Neuroendocrine-immune interactions during viral infections

Advances in Virus Research

Volumn 56, Issue , 2001, Pages 469-513

  Pearce, Brad D ^a   Biron, Christine A ^b   Miller, Andrew H ^a  

^a EMORY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b BROWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CYTOKINE; GLUCOCORTICOID; GLUCOCORTICOID RECEPTOR;

ANIMAL; HUMAN; HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS SYSTEM; IMMUNOLOGY; METABOLISM; NEUROSECRETION; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; VIROLOGY; VIRUS INFECTION;

ANIMALS; CYTOKINES; GLUCOCORTICOIDS; HUMANS; HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEAL SYSTEM; NEUROSECRETORY SYSTEMS; PITUITARY-ADRENAL SYSTEM; RECEPTORS, GLUCOCORTICOID; VIRUS DISEASES;

EID: 0035229938     PISSN: 00653527     EISSN: 15578399     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/s0065-3527(01)56036-4     Document Type: Review

References (223)

1. A. Ahmed C.A. Biron Immunity to viruses W.E. Paul Fundamental Immunology 4th ed. 1998 Lippincott-Raven Publishers New York 1295 1334
2. + T cells Journal of Immunology 144 10 1990 3980 3986
3. W. Almawi K. Sewell E. Hadro B. Zanker T. Strom Mode of action of the glucocorticosteroids as immunosuppressive agents J. Oppenheim M. Powanda M. Kluger C.A. Pinarello Molecular and Cellular Biology of Cytokines, Progress in Leukocyte Biology vol. 10A 1990 Wiley-Liss New York 321 326
4. N. Auphan J. DiDonato C. Rosette I. Helmberg M. Karin Immunosuppression by glucocorticoids: Inhibition of NK-kappa B activity through induction of I kappa B synthesis Science 270 1995 286 290
5. W.A. Banks A.J. Kastin R.D. Broadwell Passage of cytokines across the blood-brain barrier Neuroimmunomodulation 2 4 1995 241 248
6. T. Ben Hur J. Rosenthal A. Itzik J. Weidenfeld Adrenocortical activation by herpes virus: involvement of IL-1 beta and central noradrenergic system Neuroreport 7 4 1996 927 931
7. T. Ben-Hur N. Conforti A. Itzik J. Weidenfeld Effects of HSV-1, a neurotropic virus, on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis in rats Brain Research 702 1–2 1995 17 22
8. T. Ben-Hur J. Rosenthal A. Itzik J. Weidenfeld Rescue of HSV-1 neurovirulence is associated with induction of brain interleukin-1 expression, prostaglandin synthesis and neuroendocrine responses [see comments] Journal of Neurovirology 2 4 1996 279 288
9. F. Berkenbosch J. van Oers A. del Rey F. Tilders H. Besedovsky Corticotropin-releasing factor-producing neurons in the rat activated by interleukin-1 Science 238 4826 1987 524 526
10. R. Bertini M. Bianchi P. Ghezzi Adrenalectomy sensitizes mice to the lethal effects of interleukin 1 and tumor necrosis factor Journal of Experimental Medicine 167 5 1988 1708 1712
11. H. Besedovsky A. del Rey E. Sorkin C.A. Dinarello Immunoregulatory feedback between interleukin-1 and glucocorticoid hormones Science 233 4764 1986 652 654
12. H.O. Besedovsky A. del Rey Mechanism of virus-induced stimulation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis Journal of Steroid Biochemistry 34 1–6 1989 235 239
13. H.O. Besedovsky A. del Rey Immune-neuroendocrine interactions: facts and hypotheses Endocrine Reviews 17 1 1996 64 102
14. C. Betancur J. Borrell C. Guaza Cytokine regulation of corticosteroid receptors in the rat hippocampus: effects of interleukin-1, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor and lipopolysaccharide Neuroendocrinology 62 1 1995 47 54
15. C.A. Biron Cytokines in the generation of immune responses to, and resolution of, virus infection Current Opinion in Immunology 6 4 1994 530 538
16. C.A. Biron Activation and function of natural killer cell responses during viral infections Current Opinion in Immunology 9 1 1997 24 34
17. C.A. Biron Initial and innate responses to viral infections—pattern setting in immunity or disease Current Opinion in Microbiology 2 4 1999 374 381
