Toxic epidermal necrolysis: Current evidence, practical management and future directions

British Journal of Dermatology

Volumn 153, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 241-253

  Chave, Toby A ^a   Mortimer, N J ^a   Sladden, M J ^a   Hall, A P ^a   Hutchinson, P E ^a  

^a LEICESTER ROYAL INFIRMARY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cidosporin; High dependency care; Intravenous immunoglobulins; Opoptosis; Plasmapheresis; Toxic epidermal necrolysis

Indexed keywords

CD8 ANTIGEN; CORTICOSTEROID; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; CYCLOSPORIN; DEATH RECEPTOR; DEXAMETHASONE; FAS LIGAND; GLUCOCORTICOID; HLA ANTIGEN CLASS 1; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN ENHANCER BINDING PROTEIN; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT; INSULIN; NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE; PREDNISOLONE; RAPAMYCIN; RECOMBINANT GRANULOCYTE COLONY STIMULATING FACTOR; TACROLIMUS; THALIDOMIDE; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR RECEPTOR 1; ZINC;

APOPTOSIS; ASSISTED VENTILATION; CLINICAL TRIAL; CYTOLYSIS; CYTOTOXIC LYMPHOCYTE; CYTOTOXIC T LYMPHOCYTE; CYTOTOXICITY; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG ELIMINATION; DRUG ERUPTION; DRUG FATALITY; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG POTENTIATION; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; EYE DISEASE; GENE AMPLIFICATION; HEMODIALYSIS; HLA SYSTEM; HUMAN; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; NONHUMAN; NUTRITIONAL SUPPORT; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEPTICEMIA; TOXIC EPIDERMAL NECROLYSIS; UPREGULATION; WOUND DRESSING;

ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONES; APOPTOSIS; CD8-POSITIVE T-LYMPHOCYTES; CYCLOSPORINE; EPIDERMAL NECROLYSIS, TOXIC; FAS LIGAND PROTEIN; HUMANS; IMMUNOGLOBULINS, INTRAVENOUS; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENTS; INSULIN; MEMBRANE GLYCOPROTEINS; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; NUTRITION PHYSIOLOGY; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR-ALPHA; ZINC;

EID: 24144494581     PISSN: 00070963     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2005.06721.x     Document Type: Review

References (148)

1. Sugimoto Y, Mizutani H, Sato T et al. Toxic epidermal necrolysis with severe gastrointestinal mucosal cell death: a patient who excreted long tubes of dead intestinal epithelium. J Dermatol 1998; 25:533-8.
2. Lebargy F, Wolkenstein P, Gisselbrecht M et al. Pulmonary complications in toxic epidermal necrolysis: a prospective clinical study. Intensive Care Med 1997; 23:1237-44.
3. Ducic I, Shalom A, Rising W et al. Outcome of patients with toxic epidermal necrolysis syndrome revisited. Plast Reconstr Surg 2002; 110:768-73.
4. Bastuji-Garin S, Fouchard N, Bertocchi M et al. SCORTEN: a severity-of-illness score for toxic epidermal necrolysis. J Invest Dermatol 2000; 115:149-53.
5. Paul C, Wolkenstein P, Adle H et al. Apoptosis as a mechanism of keratinocyte death in toxic epidermal necrolysis. Br J Dermatol 1996; 134:710-4.
6. Trefzer U, Brockhaus M, Lotscher H et al. The 55-kD tumor necrosis factor receptor on human keratinocytes is regulated by tumor necrosis factor-alpha and by ultraviolet B radiation. J Clin Invest 1993; 92:462-70.
7. Oishi M, Maeda K, Sugiyama S. Distribution of apoptosis-mediating Fas antigen in human skin and effects of anti-Fas monoclonal antibody on human epidermal keratinocyte and squamous cell carcinoma cell lines. Arch Dermatol Res 1994; 286:396-407.
