Gonadal steroids, brain, and behavior: Role of context

Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience

Volumn 4, Issue 2, 2002, Pages 123-137

  Rubinow, David R ^a   Schmidt, Peter J ^a  

^a NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

Depression; Premenstrual syndrome (PMS); Sexual dimorphism; Steroid; Women

Indexed keywords

MIFEPRISTONE; SEX HORMONE; STEROID HORMONE;

BEHAVIOR; BRAIN FUNCTION; CLINICAL TRIAL; DEPRESSION; ENDOCRINE DISEASE; GONAD; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HORMONE ACTION; HORMONE BLOOD LEVEL; HORMONE SENSITIVITY; HUMAN; LUTEAL PHASE; MENOPAUSAL SYNDROME; MENTAL DISEASE; MOOD DISORDER; NERVE CELL; NEUROTRANSMISSION; PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME; PUERPERAL DEPRESSION; REPRODUCTION; REVIEW;

EID: 0037654961     PISSN: 12948322     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (204)

1. Dorfman RI, Shipley RA. Androgens: Biochemistry, Physiology, and Clinical Significance. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons; 1956.
2. Brown-Séquard CE. The effects produced on man by subcutaneous injections of a liquid obtained from the testicles of animals. Lancet. 1889;2:105-107.
3. Easterbrook CC. Organo-therapeutics in mental diseases. BMJ. 1900;2:813-823.
4. Brown-Séquard CE. On a new therapeutic method consisting in the use of organic liquids extracted from glands and other organs. BMJ. 1893;1:1145-1147, 1212-1214.
5. Wilson JD. Charles-Edouard Brown-Séquard and the centennial of endocrinology. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1990;71:1403-1409.
6. Jensen EV, Jacobson HI. Basic guides to the mechanism of estrogen action. Recent Prog Horm Res. 1962;18:387-414.
7. Toft D, Gorski J. A receptor molecule for estrogens: isolation from the rat uterus and preliminary characterization. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1966;55:1574-1581.
8. McEwen BS. Basic neurobiology of ovarian steroids: clinical implications. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2002;4:163-175.
9. Halachmi S, Marden E, Martin G, MacKay H, Abbondanza C, Brown M. Estrogen receptor-associated proteins: possible mediators of hormoneinduced transcription. Science. 1994;264:1455-1458.
10. Uht RM, Anderson CM, Webb P, Kushner PJ. Transcriptional activities of estrogen and glucocorticoid receptors are functionally integrated at the AP-1 response element. Endocrinology. 1997;138:2900-2908.
11. Smith CL, Nauaz Z, O'Malley BW. Co-activator and co-repressor regulation of the agonist/antagonist activity of the mixed antiestrogen, 4-hydroxytamoxifen. Mol Endocrinol. 1997;11:657-666.
12. Jackson TA, Richer JK, Bain DL, Takimoto GS, Tung L, Horwitz KB. The partial agonist activity of antagonist-occupied steroid receptors is controlled by a novel hinge domain-binding co-activator L7/SPA and the corepressors N-COR or SMRT. Mol Endocrinol. 1997;11:693-705.
13. Kuiper GGJM, Shughrue PJ, Merchenthaler I, Gustafsson JA. The estrogen receptor β subtype: a novel mediator of estrogen action in neuroendocrine systems. Front Neuroendocrinol. 1998;19:253-286.
14. Moore JT, McKee DD, Slentz-Kesler K, et al. Cloning and characterization of human estrogen receptor β isoforms. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1998;247:75-78.
15. Shughrue PJ, Lane MV, Merchenthaler I. Comparative distribution of estrogen receptor-α and -β mRNA in the rat central nervous system. J Comp Neurol. 1997;388:507-525.
16. Paech K, Webb P, Kuiper GGJM, et al. Differential ligand activation of estrogen receptors ERα and ERβ at AP1 sites. Science. 1997;277:1508-1510.
17. Zhang L, Li B, Zhao W, et al. Sex-related differences in MAPKs activation in rat astrocytes: effects of estrogen on cell death. Mol Brain Res. 2002. In press.
18. Grino PB, Griffin JE, Wilson JD. Testosterone at high concentrations interacts with the human androgen receptor similarly to dihydrotestosterone. Endocrinology. 1990;126:1165-1172.
19. Naftolin F, Garcia-Segura LM, Keefe D, Leranth C, MacLusky NJ, Brawer JR. Estrogen effects on the synaptology and neural membranes of the rat hypothalamic arcuate nucleus. Biol Reprod. 1990;42:21-28.
20. Mahendroo MS, Cala KM, Landrum DP, Russell DW. Fetal death in mice lacking 5α-reductase type 1 caused by estrogen excess. Mol Endocrinol. 1997;11:917-927.