18. C.A. Biron R.T. Gazzinelli Effects of IL-12 on immune responses to microbial infections: a key mediator in regulating disease outcome Current Opinion in Immunology 7 4 1995 485 496
19. C.A. Biron J.S. Orange IL12 in acute viral infectious disease Research in Immunology 146 7–8 1995 590 600
20. C.A. Biron G.C. Sen Interferons and other cytokines D.M. Knipe P.M. Howley D.E. Griffin R.A. Lamb M.A. Martin B. Roizman S.E. Straus Fields Virology 2000 Lippincott/Williams and Wilkins In press
21. C.A. Biron H.A. Young M.T. Kasaian Interleukin 2-induced proliferation of murine natural killer cells in vivo Journal of Experimental Medicine 171 1 1990 173 188
22. P. Borrow C.F. Evans M.B. Oldstone Virus-induced immunosuppression: immune system-mediated destruction of virus-infected dendritic cells results in generalized immune suppression Journal of Virology 69 2 1995 1059 1070
23. R. Bucala Identification of MIF as a new pituitary hormone and macrophage cytokine and its role in endotoxic shock Immunology Letters 43 1–2 1994 23 26
24. M.J. Buchmeier R.M. Welsh F.J. Dutko M.B. Oldstone The virology and immunobiology of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection Advances in Immunology 30 1980 275 331
25. J.F. Bukowski R.M. Welsh The role of natural killer cells and interferon in resistance to acute infection of mice with herpes simplex virus type 1 Journal of Immunology 136 9 1986 3481 3485
26. J.F. Bukowski B.A. Woda S. Habu K. Okumura R.M. Welsh Natural killer cell depletion enhances virus synthesis and virus-induced hepatitis in vivo Journal of Immunology 131 3 1983 1531 1538
27. T.A. Callahan D.T. Piekut Differential Fos expression induced by IL-1beta and IL-6 in rat hypothalamus and pituitary gland Journal of Neuroimmunology 73 1–2 1997 207 211
28. I.L. Campbell M.V. Hobbs P. Kemper M.B. Oldstone Cerebral expression of multiple cytokine genes in mice with lymphocytic choriomeningitis Journal of Immunology 152 2 1994 716 723
29. D.J. Carr Increased levels of IFN-gamma in the trigeminal ganglion correlate with protection against HSV-1-induced encephalitis following subcutaneous administration with androstenediol Journal of Neuroimmunology 89 1–2 1998 160 167
30. K.T. Chong I. Gresser C.A. Mims Interferon as a defence mechanism in mouse cytomegalovirus infection Journal of General Virology 64 1983 461 464 (Pt 2)
31. C.K. Chou L.H. Wang H.M. Lin C.W. Chi Glucocorticoid stimulates hepatitis B viral gene expression in cultured human hepatoma cells Hepatology 16 1 1992 13 18
32. N. Christeff N. Gherbi O. Mammes M.T. Dalle S. Gharakhanian O. Lortholary J.C. Melchior E.A. Nunez Serum cortisol and DHEA concentrations during HIV infection Psychoneuroendocrinology 22 Suppl 1 1997 S11 S18
33. M. Clerici D. Trabattoni S. Piconi M.L. Fusi S. Ruzzante C. Clerici M.L. Villa A possible role for the cortisol/anticortisols imbalance in the progression of human immunodeficiency virus Psychoneuroendocrinology 22 Suppl 1 1997 S27 S31
34. M. Costas T. Trapp M.P. Pereda J. Sauer R. Rupprecht V.E. Nahmod J.M. Reul F. Holsboer E. Arzt Molecular and functional evidence for in vitro cytokine enhancement of human and murine target cell sensitivity to glucocorticoids. TNF-alpha priming increases glucocorticoid inhibition of TNF-alpha-induced cytotoxicity/apoptosis Journal of Clinical Investigation 98 6 1996 1409 1416
35. L.P. Cousens J.S. Orange C.A. Biron Endogenous IL-2 contributes to T cell expansion and IFN-gamma production during lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection Journal of Immunology 155 12 1995 5690 5699
36. L.P. Cousens R. Peterson S. Hsu A. Dorner J.D. Altman R. Ahmed C.A. Biron Two roads diverged: interferon alpha/beta- and interleukin 12-mediated pathways in promoting T cell interferon gamma responses during viral infection Journal of Experimental Medicine 189 8 1999 1315 1328