8. Matsue H, Kobayashi H, Hosokawa T et al. Keratinocytes constitutively express the Fas antigen that mediates apoptosis in IFN gamma-treated cultured keratinocytes. Arch Dermatol Res 1995; 287:315-20.
9. Leverkus M, Yaar M, Gilchrest BA. Fas/Fas ligand interaction contributes to UV-induced apoptosis in human keratinocytes. Exp Cell Res 1997; 232:255-62.
10. Sayama K, Yonehara S, Watanabe Y et al. Expression of Fas antigen on keratinocytes in vivo and induction of apoptosis in cultured keratinocytes. J Invest Dermatol 1994; 103:330-4.
11. Kothny-Wilkes G, Kulms D, Poppelmann B et al. Interleukin-1 protects transformed keratinocytes from tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand. J Biol Chem 1998; 273:29247-53.
12. Leverkus M, Neumann M, Mengling T et al. Regulation of tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand sensitivity in primary and transformed human keratinocytes. Cancer Res 2000; 60:553-9.
13. Posadas SJ, Padial A, Torres MJ et al. Delayed reactions to drugs show levels of perform, granzyme B, and Fas-L to be related to disease severity. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2002; 109:155-61.
14. Heng MC, Allen SG. Efficacy of cyclophosphamide in toxic epidermal necrolysis. Clinical and pathophysiologic aspects. J Am Acad Dermatol 1991; 25:778-86.
15. Paquet P, Nikkels A, Arrese JE et al. Macrophages and tumor necrosis factor alpha in toxic epidermal necrolysis. Arch Dermatol 1994; 130:605-8.
16. Wolkenstein P, Latarjet J, Roujeau JC et al. Randomised comparison of thalidomide versus placebo in toxic epidermal necrolysis. Lancet 1998; 352:1586-9.
17. Hermes B, Haas N, Henz BM. [Plasmapheresis and immunopathogenetic aspects of toxic epidermal necrolysis]. Hautarzt 1996; 47:749-53.
18. Posadas SJ, Torres MJ, Mayorga C et al. Gene expression levels of cytokine profile and cytotoxic markers in non-immediate reactions to drugs. Blood Cells Mol Dis 2002; 29:179-89.
19. Paquet P, Pierard GE. Erythema multiforme and toxic epidermal necrolysis: a comparative study. Am J Dermatopathol 1997; 19:127-32.
20. Paquet P, Pierard GE. Soluble fractions of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-6 and of their receptors in toxic epidermal necrolysis: a comparison with second-degree burns. Int J Mol Med 1998; 1:459-62.
21. Redondo P, Vicente J, Espana A et al. Photo-induced toxic epidermal necrolysis caused by clobazam. Br J Dermatol 1996; 135:999-1002.
22. Correia O, Delgado L, Roujeau JC et al. Soluble interleukin 2 receptor and interleukin 1alpha in toxic epidermal necrolysis: a comparative analysis of serum and blister fluid samples. Arch Dermatol 2002; 138:29-32.
23. Zhuang L, Wang B, Shinder GA et al. TNF receptor p55 plays a pivotal role in murine keratinocyte apoptosis induced by ultraviolet B irradiation. J Immunol 1999; 162:1440-7.
24. Ruckert R, Lindner G, Bulfone-Paus S et al. High-dose proinflammatory cytokines induce apoptosis of hair bulb keratinocytes in vivo. Br J Dermatol 2000; 143:1036-9.
25. Liu AN, Mohammed AZ, Rice WR et al. Perforin-independent CD8(+) T-cell-mediated cytotoxicity of alveolar epithelial cells is preferentially mediated by tumor necrosis factor-alpha: relative insensitivity to Fas ligand. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1999; 20:849-58.
26. Arnold R, Seifert M, Asadullah K et al. Crosstalk between keratinocytes and T lymphocytes via Fas/Fas ligand interaction: modulation by cytokines. J Immunol 1999; 162:7140-7.