21. Majewska MD, Harrison NL, Schwartz RD, Barker JL, Paul SM. Steroid hormone metabolites are barbiturate-like modulators of the GABA receptor. Science. 1986;232:1004-1007.
22. Poletti A, Celotti F, Maggi R, Melcangi RC, Martini L, Negri-Cesi P. Aspects of hormonal steroid metabolism in the nervous system. In: Baulieu EE, Robel P, Schumacher M, eds. Contemporary Endocrinology: Neurosteroids. A New Regulatory Function in the Nervous System, Totowa, NJ: Humana Press Inc; 1999:97-123.
23. Phoenix CH, Goy RW, Gerall AA, Young WC. Organizing action of prenatally administered testosterone propionate on the tissues mediating mating behavior in the female guinea pig. Endocrinology. 1959;65:369-382.
24. Gorski RA, Gordon JH, Shryne JE, Southam AM. Evidence for a morphological sex difference within the medial preoptic area of the rat brain. Brain Res. 1978;148:333-346.
25. Toran-Allerand CD. Developmental interactions of estrogens with the neurotrophins and their receptors. In: Micevych P, Hammer RP, eds. Neurobiological Effects of Sex Steroid Hormones. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 1994:391-411.
26. Miranda P, Williams CL, Einstein G. Granule cells in aging rats are sexually dimorphic in their response to estradiol. J Neurosci. 1999;19:3316-3325.
27. Watters JJ, Campbell JS, Cunningham MJ, Krebs EG, Dorsa DM. Rapid membrane effects of steroids in neuroblastoma cells: effects of estrogen on mitogen-activated protein kinase signalling cascade and c-fos immediate early gene transcription. Endocrinology. 1997;138:4030-4033.
28. Garcia-Segura LM, Cardona-Gomez P, Naftolin F, Chowen JA. Estradiol upregulates Bcl-2 expression in adult brain neurons. Neuroendocrinology. 1998;9:593-597.
29. Gouras GK, Xu H, Gross RS, Greenfield JP, Hai B, Wang R, Greengard P. Testosterone reduces neuronal secretion of Alzheimer's beta-amyloid peptides. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000;97:1202-1205.
30. Zhang L, Li BS, Ma W, et al. Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfated derivative (DHEAS) regulate apoptosis during neurogenesis by triggering the Akt signaling pathway in opposing ways. Mol Brain Res. 2002;98:58-66.
31. Witelson SA. Neural sexual mosaicism: sexual differentiation of the human temporo-parietal region for functional asymmetry. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 1991;16:131-153.
32. Ongur D, Drevets WC, Price JL. Glial reduction in the subgenual prefrontal cortex in mood disorders. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998;95:13290-13295.
33. Rajkowska G, Miguel-Hidalgo JJ, Wei J, et al. Morphometric evidence for neuronal and glial prefrontal cell pathology in major depression. Biol Psychiatry. 1999;4S:1085-1098.
34. Rajkowska G. Postmortem studies in mood disorder indicate altered numbers of neurons and glial cells. Biol Psychiatry. 2000;48:766-777.
35. Post RM, Rubinow DR, Ballenger JC. Conditioning and sensitisation in the longitudinal course of affective illness. Br J Psychiatry. 1986;149:191-201.
36. Antelman SM, Caggiula AR, Kocan D, et al. One experience with "lower" or "higher" intensity stressors, respectively enhances or diminishes responsiveness to haloperidol weeks later: implications for understanding drug variability. Brain Res. 1991;566:276-283.
37. Weiss SR, Post RM, Pert A, Woodward R, Murman D. Context-dependent cocaine sensitization: differential effect of haloperidol on development versus expression. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1989;34:655-661.
38. Liu D, Diorio J, Tannenbaum B, et al. Maternal care, hippocampal glucocorticoid receptors, and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses to stress. Science. 1997;277:1659-1662.
39. Levine S. Infantile experience and resistance to physiological stress. Science. 1975;126:405-406.
40. Francis D, Diorio J, Liu D, Meaney MJ. Nongenomic transmission across generations of maternal behavior and stress responses in the rat. Science. 1999;286:1155-1158.
41. Ward IL, Weisz J. Differential effects of maternal stress on circulating levels of corticosterone, progesterone, and testosterone in male and female rat fetuses and their mothers. Endocrinology. 1984;114:1635-1644.
42. Ward IL, Weisz J. Maternal stress alters plasma testosterone in fetal males. Science. 1980;207:328-329.
43. Ward IL, Stehm KE. Prenatal stress feminizes juvenile play patterns in male rats. Physiol Behav. 1991;50:601-605.
44. Moore CL, Dou H, Juraska JM. Maternal stimulation affects the number of motor neurons in a sexually dimorphic nucleus of the lumbar spinal cord. Brain Res. 1992;572:52-56.