37. J.P. Coutelier J. Van Broeck S.F. Wolf Interleukin-12 gene expression after viral infection in the mouse Journal of Virology 69 3 1995 1955 1958
38. R.A. Daynes B.A. Araneo Contrasting effects of glucocorticoids on the capacity of T cells to produce the growth factors interleukin 2 and interleukin 4 European Journal of Immunology 19 12 1989 2319 2325
39. R.A. Daynes B.A. Araneo T.A. Dowell K. Huang D. Dudley Regulation of murine lymphokine production in vivo. III. The lymphoid tissue microenvironment exerts regulatory influences over T helper cell function Journal of Experimental Medicine 171 4 1990 979 996
40. F.S. Dhabhar B.S. McEwen Stress-induced enhancement of antigen-specific cell-mediated immunity Journal of Immunology 156 7 1996 2608 2615
41. F.S. Dhabhar B.S. McEwen Enhancing versus suppressive effects of stress hormones on skin immune function Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 96 1999 1059 1064 (3)
42. F.S. Dhabhar A.H. Miller B.S. McEwen R.L. Spencer Effects of stress on immune cell distribution. Dynamics and hormonal mechanisms Journal of Immunology 154 10 1995 5511 5527
43. F.S. Dhabhar A.H. Miller B.S. McEwen R.L. Spencer Stress-induced changes in blood leukocyte distribution. Role of adrenal steroid hormones Journal of Immunology 157 4 1996 1638 1644
44. F.S. Dhabhar A.H. Miller M. Stein B.S. McEwen R.L. Spencer Diurnal and acute stress-induced changes in distribution of peripheral blood leukocyte subpopulations Brain, Behavior, & Immunity 8 1 1994 66 79
45. C.M. Dobbs N. Feng F.M. Beck J.F. Sheridan Neuroendocrine regulation of cytokine production during experimental influenza viral infection: effects of restraint stress-induced elevation in endogenous corticosterone Journal of Immunology 157 5 1996 1870 1877
46. A.J. Dunn M.L. Powell J.M. Gaskin Virus-induced increases in plasma corticosterone Science 238 4832 1987 1423 1425
47. A.J. Dunn M.L. Powell C. Meitin P.A. Small Jr. Virus infection as a stressor: influenza virus elevates plasma concentrations of corticosterone, and brain concentrations of MHPG and tryptophan Physiology & Behavior 45 3 1989 591 594
48. A.J. Dunn M.L. Powell W.V. Moreshead J.M. Gaskin N.R. Hall Effects of Newcastle disease virus administration to mice on the metabolism of cerebral biogenic amines, plasma corticosterone, and lymphocyte proliferation Brain, Behavior, & Immunity 1 3 1987 216 230
49. A.J. Dunn S.L. Vickers Neurochemical and neuroendocrine responses to Newcastle disease virus administration in mice Brain Research 645 1–2 1994 103 112
50. A.J. Dunn J. Wang Cytokine effects on CNS biogenic amines Neuroimmunomodulation 2 6 1995 319 328
51. A. Ericsson K.J. Kovacs P.E. Sawchenko A functional anatomical analysis of central pathways subserving the effects of interleukin-1 on stress-related neuroendocrine neurons Journal of Neuroscience 14 2 1994 897 913
52. M.G. Espey A.S. Basile Glutamate augments retrovirus-induced immunodeficiency through chronic stimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis Journal of Immunology 162 8 1999 4998 5002
53. J. Ferreiro H.V. Vinters Pathology of the pituitary gland in patients with the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) Pathology 20 3 1988 211 215
54. M. Fleshner L.E. Goehler J. Hermann J.K. Relton S.F. Maier L.R. Watkins Interleukin-1 beta induced corticosterone elevation and hypothalamic NE depletion is vagally mediated Brain Research Bulletin 37 6 1995 605 610
55. S. Gatti T. Bartfai Induction of tumor necrosis factor-alpha mRNA in the brain after peripheral endotoxin treatment: comparison with interleukin-1 family and interleukin-6 Brain Research 624 1–2 1993 291 294
56. A. Gessner R. Drjupin J. Lohler H. Lother F. Lehmann-Grube IFN-gamma production in tissues of mice during acute infection with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus Journal of Immunology 144 8 1990 3160 3165