27. Wang CY, Mayo MW, Baldwin AS Jr. TNF- and cancer therapy-induced apoptosis: potentiation by inhibition of NF-kappaB. Science 1996; 274:784-7.
28. Qin JZ, Chaturvedi V, Denning MF et al. Role of NF-kappaB in the apoptotic-resistant phenotype of keratinocytes. J Biol Chem 1999; 274:37957-64.
29. Seitz CS, Freiberg RA, Hinata K et al. NF-kappaB determines localization and features of cell death in epidermis. J Clin Invest 2000; 105:253-60.
30. Wang CY, Cusack JC Jr, Liu R et al. Control of inducible chemoresistance: enhanced anti-tumor therapy through increased apoptosis by inhibition of NF-kappaB. Nat Med 1999; 5:412-7.
31. Webster JC, Huber RM, Hanson RL et al. Dexamethasone and tumor necrosis factor-alpha act together to induce the cellular inhibitor of apoptosis-2 gene and prevent apoptosis in a variety of cell types. Endocrinology 2002; 143:3866-74.
32. Tamatani M, Che YH, Matsuzaki H et al. Tumor necrosis factor induces Bcl-2 and Bcl-x expression through NFkappaB activation in primary hippocampal neurons. J Biol Chem 1999; 274:8531-8.
33. Beg AA, Baltimore D. An essential role for NF-kappaB in preventing TNF-alpha-induced cell death. Science 1996; 274:782-4.
34. van Antwerp DJ, Martin SJ, Kafri T et al. Suppression of TNF-alpha-induced apoptosis by NF-kappaB. Science 1996; 274:787-9.
35. Qin JZ, Bacon P, Chaturvedi V et al. Role of NF-kappaB activity in apoptotic response of keratinocytes mediated by interferon-gamma, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and tumor-necrosis-factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand. J Invest Dermatol 2001; 117:898-907.
36. Viard I, Wehrli P, Bullani R et al. Inhibition of toxic epidermal necrolysis by blockade of CD95 with human intravenous immunoglobulin. Science 1998; 282:490-3.
37. Berthou C, Michel L, Soulie A et al. Acquisition of granzyme B and Fas ligand proteins by human keratinocytes contributes to epidermal cell defense. J Immunol 1997; 159:5293-300.
38. Abe R, Shimizu T, Shibaki A et al. Toxic epidermal necrolysis and Stevens-Johnson syndrome are induced by soluble Fas ligand. Am J Pathol 2003; 162:1515-20.
39. Nassif A, Bensussan A, Dorothee G et al. Drug specific cytotoxic T-cells in the skin lesions of a patient with toxic epidermal necrolysis. J Invest Dermatol 2002; 118:728-33.
40. Schneider P, Holler N, Bodmer JL et al. Conversion of membrane-bound Fas (CD95) ligand to its soluble form is associated with downregulation of its proapoptotic activity and loss of liver toxicity. J Exp Med 1998; 187:1205-13.
41. Lerner LH, Qureshi AA, Reddy BV et al. Nitric oxide synthase in toxic epidermal necrolysis and Stevens-Johnson syndrome. J Invest Dermatol 2000; 114:196-9.
42. Pichler WJ. T cells in drug allergy. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2002; 2:9-15.
43. Yawalkar N, Egli F, Hari Y et al. Infiltration of cytotoxic T cells in drug-induced cutaneous eruptions. Clin Exp Allergy 2000; 30:847-55.
44. Mauri-Hellweg D, Bettens F, Mauri D et al. Activation of drug-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in individuals allergic to sulfonamides, phenytoin, and carbamazepine. J Immunol 1995; 155:462-72.
45. Zanni MP, von Greyerz S, Schnyder B et al. HLA-restricted, processing- and metabolism-independent pathway of drug recognition by human alpha beta T lymphocytes. J Clin Invest 1998; 102:1591-8.
