V, et al. Short-term effects of moderate alcohol consumption on lipid metabolism and energy balance in normal men. Metabolism 1989;38:166-71
107. Burr ML, Fehily AM, Butland BK, et al. Alcohol and high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol: a randomized controlled trial. Br J Nutr 1986;56:81-6
108. Burke V, Croft KD, Puddey IB, et al. Effects of alcohol intake on plasma fatty acids assessed independently of diet and smoking habits. Clin Sci 1991;81:785-91
109. Puddey IB, Vandongen R, Beilin JL, Rouse IL. Alcohol stimulation of renin release in man: its relation to hemodynamic, electrolyte, and sympatho-adrenal responses to drinking. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985;61:37-42
110. McDonald JT, Margen S. Wine versus ethanol in human nutrition: nitrogen and calorie balance. Am J Clin Nutr 1976;29:1093-103
111. Crouse JR, Grundy SM. Effects of alcohol on plasma lipoproteins and cholesterol and triglyceride metabolism in man. J Lipid Res 1984;25:486-96
112. Cox KL, Puddey IB, Morton AR, et al. Controlled comparison of effects of exercise and alcohol on blood pressure and serum high density lipoprotein cholesterol in sedentary males. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 1990;17:251-5
113. Puddey IB, Beilin LJ, Vandongen R, et al. Evidence of a direct effect of alcohol consumption on blood pressure in normotensive men: a randomized controlled trial. Hypertension 1985;7:707-13
114. Dickson BJ, Delaney CJ, Walker RD, et al. Visceral protein status of patients hospitalized for alcoholism. Am J Clin Nutr 1983;37:216-20
115. Bunout D, Gattas V, Iturriaga H, et al. Nutritional status of alcoholic patients: its possible relationship to alcoholic liver disease. Am J Clin Nutr 1983;38:469-73
116. Lieber CS. Medical and nutritional complications of alcoholism. New York: Plenum Publishing Corporation, 1992;1-579
117. Lundquist F, Tygstrup K, Winkler K, et al. Ethanol metabolism and production of free acetate in the human liver. J Clin Invest 1962;22:333-9
118. Acheson K, Flatt JP, Jéquier E. Glycogen synthesis versus lipogenesis after a 500 gram carbohydrate meal in man. Metabolism 1982;31:1234-40
119. Acheson KJ. Obesity and thermogenesis in man. Diabetes Metab 1987;13:549-53
120. Ravussin E, Lillioja S, Anderson TE, et al. Determinants of 24-hour energy expenditure in man. J Clin Invest 1986;78:1568-78
121. Holloszy JO, Kohrt WM. Regulation of carbohydrate and fat metabolism during and after exercise. Annu Rev Nutr 1996;16:121-38
122. Blundell JE, Lawton CL, Cotton JR, Macdiarmid JI. Control of human appetite: implications for the intake of dietary fat. Annu Rev Nutr 1996;16:285-319
123. Blundell JE, Lawton CL. Pharmacological aspects of appetite. In: Stunkard AJ, Wadden TA, eds. Obesity: theory and therapy. New York: Raven Press Ltd, 1993;63-76
124. De Castro JM, Orozco S. Moderate alcohol intake and spontaneous eating patterns of humans: evidence of unregulated supplementation. Am J Clin Nutr 1990;52:246-53
125. Atwater WD, Benedict FG. An experimental inquiry regarding the nutritive value of alcohol. Mem Natl Acad Sci 1902;8:235-72
126. Lands WEM, Zakhari S. The case of the missing calories. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;54:47-8
127. Lieber CS. The influence of alcohol on nutritional status. Nutr Rev 1988;46:241-54
128. Pirola RC, Lieber CS. Hypothesis: energy wastage in alcoholism and drug abuse: possible role of hepatic microsomal enzymes. Am J Clin Nutr 1976;29:90-3
129. Pirola RC, Lieber CS. Energy wastage in rats given drugs that induce microsomal enzymes. J Nutr 1975;105:1544-8
130. French SW. Effect of acute and chronic ethanol ingestion on rat liver ATP. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1966;21:681-5