57. A. Gessner D. Moskophidis F. Lehmann-Grube Enumeration of single IFN-gamma-producing cells in mice during viral and bacterial infection Journal of Immunology 142 4 1989 1293 1298
58. R. Glaser L.A. Kutz R.C. MacCallum W.B. Malarkey Hormonal modulation of Epstein-Barr virus replication Neuroendocrinology 62 4 1995 356 361
59. B.J. Glasgow K.D. Steinsapir K. Anders L.J. Layfield Adrenal pathology in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome American Journal of Clinical Pathology 84 5 1985 594 597
60. J.A. Gonzalez-Hernandez S.R. Bornstein M. Ehrhart-Bornstein E. Spath-Schwalbe G. Jirikowski W.A. Scherbaum Interleukin-6 messenger ribonucleic acid expression in human adrenal gland in vivo: new clue to a paracrine or autocrine regulation of adrenal function Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 79 5 1994 1492 1497
61. J.A. Gonzalo A. Gonzalez-Garcia C. Martinez G. Kroemer Glucocorticoid-mediated control of the activation and clonal deletion of peripheral T cells in vivo Journal of Experimental Medicine 177 5 1993 1239 1246
62. C. Graziosi K.R. Gantt M. Vaccarezza J.F. Demarest M. Daucher M.S. Saag G.M. Shaw T.C. Quinn O.J. Cohen C.C. Welbon G. Pantaleo A.S. Fauci Kinetics of cytokine expression during primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 93 1996 4386 4391 (9)
63. C. Graziosi G. Pantaleo K.R. Gantt J.P. Fortin J.F. Demarest O.J. Cohen R.P. Sekaly A.S. Fauci Lack of evidence for the dichotomy of TH1 and TH2 predominance in HIV infected individuals Science 265 5169 1994 248 252
64. I. Gresser D. Guy-Grand C. Maury M.T. Maunoury Interferon induces peripheral lymphadenopathy in mice Journal of Immunology 127 4 1981 1569 1575
65. J. Gruber R. Sgonc Y.H. Hu H. Beug G. Wick Thymocyte apoptosis induced by elevated endogenous corticosterone levels European Journal of Immunology 24 5 1994 1115 1121
66. J.E. Grundy J. Trapman J.E. Allan G.R. Shellam C.J. Melief Evidence for a protective role of interferon in resistance to murine cytomegalovirus and its control by non-H-2-linked genes Infection & Immunity 37 1 1982 143 150
67. N. Guha-Thakurta J.A. Majde Early induction of proinflammatory cytokine and type I interferon mRNAs following Newcastle disease virus, poly [rI:rC], or low-dose LPS challenge of the mouse Journal of Interferon & Cytokine Research 17 4 1997 197 204
68. J.A. Gustafsson J. Carlstedt-Duke L. Poellinger S. Okret A.C. Wikstrom M. Bronnegard M. Gillner Y. Dong K. Fuxe A. Cintra Biochemistry, molecular biology, and physiology of the glucocorticoid receptor Endocrine Reviews 8 2 1987 185 234
69. G.L. Hammond C.L. Smith N.A. Paterson W.J. Sibbald A role for corticosteroid-binding globulin in delivery of cortisol to activated neutrophils Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 71 1 1990 34 39
70. M.S. Harbuz A. Stephanou N. Sarlis S.L. Lightman The effects of recombinant human interleukin (IL)-1 alpha, IL-1 beta or IL-6 on hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis activation Journal of Endocrinology 133 3 1992 349 355
71. F.P. Heinzel M.D. Sadick B.J. Holaday R.L. Coffman R.M. Locksley Reciprocal expression of interferon gamma or interleukin 4 during the resolution or progression of murine leishmaniasis. Evidence for expansion of distinct helper T cell subsets Journal of Experimental Medicine 169 1 1989 59 72
72. P.S. Hench The reversibility of certain rheumatic and non-rheumatic conditions by the use of cortisone or of the pituitry adrenocorticotropic hormone Ann Internal Med 36 1952 1 25
73. J.D. Hennebold S.Y. Ryu H.H. Mu A. Galbraith R.A. Daynes 11 betahydroxysteroid dehydrogenase modulation of glucocorticoid activities in lymphoid organs American Journal of Physiology 270 1996 R1296 R1306 (6 Pt 2)
74. T. Hennet H.J. Ziltener K. Frei E. Peterhans A kinetic study of immune mediators in the lungs of mice infected with influenza A virus Journal of Immunology 149 3 1992 932 939