46. Schnyder B, Frutig K, Mauri-Hellweg D et al. T-cell-mediated cytotoxicity against keratinocytes in sulfamethoxazol-induced skin reaction. Clin Exp Allergy 1998; 28:1412-7.
47. Miyauchi H, Hosokawa H, Akaeda T et al. T-cell subsets in drug-induced toxic epidermal necrolysis. Possible pathogenic mechanism induced by CD8-positive T cells. Arch Dermatol 1991; 127:851-5.
48. Friedmann PS, Strickland I, Pirmohamed M et al. Investigation of mechanisms in toxic epidermal necrolysis induced by carbamazepine. Arch Dermatol 1994; 130:598-604.
49. Correia O, Delgado L, Ramos JP et al. Cutaneous T-cell recruitment in toxic epidermal necrolysis. Further evidence of CD8+ lymphocyte involvement. Arch Dermatol 1993; 129:466-8.
50. Lowin B, Hahne M, Mattmann C et al. Cytolytic T-cell cytotoxicity is mediated through perforin and Fas lytic pathways. Nature 1994; 370:650-2.
51. Kagi D, Vignaux F, Ledermann B et al. Fas and perforin pathways as major mechanisms of T cell-mediated cytotoxicity. Science 1994; 265:528-30.
52. Herr I, Posovszky C, Di Marzio LD et al. Autoamplification of apoptosis following ligation of CD95-L, TRAIL and TNF-alpha. Oncogene 2000; 19:4255-62.
53. Garcia-Doval I, LeCleach L, Bocquet H et al. Toxic epidermal necrolysis and Stevens-Johnson syndrome: does early withdrawal of causative drugs decrease the risk of death? Arch Dermatol 2000; 136:323-7.
54. Bellows R, Tipping P, Boyce N. CVVH with dialysis removes cytokines from the circulation in septic patients. Crit Care Med 1993; 21:508-13.
55. Heering P, Grabensee B, Brause M. Cytokine removal in septic patients with continuous venovenous haemofiltration. Kidney Blood Press Res 2003; 26:128-34.
56. Ronco C, Ricci Z, Bellomo R. Importance of increased ultrafiltration volume and impact on mortality: sepsis and cytokine story and the role of continuous venovenous haemofiltration. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2001; 10:755-61.
57. Uchino S, Bellomo R, Goldsmith D et al. Super high flux haemofiltration: a new technique for cytokine removal. Intensive Care Med 2002; 28:651-5.
58. Morgera S, Klonower D, Rocktaschel J et al. TNF-α elimination with high cut-off haemofilters: a feasible clinical modality for septic patients? Nephrol Dial Transplant 2003; 18:1361-9.
59. Furubacke A, Berlin G, Anderson C et al. Lack of significant treatment effect of plasma exchange in the treatment of drug-induced toxic epidermal necrolysis? Intensive Care Med 1999; 25:1307-10.
60. Sakellariou G, Koukoudis P, Karpouzas J et al. Plasma exchange (PE) treatment in drug-induced toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN). Int J Artif Organs 1991; 14:634-8.
61. Bamichas G, Natse T, Christidou F et al. Plasma exchange in patients with toxic epidermal necrolysis. Ther Apher 2002; 6:225-8.
62. Chaidemenos GC, Chrysomallis F, Sombolos K et al. Plasmapheresis in toxic epidermal necrolysis. Int J Dermatol 1997; 36:218-21.
63. Kamanabroo D, Schmitz-Landgraf W, Czarnetzki BM. Plasmapheresis in severe drug-induced toxic epidermal necrolysis. Arch Dermatol 1985; 121:1548-9.
64. Egan CA, Grant WJ, Morris SE et al. Plasmapheresis as an adjunct treatment in toxic epidermal necrolysis. J Am Acad Dermatol 1999; 40:458-61.
65. McGee T, Munster A. Toxic epidermal necrolysis syndrome: mortality rate reduced with early referral to regional burn center. Plast Reconstr Surg 1998; 102:1018-22.