45. Schechter D, Gandelman R. Inter-male aggression in mice: influence of gonadectomy and prior fighting experience. Aggress Behav. 1981;7:187-193.
46. Pfaff DW. Morphological changes in the brains of adult male rats after neonatal castration. J Endocrinol. 1966;36:415-416.
47. Raisman G, Field PM. Sexual dimorphism in the preoptic area of the rat. Science. 1971;173:731-733.
48. Gorski RA. Sexual differentiation of the endocrine brain and its control. In: Motta M, ed. Brain Endocrinology. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1991:71-104.
49. Pilgrim C, Hutchison JB. Developmental regulation of sex differences in the brain: can the role of gonadal steroids be redefined? Neuroscience. 1994;60:843-855.
50. Reisert L, Pilgrim C. Sexual differentiation of monoaminergic neurons genetic or epigenetic? Trends Neurosci. 1991;14:468-473.
51. McEwen BS, Biegon A, Fischette CT, Luine VN, Parsons B, Rainbow TC. Sex differences in programming of responses to estradiol in the brain. In: Serio M, Motta, M, Zanisi M, Martini L, eds. Sexual Differentiation: Basic and Clinical Aspects. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1984:93-98.
52. Luine VN. Estradiol increases choline acetyltransferase activity in specific basal forebrain nuclei and projection areas of female rats. Exp Neurol. 1985;89:484-490.
53. Arendash GW, Gorski RA. Effects of discrete lesions of the sexually dimorphic nucleus of the preoptic area or other medial preoptic regions on the sexual behavior of male rats. Brain Res Bull 1983;10:147-150.
54. De Vries GJ, Boyle PA. Double duty for sex differences in the brain. Behav Brain Res. 1998;92:205-213.
55. Rubinow DR, Schmidt PJ, Roca CA. Hormonal and gender influences on mood regulation. In: Nemeroff CB, ed. Neuropsychopharmacology: the Fifth Generation of Progress, Baltimore, Md: Lippincott Williams & Williams. 2002. In press.
56. Psychiatric Disorders in America: the Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study. New York, NY: The Free Press; 1991.
57. Weissman MM, Klerman GL. Sex differences in the epidemiology of depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1977;34:98-111.
58. Weissman MM, Bland R, Joyce PR, Newman 5, Wells JE, Witchen HU. Sex differences in rates of depression: cross-national perspectives. J Affect Disord. 1993;29:77-84.
59. Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Swartz M, Blazer DG, Nelson CB. Sex and depression in the National Comorbidity Survey I: lifetime prevalence, chronicity and recurrence. J Affect Disord. 1993;29:85-96.
60. Leibenluft E, Hardin TA, Rosenthal NE. Gender differences in seasonal affective disorder. Depression. 1995;3:13-19.
61. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.
62. Weissman MM, Klerman GL. Sex differences and the epidemiology of depression. In: Guggenheim FG, Nadelson CC, eds. Major Psychiatric Disorders: Overviews and Selected Readings. New York, NY: Elsevier Science Publishing; 1982:95-114.
63. Weissman MM, Klerman GL. Gender and depression. Trends Neurosci. 1985;8:416-420.
64. Leibenluft E. Women with bipolar illness: clinical and research issues. Am J Psychiatry. 1996;153:163-173.
65. Anderson JC, Williams S, McGee R, Silva PA. DSM-III disorders in preadolescent children: prevalence in a large sample from the general population. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1987;44:69-77.
66. McGee R, Feehan M, Williams S, Anderson J. DSM-III disorders from age 11 to age 15 years. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1992;31:50-59.
67. Leibenluft E. Gender differences in major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder. CNS Spectrums. 1999;4:25-33.
68. Frank E, Carpenter LL, Kupfer DJ. Sex differences in recurrent depression: are there any that are significant? Am J Psychiatry. 1988;145:41-45.
69. Thase ME, Reynolds CF, Frank E, et al. Do depressed men and women respond similarly to cognitive-behavior therapy. Am J Psychiatry. 1994;151:500-505.
70. Burke KC, Burke JD, Regier DA, Rae DS. Age at onset of selected mental-disorders in five community populations. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1990;47:511-518.
71. Winokur G, Tsuang MT, Crowe RR. The Iowa 500: affective disorder in relatives of manic and depressed patients. Am J Psychiatry. 1982;139:209-212.
72. Kornstein SG, Schatzberg AF, Yonkers KA, et al. Gender differences in presentation of chronic major depression. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1995;31:711-718.
73. Fava M, Abraham M, Alpert J, Nierenberg AA, Pava JA, Rosenbaum JF. Gender differences in axis I comorbidity among depressed outpatients. J Affect Disord. 1996;38:129-133.