75. G. Hermann F.M. Beck J.F. Sheridan Stress-induced glucocorticoid response modulates mononuclear cell trafficking during an experimental influenza viral infection Journal of Neuroimmunology 56 2 1995 179 186
76. G. Hermann C.A. Tovar F.M. Beck J.F. Sheridan Kinetics of glucocorticoid response to restraint stress and/or experimental influenza viral infection in two inbred strains of mice Journal of Neuroimmunology 49 1–2 1994 25 33
77. M.R. Hill R.D. Stith R.E. McCallum Monokines mediate decreased hepatic glucocorticoid binding in endotoxemia Journal of Leukocyte Biology 41 3 1987 236 241
78. M.R. Hill R.D. Stith R.E. McCallum Human recombinant IL-1 alters glucocorticoid receptor function in Reuber hepatoma cells Journal of Immunology 141 5 1988 1522 1528
79. E. Horvath K. Kovacs Fine structural cytology of the adenohypophysis in rat and man Journal of Electron Microscopy Technique 8 4 1988 401 432
80. J. Hoshino G. Beckmann J. Huser H. Kroger Interleukin 1 beta enhances the response of rabbit synovial fibroblasts in vitro to dexamethasone injury: implication for the role of increased nuclear hypersensitive sites and the number of dexamethasone receptors Journal of Rheumatology 21 4 1994 616 622
81. S. Huang W. Hendriks A. Althage S. Hemmi H. Bluethmann R. Kamijo J. Vilcek R.M. Zinkernagel M. Aguet Immune response in mice that lack the interferon-gamma receptor Science 259 5102 1993 1742 1745 [see comments]
82. R. Ishikawa C.A. Biron IFN induction and associated changes in splenic leukocyte distribution Journal of Immunology 150 9 1993 3713 3727
83. M. Iwata S. Hanaoka K. Sato Rescue of thymocytes and T cell hybridomas from glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis by stimulation via the T cell receptor/CD3 complex: a possible in vitro model for positive selection of the T cell repertoire European Journal of Immunology 21 3 1991 643 648
84. M. Jensen A. Rasmussen Stress and susceptibility to viral infection. Sound stress and susceptibility to vesicular stomatitis virus Journal of Immunology 90 1963 21 23
85. T. Johnsson J. Lavender E. Hullin A. Rasmussen Jr The influence of avoidance-learning stress on resistance to coxsackie B virus in mice Journal of Immunology 91 1963 569 575
86. T. Johnsson A. Rasmussen Jr Emotional stress and susceptibility to poliomyelitis virus infection in mice Archiv fur des Gesamte Virusforschung 18 1965 390
87. 1-(N-ethyl)-carboxamide adenosine is blocked by glucocorticoid receptor antagonist RU-486 [published erratum appears in Eur J Immunol 1993 Oct;23 (10):2734] European Journal of Immunology 23 6 1993 1246 1250
88. A.M. Judd Cytokine expression in the rat adrenal cortex Hormone & Metabolic Research 30 6–7 1998 404 410
89. A.M. Judd R.M. MacLeod Adrenocorticotropin increases interleukin-6 release from rat adrenal zona glomerulosa cells Endocrinology 130 3 1992 1245 1254
90. D. Kagi H. Hengartner Different roles for cytotoxic T cells in the control of infections with cytopathic versus noncytopathic viruses Current Opinion in Immunology 8 4 1996 472 477
91. D. Kagi B. Ledermann K. Burki P. Seiler B. Odermatt K.J. Olsen E.R. Podack R.M. Zinkernagel H. Hengartner Cytotoxicity mediated by T cells and natural killer cells is greatly impaired in perforin-deficient mice Nature 369 1994 31 37 [see comments]
92. J.C. Kam S.J. Szefler W. Surs E.R. Sher D.Y Leung Combination IL2 and IL-4 reduces glucocorticoid receptor-binding affinity and T cell response to glucocorticoids Journal of Immunology 151 7 1993 3460 3466
93. S. Kanangat J. Thomas S. Gangappa J.S. Babu B.T. Rouse Herpes simplex virus type 1-mediated up-regulation of IL-12 (p40) mRNA expression. Implications in immunopathogenesis and protection Journal of Immunology 156 3 1996 1110 1116