66. Khoo AK, Foo CL. Toxic epidermal necrolysis in a burns centre: a 6-year review. Bums 1996; 22:275-8.
67. Heimbach DM, Engrav LH, Marvin JA et al. Toxic epidermal necrolysis. A step forward in treatment. JAMA 1987; 257:2171-5.
68. Palmieri TL, Greenhalgh DG, Saffle JR et al. A multicenter review of toxic epidermal necrolysis treated in US burn centers at the end of the twentieth century. J Burn Care Rehabil 2002; 23:87-96.
69. Schulz JT, Sheridan RL, Ryan CM et al. A 10-year experience with toxic epidermal necrolysis. J Burn Care Rehabil 2000; 21:199-204.
70. Murphy JT, Purdue GF, Hunt JL. Toxic epidermal necrolysis. J Bum Care Rehabil 1997; 18:417-20.
71. Kelemen JJ III, Cioffi WG, McManus WF et al. Burn center care for patients with toxic epidermal necrolysis. J Am Coll Surg 1995; 180:273-8.
72. Engelhardt SL, Schurr MJ, Helgerson RB. Toxic epidermal necrolysis: an analysis of referral patterns and steroid usage. J Burn Care Rehabil 1997; 18:520-4.
73. Criton S, Devi K, Sridevi PK et al. Toxic epidermal necrolysis-a retrospective study. Int J Dermatol 1997; 36:923-5.
74. Lacy JA. Toxic epidermal necrolysis. Nutr Clin Pract 1991; 6:18-20.
75. Coss-Bu JA, Jefferson LS, Levy ML et al. Nutrition requirements in patients with toxic epidermal necrolysis. Nutr Clin Pract 1997; 12:81-4.
76. Pirrung MK. Management of toxic epidermal necrolysis. J Intraven Nurs 2001; 24:107-12.
77. Kreis BE, Middelkoop E, Vloemans AF, Kreis RW. The use of a PEG tube in a burn centre. Burns 2002; 28:191-7.
78. McGee DC, Gould MK. Preventing complications of central venous catheterisation. N Engl J Med 2003; 348:1123-33.
79. van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weckers P et al. Intensive insulin therapy in the critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 2001; 345:1359-67.
80. Peters W, Zaidi J, Douglas L. Toxic epidermal necrolysis: a burn-centre challenge. CMAJ 1991; 144:1477-80.
81. Arevalo JM, Lorente JA. Skin coverage with Biobrane biomaterial for the treatment of patients with toxic epidermal necrolysis. J Burn Care Rehabil 1999; 20:406-10.
82. Bradley T, Brown RE, Kucan JO et al. Toxic epidermal necrolysis: a review and report of the successful use of Biobrane for early wound coverage. Ann Plast Surg 1995; 35:124-32.
83. Kucan JO. Use of Biobrane in the treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis. J Burn Care Rehabil 1995; 16:324-7.
84. John T, Foulks GN, John ME et al. Amniotic membrane in the surgical management of acute toxic epidermal necrolysis. Ophthalmology 2002; 109:351-60.
85. Stables GI, Lever RS. Toxic epidermal necrolysis and systemic corticosteroids. Br J Dermatol 1993; 128:357.
86. van der Meer JB, Schuttelaar ML, Toth GG et al. Successful dexamethasone pulse therapy in a toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) patient featuring recurrent TEN to oxazepam. Clin Exp Dermatol 2001; 26:654-6.
87. Halebian PH, Corder VJ, Madden MR et al. Improved burn center survival of patients with toxic epidermal necrolysis managed without corticosteroids. Ann Surg 1986; 204:503-12.
88. Kim PS, Goldfarb IW, Gaisford JC, Slater H. Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis: a pathophysiologic review with recommendations for a treatment protocol. J Burn Clin Res 1983; 4:91-100.