74. Spicer CC, Hare EH, Slater E. Neurotic and psychotic forms of depressive illness; evidence from age-incidence in a national sample. Br J Psychiatry. 1973;123:535-541.
75. Nolen-Hoeksema S. Sex differences in unipolar depression: evidence and theory. Psychol Bull. 1987;101:259-282.
76. Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Nelson CB, Hughes M, Swartz M, Blazer DG. Sex and depression in the National Comorbidity Survey II: cohort effects. J Affect Disord. 1994;30:15-26.
77. Simpson HB, Nee JC, Endicott J. First-episode major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1997;54:633-639.
78. Zlotnick C, Shea MT, Pilkonis PA, Elkin I, Ryan C. Gender, type of treatment, dysfunctional attitudes, social support, life events, and depressive symptoms over naturalistic follow-up. Am J Psychiatry. 1996;153:1021-1027.
79. Sargeant JK, Bruce ML, Florio LP, Weissman MM. Factors associated with 1-year outcome of major depression in the community. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1990;47:519-526.
80. Aneshensel CS. The natural history of depressive symptoms. Res Commun Ment Health. 1985;5:45-74.
81. Ernst C, Angst J. The Zurich Study. XII. Sex differences in depression. Evidence from longitudinal epidemiological data. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1992;241:222-230.
82. Keitner GI, Ryan CE, Miller IW, Kohn R, Epstein NB. 12-month outcome of patients with major depression and comorbid psychiatric or medical illness (compound depression). Am J Psychiatry. 1991;148:345-350.
83. Winokur G, Coryell W, Keller M, Endicott J, Akiskal H. A prospective follow-up of patients with bipolar and primary unipolar affective-disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993;50:457-465.
84. Young MA, Fogg LF, Scheftner WA, Keller MB, Fawcett JA. Sex differences in the lifetime prevalence of depression: does varying the diagnostic criteria reduce the female/male ratio? J Affect Disord. 1990;18:187-192.
85. Angst J, Dobler-Mikola A. Do the diagnostic criteria determine the sex ratio in depression? J Affect Disord. 1984;7:189-198.
86. Bebbington PE, Brugha T, MacCarthy B, et al. The Camberwell Collaborative Depression Study, I: depressed probands - adversity and the form of depression. Br J Psychiatry. 1988;152:754-765.
87. Karp JF, Frank E. Combination therapy and the depressed woman. Depression. 1995;3:91-98.
88. Silberg J, Pickles A, Rutter M, et al. The influence of genetic factors and life stress on depression among adolescent girls. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56:225-232.
89. Blazer DG, Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Swartz MS. The prevalence and distribution of major depression in a national community sample: the National Comorbidity Survey. Am J Psychiatry. 1994;151:979-986.
90. Regier DA, Burke JD, Burke KC. Comorbidity of affective and anxiety disorders in the NIMH Epidemiologic Catchment Area Program. In: Maser JD, Cloninger CR, eds. Comorbidity of Mood and Anxiety Disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1990:113-122.
91. Judd LL. When anxiety disorders are comorbid with major depression: social and clinical burden. 147th American Psychiatric Association Meeting. Philadelphia, Pa. 1994. Abstract.
92. Reus VI. Behavioral aspects of thyroid disease in women. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 1989;12:153-165.
93. Whybrow PC. Sex differences in thyroid axis function: relevance to affective disorder and its treatment. Depression. 1995;3:33-42.
94. Moldin SO, Scheftner WA, Rice JP, Nelson E, Knesevich MA, Akiskal H. Association between major depressive disorder and physical illness. Psychol Med. 1993;23:755-761.
95. Old Age Depression Interest Group. How long should the elderly take antidepressants? A double-blind placebo-controlled study of continuation/prophylaxis therapy with dothiepin. Br J Psychiatry. 1993;162:175-182.
96. Raskin A. Age-sex differences in response to antidepressant drugs. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1974;159:120-130.
97. Glassman AH, Perel JM, Shostak M, Kantor SJ, Fleiss JL. Clinical implications of imipramine plasma levels for depressive illness. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1977;34:197-204.
98. Coppen A, Whybrow PC, Noguera R, Maggs R, Prange AJ, Jr. The comparative antidepressant value of L-tryptophan and imipramine with and without attempted potentiation by liothyronine. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1972;26:234-241.
99. Davidson J, Pelton S. Forms of atypical depression and their response to antidepressant drugs. Psychiatry Res. 1986;17:87-95.
100. Kornstein SC, Schatzberg AF, Thase ME, et al. Gender differences in treatment response to sertraline versus imipramine in chronic depression. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157:1445-1452.
101. Dawkins K, Potter WZ. Gender differences in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of psychotropics: focus on women. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1991;27:417-426.