94. L.P. Kapcala J.R. He Y. Gao J.O. Pieper L.J. DeTolla Subdiaphragmatic vagotomy inhibits intra-abdominal interleukin-1 beta stimulation of adrenocorticotropin secretion Brain Research 728 2 1996 247 254
95. S. Karanth K. Lyson S.M. McCann Cyclosporin A inhibits interleukin-2 induced release of corticotropin-releasing hormone Neuroimmunomodulation 1 1 1994 82 85
96. + lymphocytes during virus infection in vivo Journal of Immunology 142 4 1989 1287 1292
97. M.T. Kasaian C.A. Biron Effects of Cycosporin A on IL-2 production and lymphocyte proliferation during infection of mice with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus Journal of Immunology 144 1 1990 299 306
98. + cells in sustaining lymphocyte proliferation during lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection Journal of Immunology 146 6 1991 1955 1963
99. A. Kelso A. Munck Glucocorticoid inhibition of lymphokine secretion by alloreactive T lymphocyte clones Journal of Immunology 133 2 1984 784 791
100. R. Korngold K.J. Blank D.M. Murasko Effect of interferon on thoracic duct lymphocyte output: induction with either poly Lpoly C or vaccinia virus Journal of Immunology 130 5 1983 2236 2240
101. K.J. Kovacs I.J. Elenkov Differential dependence of ACTH secretion induced by various cytokines on the integrity of the paraventricular nucleus Journal of Neuroendocrinology 7 1 1995 15 23
102. A. Krasznai P. Aranyi T. Feher P. Krajcsi K. Meszaros I. Horvath Alterations in the number of glucocorticoid receptors of circulating lymphocytes in sepsis Haematologia 19 4 1986 293 298
103. J.E. Kunicka M.A. Talle G.H. Denhardt M. Brown L.A. Prince G. Goldstein Immunosuppression by glucocorticoids: inhibition of production of multiple lymphokines by in vivo administration of dexamethasone Cellular Immunology 149 1 1993 39 49
104. E.E. Lack P.W. Kozakewich Embryology, developmental anatomy, and selected aspects of non-neoplastic pathology E.E. Lack Pathology of the Adrenal Glands 1990 Churchill Livingstone New York 1 74
105. M. Lambert Thyroid dysfunction in HIV infection Baillieres Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 8 1994 825 835
106. S. Laye R.M. Bluthe S. Kent C. Combe C. Medina P. Parnet K. Kelley R. Dantzer Subdiaphragmatic vagotomy blocks induction of IL-1 beta mRNA in mice brain in response to peripheral LPS American Journal of Physiology 268 1995 R1327 1331
107. S. Laye P. Parnet E. Goujon R. Dantzer Peripheral administration of lipopolysaccharide induces the expression of cytokine transcripts in the brain and pituitary of mice Brain Research Molecular Brain Research 27 1 1994 157 162
108. L.Y. Liu B. Sun Y. Tian B.Z. Lu J. Wang Changes of pulmonary glucocorticoid receptor and phospholipase A2 in sheep with acute lung injury after high dose endotoxin infusion American Review of Respiratory Disease 148 1993 878 881
109. E. Lorenz E. Rossipal Glucocorticoid elimination during morbilli in children Arch. Kinderheilk 172 1965 251
110. + T lymphocytes from activation-induced apoptosis triggered by HIV 1: implications for pathogenesis and therapy AIDS 9 1 1995 35 42
111. F. Lynch P.C. Doherty R. Ceredig Phenotypic and functional analysis of the cellular response in regional lymphoid tissue during an acute virus infection Journal of Immunology 142 10 1989 3592 3598
112. M. Matloubian S.R. Kolhekar T. Somasundaram R. Ahmed Molecular determinants of macrophage tropism and viral persistence: importance of single amino acid changes in the polymerase and glycoprotein of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus Journal of Virology 67 12 1993 7340 7349
113. S.G. Matta J. Weatherbee B.M. Sharp A central mechanism is involved in the secretion of ACTH in response to IL-6 in rats: comparison to and interaction with IL-1 beta Neuroendocrinology 56 4 1992 516 525