89. Paliogianni F, Raptis A, Ahuja SS et al. Negative transcriptional regulation of human interleukin 2 (IL-2) gene by glucocorticoids through interference with nuclear transcription factors AP-1 and NF-AT. J Clin Invest 1993; 91:1481-9.
90. Almawi WY, Melemedjian OK. Negative regulation of nuclear factor-kappaB activation and function by glucocorticoids. J Mol Endocrinol 2002; 28:69-78.
91. Feng Z, Marti A, Jehn B et al. Glucocorticoid and progesterone inhibit involution and programmed cell death in the mouse mammary gland. J Cell Biol 1995; 131:1095-103.
92. Wen LP, Madani K, Fahrni JA et al. Dexamethasone inhibits lung epithelial cell apoptosis induced by IFN-gamma and Fas. Am J Physiol 1997; 273:L921-9.
93. Song Y, Mao B, Qian G. [Effects of dexamethasone on apoptosis and expression of Fas/FasL system in lung tissues of ALI rats]. Zhonghua Jie He He Hu Xi Za Zhi 2000; 23:23-6.
94. Evans-Storms RB, Cidlowski JA. Delineation of an antiapoptotic action of glucocorticoids in hepatoma cells: the role of nuclear factor-kappaB. Endocrinology 2000; 141:1854-62.
95. Bailly-Maitre B, de Sousa G, Zucchini N et al. Spontaneous apoptosis in primary cultures of human and rat hepatocytes: molecular mechanisms and regulation by dexamethasone. Cell Death Differ 2002; 9:945-55.
96. Messmer UK, Winkel G, Briner VA et al. Suppression of apoptosis by glucocorticoids in glomerular endothelial cells: effects on proapoptotic pathways. Br J Pharmacol 2000; 129:1673-83.
97. Pearl JM, Nelson DP, Schwartz SM et al. Glucocorticoids reduce ischemia-reperfusion-induced myocardial apoptosis in immature hearts. Ann Thorac Surg 2002; 74:830-6.
98. Sasson R, Tajima K, Amsterdam A. Glucocorticoids protect against apoptosis induced by serum deprivation, cyclic adenosine 3′,5′- monophosphate and p53 activation in immortalized human granulosa cells: involvement of Bcl-2. Endocrinology 2001; 142:802-11.
99. Newton CJ, Ran G, Xie YX et al. Statin-induced apoptosis of vascular endothelial cells is blocked by dexamethasone. J Endocrinol 2002; 174:7-16.
100. Trautmann A, Akdis M, Schmid-Grendelmeier P et al. Targeting keratinocyte apoptosis in the treatment of atopic dermatitis and allergic contact dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001; 108:839-46.
101. Tegelberg-Stassen MJ, van Vloten WA, Baart de la Faille H. Management of nonstaphylococcal toxic epidermal necrolysis: follow-up study of 16 case histories. Dermatologica 1990; 180:124-9.
102. Tripathi A, Ditto AM, Grammer LC et al. Corticosteroid therapy in an additional 13 cases of Stevens-Johnson syndrome: a total series of 67 cases. Allergy Asthma Proc 2000; 21:101-5.
103. Rasmussen JE. Toxic epidermal necrolysis. A review of 75 cases in children. Arch Dermatol 1975; 111:1135-9.
104. Power WJ, Ghoraishi M, Merayo-Lloves J et al. Analysis of the acute ophthalmic manifestations of the erythema multiforme/Stevens-Johnson syndrome/toxic epidermal necrolysis disease spectrum. Ophthalmology 1995; 102:1669-76.
105. Rzany B, Schmitt H, Schopf E. Toxic epidermal necrolysis in patients receiving glucocorticosteroids. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1991; 71:171-2.
106. Guibal F, Bastuji-Garin S, Chosidow O et al. Characteristics of toxic epidermal necrolysis in patients undergoing long-term glucocorticoid therapy. Arch Dermatol 1995; 131:669-72.