131. Gordon E. ATP metabolism in an ethanol induced fatty liver. Biochem Pharmacol 1977;26:1229-34
132. Spach PI, Bottenus RE, Cunningham CC. Control of adenine nucleotide metabolism in hepatic mitochondria from rats with ethanol induced fatty liver. Biochem J 1982;202:445-52
133. Lane BP, Lieber CS. Ultrastructural alterations in human hepatocytes following ingestion of ethanol with adequate diets. Am J Pathol 1966;49:593-604
134. Israel Y Macdonald VA, Bernstein J. Metabolic alterations produced in the liver by chronic ethanol feeding. Biochem J 1973;134:523-9
135. Israel Y Bernstein J. Liver hypermetabolic state after chronic ethanol consumption: hormonal interrelations and pathogenic implications. Fed Proc 1975; 34:2052-9
136. Israel Y, Kalant H, Orrego H, et al. Experimental alcohol-induced hepatic necrosis: suppression by propylthiouracil. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1975;72:1137-41
137. Israel Y, Kalant H, Orrego H, et al. Hypermetabolic state, oxygen availability, and alcohol-induced liver damage. In: Majchrowicz E, Noble EP, eds. Biochemistry and pharmacology of ethanol. New York: Plenum Press, 1979;433-44
138. Cronholm T. Hydrogen transfer between ethanol molecules during oxidoreduction in vivo. Biochem J 1985;229:315-22
139. Cronholm T. Ethanol-acetaldehyde exchange in vivo and in isolated hepatocytes. Alcohol 1987;22(suppl 1):265-9
140. Cronholm T, Jones AW, Skagerberg S. Mechanism and regulation of ethanol elimination in humans: intermolecular hydrogen transfer and oxidoreduction in vivo. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1988; 12:683-6
141. Lieber CS. Metabolism of ethanol. In: Lieber CS, ed. Medical and nutritional complications of alcoholism. New York: Plenum Publishing Corporation, 1992;1-35
142. Kleiber M. The fire of life: an introduction to animal energetics. Huntington, NY: Robert E Krieger Publishing Company, 1975;453
143. Weststrate J, Wunnink I, Duerenberg P, Hautvast JGAJ. Alcohol and its acute effects on resting metabolic rate and diet induced thermogenesis. Br J Nutr 1990;64:413-25
144. Bjerre P. Uber den Nährwert des Alkohols. Skand Archiv Physiol 1899;9:323-55
145. Clopatt A. Uber die Einwirkung des Alkohols auf den Stoffwechsel des Menschen. Scand Arch Physiol 1901;11:354-71
146. Trémolières J, Carré L. Etudes sur les modalités d'oxidation de l'alcool chez l'homme normal et l'alcoolique. Rev Alcoolisme (Paris) 1961;7:202-27
147. Perman ES. Increase in oxygen uptake after small ethanol doses in man. Acta Physiol Scand 1962;55:207-9
148. Barnes EW, Cooke NJ, King A, Passmore AJ. Observations on the metabolism of alcohol in man. Br J Nutr 1965;19:485-9
149. Suter PM, Schuppisser T, Vetter W. Effect of aging on the thermogenesis of ethanol. FASEB J 1996;10:A504
150. Lieber CS. Mechanism of ethanol induced hepatic injury. Pharmacol Ther 1990;46:1-41
151. Lieber CS. Hepatic and metabolic effects of ethanol: pathogenesis and prevention. Ann Med 1994;26:325-30
152. National Research Council. Recommended Dietary Allowances. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1989
153. Akanji AO, Bruce MA, Frayn KN. Effect of acetate infusion on energy expenditure and substrate oxidation rates in non-diabetic and diabetic subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr 1989;43:107-15
154. Skutches CL, Sigler MH, Teehan BP, et al. Contribution of dialysate acetate to energy metabolism: metabolic implications. Kidney Int 1983;23:57-63
155. Chioléro R, Mavrocordatos P, Burnier P, et al. Effects of infused sodium acetate, sodium lactate, and sodium b-hydroxybutyrate on energy expenditure and substrate oxidation rates in lean humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1993;58:608-13