102. Yonkers KA, Kando JC, Cole JO, Blumenthal S. Gender differences in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of psychotropic medication. Am J Psychiatry. 1992;149:587-595.
103. Moody JP, Tait AC, Todrick A. Plasma levels of imipramine and desmethylimipramine during therapy. Br J Psychiatry. 1967;113:183-193.
104. Preskorn SH, Mac DS. Plasma levels of amitriptyline: effects of age and sex. J Clin Psychiatry. 1985;46:276-277.
105. Gex-Fabry M, Balant-Gorgia AE, Balant LP, Garrone G. Clomipramine metabolism: model-based analysis of variability factors from drug monitoring data. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1990;19:241-255.
106. Greenblatt DJ, Friedman H, Burstein ES, et al. Trazodone kinetics: effect of age, gender, and obesity. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1987;42:193-200.
107. Warrington SJ. Clinical implications of the pharmacology of sertraline. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 1991;6:11-21.
108. Altshuler LL, Post RM, Leverich GS, Mikalauskas K, Rosoff A, Ackerman L. Antidepressant-induced mania and cycle acceleration: a controversy revisited. Am J Psychiatry. 1995;152:1130-1138.
109. Shaywitz BA, Shaywitz SE, Pugh KR, et al. Sex differences in the functional organization of the brain for language. Nature. 1995;373:607-609.
110. Giedd JN, Blumenthal J, Jeffries NO, et al. Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study. Nature. 1999;2:861-863.
111. Azari NP, Pettigrew KD, Pietrini P, Murphy DG, Horwitz B, Schapiro MB. Sex-differences in patterns of hemispheric cerebral metabolism - a multipleregression discriminant-analysis of positron emission tomographic data. Int J Neurosci. 1995;81:1-20.
112. Allen L, Hines M, Shryne J, Gorski R. Two sexually dimorphic cell groups in the human brain. J Neurosci. 1989;9:497-506.
113. George MS, Ketter TA, Parekh PI, Herscovitch P, Post RM. Gender differences in regional cerebral blood flow during transient self-induced sadness or happiness. Biol Psychiatry. 1996;40:859-871.
114. 2 receptor in the living human brain. Neurosci Lett. 1996;204:25-28.
115. Nishizawa S, Benkelfat C, Young SN, et al. Differences between males and females in rates of serotonin synthesis in human brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1997;94:5308-5313.
116. Rodriguez G, Warkentin S, Risberg J, Rosadini G. Sex differences in regional cerebral blood flow. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 1988;8:783-789.
117. Gur RC, Gur RE, Obrist WD, et al. Sex and handedness differences in cerebral blood flow during rest and during cognitive activity. Science. 1982;217:659-661.
118. Gur RC, Gur RE, Obrist WD, Skolnick BE, Reivich M. Age and regional cerebral blood flow at rest and during cognitive activity. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1987;44:617-621.
119. Shaw T, Meyer JS, Mortel K, et al. Effects of normal aging, sex, and risk factors for stroke on regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) in normal volunteers. In: Gotoh F, Hagai H, Tazaki Y, eds. Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, Copenhagen, Denmark: Munksgaard; 1979.
120. Esposito G, Van Horn JD, Weinberger DR, Berman KF. Gender differences in cerebral blood flow as a function of cognitive state with PET. J Nucl Med. 1996;37:559-564.
121. Kulynych JJ, Vladar K, Jones DW, Weinberger DR. Gender differences in the normal lateralization of the supratemporal cortex: MRI surface-rendering morphometry of Heschl's gyrus and the planum temporale. Cereb Cortex. 1994;4:107-118.
122. Baxter LR, Jr, Mazziotta JC, Phelps ME, Selin CE, Guze BH, Fairbanks L. Cerebral glucose metabolic rates in normal human females versus normal males. Psychiatry Res. 1987;21:237-245.
123. Andreason PJ, Zametkin AJ, Guo AC, Baldwin P, Cohen RM. Gender-related differences in regional cerebral glucose metabolism in normal volunteers. Psychiatry Res. 1993;51:175-183.
124. Berman KF, Schmidt PJ, Rubinow DR, et al. Modulation of cognition-specific cortical activity by gonadal steroids: a positron-emission tomography study in women. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997;94:8836-8841.
125. Shaywitz SE, Shaywitz BA, Pugh KR, et al. Effect of estrogen on brain activation patterns in postmenopausal women during working memory tasks. JAMA. 1999;281:1197-1202.
126. Wong DF, Broussolle EP, Wand G, et al. In vivo measurement of dopamine receptors in human brain by positron emission tomography: age and sex differences. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1988;515:203-214.
127. Smith MJ, Keel JC, Greenberg BD, et al. Menstrual cycle effects on cortical excitability. Neurology. 1999;53:2069-2072.