107. Roujeau JC, Guillaume JC, Fabre JP et al. Toxic epidermal necrolysis (Lyell syndrome). Incidence and drug etiology in France, 1981-1985. Arch Dermatol 1990; 126:37-42.
108. Kuprash DV, Boitchenko VE, Yarovinsky FO et al. Cyclosporin A blocks the expression of lymphotoxin alpha, but not lymphotoxin beta, in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Blood 2002; 100:1721-7.
109. Aoki Y, Kao PN. Cyclosporin A-sensitive calcium signaling represses NFkappaB activation in human bronchial epithelial cells and enhances NFkappaB activation in Jurkat T-cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1997; 234:424-31.
110. Pena C, Zhou Y, Lust D et al. Restoration of mitochondrial function reverses developmental neuronal death in vitro. J Comp Neurol 2001; 440:156-76.
111. Lee AU, Farrell GC. Mechanism of azathioprine-induced injury to hepatocytes: roles of glutathione depletion and mitochondrial injury. J Hepatol 2001; 35:756-64.
112. Aranha O, Zhu L, Alhasan S et al. Role of mitochondria in ciprofloxacin induced apoptosis in bladder cancer cells. J Urol 2002; 167:1288-94.
113. Jarrett P, Rademaker M, Havill J et al. Toxic epidermal necrolysis treated with cyclosporin and granulocyte colony stimulating factor. Clin Exp Dermotol 1997; 22:146-7.
114. Zaki I, Patel S, Reed R et al. Toxic epidermal necrolysis associated with severe hypocalcaemia, and treated with cyclosporin. Br J Dermatol 1995; 133:337-8.
115. Jarrett P, Ha T, Snow J. Toxic epidermal necrolysis and cyclosporin. Clin Exp Dermatol 1997; 22:254.
116. Sullivan JR, Watson A. Lamotrigine-induced toxic epidermal necrolysis treated with intravenous cyclosporin: a discussion of pathogenesis and immunosuppressive management. Australas J Dermatol 1996; 37:208-12.
117. Robak E, Robak T, Gora-Tybor J et al. Toxic epidermal necrolysis in a patient with severe aplastic anemia treated with cyclosporin A and G-CSF. J Med 2001; 32:31-9.
118. Arevalo JM, Lorente JA, Gonzalez-Herrada C et al. Treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis with cyclosporin A. J Trauma 2000; 48:473-8.
119. Stella M, Cassano P, Bollero D et al. Toxic epidermal necrolysis treated with intravenous high-dose immunoglobulins: our experience. Dermatology 2001; 203:45-9.
120. Tristani-Firouzi P, Petersen MJ, Saffle JR et al. Treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis with intravenous immunoglobulin in children. J Am Acad Dermatol 2002; 47:548-52.
121. Prins C, Kerdel FA, Padilla RS et al. Treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis with high-dose intravenous immunoglobulins: multicenter retrospective analysis of 48 consecutive cases. Arch Dermatol 2003; 139:26-32.
122. Trent JT, Kirsner RS, Romanelli P et al. Analysis of intravenous immunoglobulin for the treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis using SCORTEN: the University of Miami experience. Arch Dermatol 2003; 139:39-43.
123. Bachot N, Revuz J, Roujeau JC. Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment for Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis: a prospective noncomparative study showing no benefit on mortality or progression. Arch Dermatol 2003; 139:33-6.
124. Shortt R, Mittman N, Gomez M, Cartotto R. IVIG does not improve outcome in TEN. J Burn Care Rehabil 2003; 24:S88.
125. Brown KM, Silver GM, Halerz M et al. Toxic epidermal necrolysis: does immunoglobulin make a difference? J Burn Care Rehabil 2004; 25:81-8.
126. Wolff K, Tappeiner G. Treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis: the uncertainty persists but the fog is dispersing. Arch Dermatol 2003; 139:85-6.