114. B.S. McEwen C.A. Biron K.W. Brunson K. Bulloch W.H. Chambers F.S. Dhabhar R.H. Goldfarb R.P. Kitson A.H. Miller R.L. Spencer J.M. Weiss The role of adrenocorticoids as modulators of immune function in health and disease: neural, endocrine and immune interactions Brain Research-Brain Research Reviews 23 1–2 1997 79 133
115. A.H. Miller Neuroendocrine and immune system interactions in stress and depression Psychiatric Clinics of North America 21 2 1998 443 463
116. A.H. Miller C.M. Pariante B.D. Pearce Effects of cytokines on glucocorticoid receptor expression and function. Glucocorticoid resistance and relevance to depression Advances in Experimental Medicine & Biology 461 1999 107 116
117. A.H. Miller R.L. Spencer J. Hassett C. Kim R. Rhee D. Ciurea F. Dhabhar B. McEwen M. Stein Effects of selective type I and II adrenal steroid agonists on immune cell distribution Endocrinology 135 5 1994 1934 1944
118. A.H. Miller R.L. Spencer B.D. Pearce T.L. Pisell P. Tanapat J.J. Leung F.S. Dhabhar B.S. McEwen C.A. Biron 1996 Curt P Richter Award. Effects of viral infection on corticosterone secretion and glucocorticoid receptor binding in immune tissues Psychoneuroendocrinology 22 6 1997 455 474
119. A.H. Miller R.L. Spencer M. Pulera S. Kang B.S. McEwen M. Stein Adrenal steroid receptor activation in rat brain and pituitary following dexamethasone: implications for the dexamethasone suppression test Biological Psychiatry 32 10 1992 850 869
120. A.H. Miller R.L. Spencer M. Stein B.S. McEwen Adrenal steroid receptor binding in spleen and thymus after stress or dexamethasone American Journal of Physiology 259 1990 E405 E412 (3 Pt 1)
121. M. Minami Y. Kuraishi T. Yamaguchi S. Nakai Y. Hirai M. Satoh Immobilization stress induces interleukin-1 beta mRNA in the rat hypothalamus Neuroscience Letters 123 2 1991 254 256
122. C. Monder C.H. Shackleton 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase: fact or fancy? Steroids 44 5 1984 383 417
123. M.C. Morale N. Batticane F. Gallo N. Barden B. Marchetti Disruption of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system in transgenic mice expressing type II glucocorticoid receptor antisense ribonucleic acid permanently impairs T cell function: effects on T cell trafficking and T cell responsiveness during postnatal development Endocrinology 136 9 1995 3460 3949
124. P.J. Morrissey K. Charrier A. Alpert L. Bressler In vivo administration of IL-1 induces thymic hypoplasia and increased levels of serum corticosterone Journal of Immunology 141 5 1988 1456 1463
125. L. Mosca G. Costanzi C. Antonacci R. Boldorini N. Carboni S. Cristina C. Liverani C. Parravicini A. Pirolo L. Vago Hypophyseal pathology in AIDS Histology & Histopathology 7 2 1992 291 300
126. M.A. Mulleins A.C. Allison Recombinant human interleukin-1 inhibits the induction by dexamethasone of alkaline phosphatase activity in murine capillary endothelial cells Journal of Cellular Physiology 133 3 1987 539 545
127. U. Muller U. Steinhoff L.F. Reis S. Hemmi J. Pavlovic R.M. Zinkernagel M. Aguet Functional role of type I and type II interferons in antiviral defense Science 264 5167 1994 1918 1921
128. A. Munck P. Guyr Glucocorticoids and Immune Function R. Ader D. Felten N. Cohen Psychoneuroimmunology Second Edition 1991 Academic Press San Diego
129. M.P. Nair S.A. Schwartz Immunomodulatory effects of corticosteroids on natural killer and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxic activities of human lymphocytes Journal of Immunology 132 6 1984 2876 2882
130. Y. Naitoh J. Fukata T. Tominaga Y. Nakai S. Tamai K. Mori H. Imura Interleukin-6 stimulates the secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone in conscious, freely-moving rats Biochemical & Biophysical Research Communications 155 3 1988 1459 1463
131. M.G. Niemialtowski B.T. Rouse Predominance of Thl cells in ocular tissues during herpetic stromal keratitis Journal of Immunology 149 9 1992 3035 3039