128. Smith MJ, Adams LF, Schmidt PJ, Rubinow DR, Wassermann EM. Ovarian hormone effects on human cortical excitability. Ann Neurol. 2002. In press.
129. von Feuchtersleben E. The Principles of Medical Psychology. London, UK: Sydenham Society; 1847.
130. Rubinow DR, Roy-Byrne PP. Premenstrual syndromes: overview from a methodologic perspective. Am J Psychiatry. 1984;141:163-172.
131. Rubinow DR, Roy-Byrne PP, Hoban MC, Gold PW, Post RM. Prospective assessment of menstrually related mood disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 1984;141:684-686.
132. NIMH Premenstrual Syndrome Workshop Guidelines. Rockville, Md: National Institute of Mental Health; 1983.
133. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 3rd ed, revised. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1987.
134. Wang M, Seippel L, Purdy RH, Bäckström T. Relationship between symptom severity and steroid variation in women with premenstrual syndrome: study on serum pregnenolone, pregnenolone sulfate, 5α-pregnane-3,20-dione and 3α-hydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996;81:1076-1082.
135. Redei E, Freeman EW. Daily plasma estradiol and progesterone levels over the menstrual cycle and their relation to premenstrual symptoms. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 1995;20:259-267.
136. Facchinetti F, Genazzani AD, Martignoni E, Fioroni L, Nappi G, Genazzani AR. Neuroendocrine changes in luteal function in patients with premenstrual syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1993;76:1123-1127.
137. Backstrom T, Aakvaag A. Plasma prolactin and testosterone during the luteal phase in women with premenstrual tension syndrome. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 1981;6:245-251.
138. Eriksson E, Sundblad C, Lisjo P, Modigh K, Andersch B. Serum levels of androgens are higher in women with premenstrual irritability and dysphoria than in controls. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 1992;17:195-204.
139. Bloch M, Schmidt PJ, Su TP, Tobin MB, Rubinow DR. Pituitary-adrenal hormones and testosterone across the menstrual cycle in women with premenstrual syndrome and controls. Biol Psychiatry. 1998;43:897-903.
140. Schechter D, Strasser TJ, Endicott J, Petkova E, Nee J. Role of ovarian steroids in modulating mood in premenstrual syndrome. Abstr Soc Biol Psych 51st Annu Meeting. 1996:646.
141. Halbreich U, Endicott J, Goldstein S, Nee J. Premenstrual changes and changes in gonadal hormones. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1986;74:576-586.
142. Roca CA, Schmidt PJ, Bloch M, Rubinow DR. Implications of endocrine studies of premenstrual syndrome. Psychiatr Ann. 1996;26:576-580.
143. Rubinow DR, Schmidt PJ, Roca CA, Daly RC. Gonadal hormones and behavior in women: concentrations vs context. In: Pfaff D, ed. Hormones, Brain and Behavior. San Diego, Calif: Academic Press. 2002. In press.
144. Schmidt PJ, Nieman LK, Grover GN, Muller KL, Merriam GR, Rubinow DR. Lack of effect of induced menses on symptoms in women with premenstrual syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1991;324:1174-1179.
145. Schmidt PJ, Nieman LK, Danaceau MA, Adams LF, Rubinow DR. Differential behavioral effects of gonadal steroids in women with and in those without premenstrual syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:209-216.
146. Bancroft J, Boyle H, Warner P, Fraser HM. The use of an LHRH agonist, buserelin, in the long-term management of premenstrual syndromes. Clin Endocrinol. 1987;27:171-182.
147. Mortola JF, Girton L, Fischer U. Successful treatment of severe premenstrual syndrome by combined use of gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist and estrogen/progestin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1991;71:252A-252F.
148. Rubinow DR, Hoban MC, Grover GN, et al. Changes in plasma hormones across the menstrual cycle in patients with menstrually related mood disorder and in control subjects. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1988;158:5-11.
149. Rubinow DR, Schmidt PJ, Roca CA. Estrogen-serotonin interactions: implications for affective regulation. Biol Psychiatry. 1998;44:839-850.
150. Ho HP, Olsson M, Westberg L, Melke J, Eriksson E. The serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine reduces sex steroid-related aggression in female rats: an animal model of premenstrual irritability? Neuropsychopharmacology. 2001;24:502-510.
151. Bancroft J, Cook A, Davidson D, Bennie J, Goodwin G. Blunting of neuroendocrine responses to infusion of L-tryptophan in women with perimenstrual mood change. Psychol Med. 1991;21:305-312.
152. Su TP, Schmidt PJ, Danaceau M, Murphy DL, Rubinow DR. Effect of menstrual cycle phase on neuroendocrine and behavioral responses to the serotonin agonist m-chlorophenylpiperazine in women with premenstrual syndrome and controls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997;82:1220-1228.