156. Hellerstein MK, Schwarz JM, Neese RA. Regulation of hepatic de novo lipogenesis in humans. Annu Rev Nutr 1996;16:523-57
157. Siler SQ, Neese RA, Hellerstein MK. Effects of ethanol ingestion on lipolysis, de novo lipogenesis and acetate in humans. FASEB J 1997;11:A140
158. McArdle WD, Katch FI, Katch VL. Exercise physiology. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1991;1-853
159. Kissebah A, Krakower GR. Regional adiposity and morbidity. Physiol Rev 1994;74:761-811
160. Bjöerntorp P. Visceral fat accumulation: the missing link between psychosocial factors and cardiovascular disease? J Intern Med 1991;230:195-201
161. Björntorp P. Adipose tissue distribution and function, Int J Obes 1991;15:67-81
162. Troisi RJ, Weiss ST, Segal MR, et al. The relationship of body fat distribution to blood pressure in normotensive men: the Normative Aging Study. Int J Obes 1990;14:515-25
163. Troisi RJ, Heinold JW, Vokonas PS, Weiss ST. Cigarette smoking, dietary intake, and physical activity: effects on body fat distribution-the Normative Aging Study. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;53:1104-11
164. van Berneveld T, Seidell JC, Traag N, Hautvast JGA. Fat distribution and gamma-glutamyl transferase in relation to serum lipids and blood pressure in 38-year old Dutch males. J Clin Nutr 1989;43:809-18
165. Lapidus L, Bengtsson C, Haellstroem T, Bjoerntorp P. Obesity, adipose tissue distribution and health in women: results from a population study in Gothenburg. Appetite 1989;12:12-35
166. Suter PM, Maire R, Vetter W. Alcohol consumption: a risk factor for abdominal fat accumulation in men. Addiction Biology 1997;2:101-3
167. Rees LH, Besser GM, Jeffcote WJ. Alcohol induced pseudo-Cushing's syndrome. Lancet 1977;i:726-8
168. Zakhari S. Alcohol and the endocrine system. Research Monograph No 23. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIH-NIAAA), 1993;411
169. Stokes PE. Adrenocortical activation in alcoholics during chronic drinking. Ann NY Acad Sci 1973;215:77-83
170. Gordon GG, Lieber CS. Alcohol, hormones, and metabolism. In: Lieber CS. Medical and nutritional complications of alcoholism: mechanisms and management. New York: Plenum Press, 1992;55-90
171. Cobb CF, van Thiel DH. Mechanisms of ethanol-induced adrenal stimulation. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1982;6:202-6
172. Duncan BB, Chambless LE, Schmidt MI, et al. Association of the waist-to-hip ratio is different with wine than beer or hard liquor. Am J Epidemiol 1995;142:1034-8
173. Klatsky AL, Friedman GD, Armstrong MA. The relationship between alcoholic beverage use and other traits to blood pressure: a new Kaiser-Permanente study. Circulation 1986;73:628-36
174. Suter PM. Alcohol consumption and energy metabolism in alcohol misusers. Alcohol 1995;30:486
175. Royal Colleges of Physicians. Alcohol and the heart in perspective: sensible limits reaffirmed. Report of the Councils of the Royal Colleges of Physicians, Psychiatrists and General Practitioners. London: Royal Colleges, 1995;1-36
176. Colhoun H, Ben-Shlomo Y, Dong W, et al. Ecological analysis of collectivity of alcohol consumption in England: importance of average drinking. Br Med J 1997;314:1164-8
177. Chenet L, McKee M, Osler M, Krasnik A. Alcohol policy in the Nordic countries: why competition law must have a public health dimension [editorial]. Br Med J 1997;314:1142-3
178. Clevidence BA, Taylor PR, Campbell WS, Judd JT. Lean and heavy women may not use energy from alcohol with equal efficiency. J Nutr 1995;125:2536-40
179. Lands WE. Alcohol and energy intake. Am J Clin Nutr 1995;62(suppl):1101S-6S