127. Hall VC, El-Azhary RA, Bouwhuis S et al. Dermatologic side effects of thalidomide in patients with multiple myeloma. J Am Acad Dermatol 2003; 48:548-52.
128. Horowitz SB, Stirling AL. Thalidomide-induced toxic epidermal necrolysis. Pharmacotherapy 1999; 19:1177-80.
129. Haslett PA, Corral LG, Albert M et al. Thalidomide costimulates primary human T lymphocytes, preferentially inducing proliferation, cytokine production, and cytotoxic responses in the CD8+ subset. J Exp Med 1998; 187:1885-92.
130. Fischer M, Fiedler E, Marsch WC et al. Antitumour necrosis factor-alpha antibodies (infliximab) in the treatment of a patient with toxic epidermal necrolysis. Br J Dermatol 2002; 146:707-9.
131. 3: mechanisms and clinical aspects. In: Vitamin D Endocrine System: Structural, Biological, Genetic and Clinical Aspects (Norman AW, Bouillon R, Thomasset M, eds). Riverside: University of California 2000; 477-84.
132. Zhou H, Li XM, Meinkoth J et al. Akt regulates cell survival and apoptosis at a postmitochondrial level. J Cell Biol 2000; 151:483-94.
133. Sunderman FW Jr. The influence of zinc on apoptosis. Ann Clin Lab Sci 1995; 25:134-42.
134. Takano Y, Okudaira M, Harmon BV. Apoptosis induced by microtubule disrupting drugs in cultured human lymphoma cells. Inhibitory effects of phorbol ester and zinc sulphate. Pathol Res Pract 1993; 189:197-203.
135. Chai F, Truong-Tran AQ, Ho LH et al. Regulation of caspase activation and apoptosis by cellular zinc fluxes and zinc deprivation: a review. Immunol Cell Biol 1999; 77:272-8.
136. Shankar AH, Prasad AS. Zinc and immune function: the biological basis of altered resistance to infection. Am J Clin Nutr 1998; 68:8447-63.
137. Bloom SR, Polak JM. Glucagonoma syndrome. Am J Med 1987; 82:25-36.
138. Perniciaro C, Rappaport KD, White JW Jr. Apoptosis with positive direct immunofluorescence findings in a patient with necrolytic migratory erythema. Cutis 1998; 62:129-32.
139. Haneke E. [Acquired zinc deficiency mimicking glucagonoma dermatitis. Histology and electron microscopy]. Z Hautkr 1984; 59:902-8.
140. Dowd PS, Kelleher J, Walker BE et al. Nutrition and cellular immunity in hospital patients. Br J Nutr 1986; 55:515-27.
141. Neves I Jr, Bertho AL, Veloso VG et al. Improvement of the lymphoproliferative immune response and apoptosis inhibition upon in vitro treatment with zinc of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from HIV+ individuals. Clin Exp Immunol 1998; 111:264-8.
142. Prasad AS. Zinc and immunity. Mol Cell Biochem 1998; 188:63-9.
143. Wellinghausen N, Rink L. The significance of zinc for leukocyte biology. J Leukoc Biol 1998; 64:571-7.
144. Chandra RK. Excessive intake of zinc impairs immune responses. JAMA 1984; 252:1443-6.
145. Kown MH, van der Steenhoven TJ, Blankenberg FG et al. Zinc-mediated reduction of apoptosis in cardiac allografts. Circulation 2000; 102:111228-32.
146. Kown MH, van der Steenhoven TJ, Jahncke CL et al. Zinc chloride-mediated reduction of apoptosis as an adjunct immunosuppressive modality in cardiac transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 2002; 21:360-5.
147. Goulden V, Goodfield MJ. Recombinant granulocyte colony-stimulating factor in the management of toxic epidermal necrolysis. Br J Dermatol 1996; 135:305-6.
148. Winfred RI, Nanda S, Horvath G et al. Captopril-induced toxic epidermal necrolysis and agranulocytosis successfully treated with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor. South Med J 1999; 92:918-20.