153. Dimmock PW, Wyatt KM, Jones PW, O'Brien PMS. Efficacy of selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors in premenstrual syndrome: a systematic review. Lancet. 2000;356:1131-1136.
154. Menkes DB, Coates DC, Fawcett JP. Acute tryptophan depletion aggravates premenstrual syndrome. J Affect Disord. 1994;32:37-44.
155. Roca CA, Schmidt PJ, Smith MJ, Danaceau MA, Murphy DL, Rubinow DR. Effects of metergoline on symptoms in women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2002. In press.
156. Beilin J, Zajac JD. Function of the human androgen receptor varies according to CAG repeat number within the normal range. 81st Annual Meeting Endocrinology Society. San Diego, Calif. 1999;500. Abstract.
157. Kieback DG, Tong XW, Weigel NL, Agoulnik IU. A genetic mutation in the progesterone receptor (PROGINS) leads to an increased risk of non-familial breast and ovarian cancer causing inadequate control of estrogen receptor driven proliferation. J Soc Gynecol Invest. 1998;5:40a.
158. Giovannucci E, Stampfer MJ, Krithivas K, et al. The CAG repeat within the androgen receptor gene and its relationship to prostate cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997;94:3320-3323.
159. Wang-Gohrke S, Chang-Claude J, Becher H, Kieback DG, Runnebaum IB. Progesterone receptor gene polymorphism is associated with decreased risk for breast cancer by age 50. Cancer Res. 2000;60:2348-2350.
160. Spearow JL, Doemeny P, Sera R, Leffler R, Barkley M. Genetic variation in susceptibility to endocrine disruption by estrogen in mice. Science. 1999;285:1259-1261.
161. Lesch KP, Bengel D, Hells A, et al. Association of anxiety-related traits with a polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene regulatory region. Science. 1996;274:1527-1531.
162. Pollock BG, Ferrell RE, Mulsant BH, et al. Allelic variation in the serotonin transporter promoter affects onset of paroxetine treatment response in latelife depression. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2000;23:587-590.
163. Smith SS, Gong QH, Hsu FC, Markowitz RS, ffRench-Mullen JMH, Li X. GABAA receptor alpha-4 subunit suppression prevents withdrawal properties of an endogenous steroid. Nature. 1998;392:926-930.
164. A receptor expression and function during progesterone treatment and withdrawal. Mol Pharmacol. 2000;57:1262-1270.
165. A receptor α4 subunit in association with increased anxiety. J Neurosci. 1998;18:5275-5284.
166. Ströhle A, Romeo E, Hermann B, et al. Concentrations of 3α-reduced neuroactive steroids and their precursors in plasma of patients with major depression and after clinical recovery. Biol Psychiatry. 1999;45:274-277.
167. Romeo E, Brancati A, de Lorenzo A, et al. Marked decrease of plasma neuroactive steroids during alcohol withdrawal. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1996;19:366-369.
168. A receptor. Brain Res. 1991;561:157-161.
169. Purdy RH, Morrow AL, Moore PH, Jr, Paul SM. Stress-induced elevations of gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor-active steroids in the rat brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1991;88:4553-4557.
170. Griffin LD, Mellon SH. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors directly alter activity of neurosteroidogenic enzymes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999;96:13512-13517.
171. Schmidt PJ, Purdy RH, Moore PH, Jr, Paul SM, Rubinow DR. Circulating levels of anxiolytic steroids in the luteal phase in women with premenstrual syndrome and in control subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1994;79:1256-1260.
172. Daly RC, Bloch M, Rubinow DR, Kim HY, Schmidt PJ. Neurosteroids in an endocrine model for postpartum mood disorders. 154th American Psychiatric Association Meeting. New Orleans, La. 2001;191. Abstract.
173. Meltzer ES, Kumar R. Puerperal mental illness, clinical features and classification: a study of 142 mother-and-baby admissions. Br J Psychiatry. 1985;147:647-654.
174. Wisner KL, Peindl K, Hanusa BH. Relationship of psychiatric illness to childbearing status: a hospital-based epidemiologic study. J Affect Disord. 1993;28:39-50.
175. Wisner KL, Peindl KS, Hanusa BH. Psychiatric episodes in women with young children. J Affect Disord. 1995;34:1-11.
176. Cutrona CE. Causal attributions and perinatal depression. J Abnorm Psychol. 1983;92:161-172.
177. Kumar R, Mordecai Robson K. A prospective study of emotional disorders in childbearing women. Br J Psychiatry. 1984;144:35-47.
178. Cox JL, Murray D, Chapman G. A controlled study of the onset, duration and prevalence of postnatal depression. Br J Psychiatry. 1993;163:27-31.
179. Harris B, Huckle P, Thomas R, Johns S, Fung H. The use of rating scales to identify post-natal depression. Br J Psychiatry. 1989;154:813-817.
180. Harris B, Lovett L, Newcombe RG, Read GF, Walker R, Riad-Fahmy D. Maternity blues and major endocrine changes: Cardiff puerperal mood and hormone study II. BMJ. 1994;308:949-953.
181. Harris B. Biological and hormonal aspects of postpartum depressed mood: working towards strategies for prophylaxis and treatment. Br J Psychiatry. 1994;164:288-292.
182. Cooper PJ, Campbell EA, Day A, Kennerley H, Bond A. Non-psychotic psychiatric disorder after childbirth: a prospective study of prevalence, incidence, course and nature. Br J Psychiatry. 1988;152:799-806.
183. Evans J, Heron J, Francomb H, Oke S, Golding J. Cohort study of depressed mood during pregnancy and after childbirth. BMJ. 2001;323:257-260.
184. Josefsson A, Berg G, Nordin C, Sydsjo G. Prevalence of depressive symptoms in late pregnancy and postpartum. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2001;80:251-255.
185. Cox JL, Connor Y, Kendell RE. Prospective study of the psychiatric disorders of childbirth. Br J Psychiatry. 1982;140:111-117.
186. Kendell RE. Emotional and physical factors in the genesis of puerperal mental disorders. J Psychosom Res. 1985;29:3-11.
187. O'Hara MW. Social support, life events, and depression during pregnancy and the puerperium. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1986;43:569-573.
188. Frank E, Kupfer DJ, Jacob M, Blumenthal SJ, Jarrett DB. Pregnancy-related affective episodes among women with recurrent depression. Am J Psychiatry. 1987;144:288-293.
189. Whiffen VE. Vulnerability of postpartum depression: a prospective multivariate study. J Abnorm Psychol. 1988;97;467-474.
190. Watson JP, Elliott SA, Rugg AJ, Brough DI. Psychiatric disorder in pregnancy and the first postnatal year. Br J Psychiatry. 1984;144:453-462.
191. Pitt B. "Atypical" depression following childbirth. Br J Psychiatry. 1968;114:1325-1335.
192. Cooper PJ, Murray L. Course and recurrence of postnatal depression evidence for the specificity of the diagnostic concept. Br J Psychiatry. 1995;166:191-195.
193. Dean C, Williams RJ, Brockington IR. Is puerperal psychosis the same as bipolar manic-depressive disorder? A family study. Psychol Med. 1989;19:637-647.
194. Hobfoll SE, Ritter C, Lavin J, Hulsizer MR, Cameron RP. Depression prevalence and incidence among inner-city pregnant and postpartum women. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1995;63:445-453.
195. Hamilton JA, Parry BL, Blumenthal SJ. The menstrual cycle in context, I: affective syndromes associated with reproductive hormonal changes. J Clin Psychiatry. 1988;49:474-480.
196. Bloch M, Daly RC, Rubinow DR. Endocrine factors in the etiology of postpartum depression. Compr Psychiatry. 2002. In press.
197. Pearlstein TB, Frank E, Rivera-Tovar A, Thoft JS, Jacobs E, Mieczkowski TA. Prevalence of axis I and axis II disorders in women with late luteal phase dysphoric disorder. J Affect Disord. 1990;20:129-134.
198. Dennerstein L, Morse C, Gotts G, et al. Perspective from a PMS clinic. In: Gise LH, Kase NG, Berkowitz RL, eds. The Premenstrual Syndromes. New York, NY: Churchill Livingstone; 1988:109-118.
199. McGill H, Burrows VL, Holland LA, Langer HJ, Sweet MA. Postnatal depression: a Christchurch study. N Z Med J. 1995;108:162-165.
200. Sugawara M, Toda MA, Shima S, Mukai T, Sakakura K, Kitamura T. Premenstrual mood changes and maternal mental health in pregnancy and the postpartum period. J Clin Psychol. 1997;53:225-232.
201. Gregoire AJP, Kumar R, Everitt B, Henderson AF, Studd JWW. Transdermal oestrogen for treatment of severe postnatal depression. Lancet. 1996;347:930-933.
202. Sichel DA, Cohen LS, Robertson LM, Ruttenberg A, Rosenbaum JF. Prophylactic estrogen in recurrent postpartum affective disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 1995;38:814-818.
203. Salo LK, Makela SI, Stancel GM, Santti RS. Neonatal exposure to diethylstilbesterol permanently alters the basal and 17 beta-estradiol induced expression of c-fos proto-oncogene in mouse urethroprostatic complex. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 1997;126:133-141.
204. vom Saal FS. Sexual differentiation in litter-bearing mammals: influence of sex of adjacent fetuses in utero. J Anim Sci. 1989;67:1824-1840.