132. S.R. Nimmagadda S.J. Szefler J.D. Spahn W. Surs D.Y. Leung Allergen exposure decreases glucocorticoid receptor binding affinity and steroid responsiveness in atopic asthmatics American Journal of Respiratory & Critical Care Medicine 155 1 1997 87 93
133. G. Norbiato M. Bevilacqua T. Vago G. Baldi E. Chebat P. Bertora M. Moroni M. Galli N. Oldenburg Cortisol resistance in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 74 3 1992 608 613
134. G. Norbiato M. Bevilacqua T. Vago M. Clerici Glucocorticoids and interferon-alpha in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 81 7 1996 2601 2606
135. G. Norbiato M. Bevilacqua T. Vago A. Taddei Clerici Glucocorticoids and the immune function in the human immunodeficiency virus infection: a study in hypercortisolemic and cortisol-resistant patients Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 82 10 1997 3260 3263
136. M.B. Oldstone R. Ahmed M.J. Buchmeier P. Blount A. Tishon Perturbation of differentiated functions during viral infection in vivo. I. Relationship of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus and host strains to growth hormone deficiency Virology 142 1 1985 158 174
137. J.S. Orange C.A. Biron An absolute and restricted requirement for IL-12 in natural killer cell IFN-gamma production and antiviral defense. Studies of natural killer and T cell responses in contrasting viral infections Journal of Immunology 156 3 1996 1138 1142
138. J.S. Orange C.A. Biron Characterization of early IL-12, IFN-alpha-beta, and TNF effects on antiviral state and NK cell responses during murine cytomegalovirus infection Journal of Immunology 156 12 1996 4746 4756
139. J.S. Orange T.P. Salazar-Mather S.M. Opal C.A. Biron Mechanisms for virus-induced liver disease: tumor necrosis factor-mediated pathology independent of natural killer and T cells during murine cytomegalovirus infection Journal of Virology 71 12 1997 9248 9258
140. J.S. Orange B. Wang C. Terhorst C.A. Biron Requirement for natural killer cell-produced interferon gamma in defense against murine cytomegalovirus infection and enhancement of this defense pathway by interleukin 12 administration Journal of Experimental Medicine 182 4 1995 1045 1056
141. C. Pariante B. Pearce T. Pisell A. Miller Steroid-independent regulation of glucocorticoid receptor number 26th annual meeting of the Society for Neuroscience Washington, D.C. 1996
142. G. Path S.R. Bornstein M. Ehrhart-Bornstein W.A. Scherbaum Interleukin-6 and the interleukin-6 receptor in the human adrenal gland: expression and effects on steroidogenesis Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 82 7 1997 2343 2349
143. B.D. Pearce M.C. Ruzek K. Karalis M. Venihaki M.N. Silverman C.A. Biron A.H. Miller CRF-independent activation of corticosterone release during viral infection Abstracts of the Society for Neuroscience 29 1999 1447
144. R.S. Perlstein M.H. Whitnall J.S. Abrams E.H. Mougey R. Neta Synergistic oles of interleukin-6, interleukin-1, and tumor necrosis factor in the adrenocorticotropin response to bacterial lipopolysaccharide in vivo Endocrinology 132 3 1993 946 952
145. K. Pfizenmaier H. Jung A. Starzinski-Powitz M. Rollinghoff H. Wagner The role of T cells in anti-herpes simplex virus immunity. I. Induction of antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes Journal of Immunology 119 3 1977 939 944
146. P.M. Plotsky Pathways to the secretion of adrenocorticotropin: A view from the portal Journal of Neuroendocrinology 3 1 1991 1 9
147. P. Price S.D. Olver M. Silich T.Z. Nador S. Yerkovich S.G. Wilson Adrenalitis and the adrenocortical response of resistant and susceptible mice to acute murine cytomegalovirus infection European Journal of Clinical Investigation 26 9 1996 119 811
148. N. Quan S.K. Sundar J.M. Weiss Induction of interleukin-1 in various brain regions after peripheral and central injections of lipopolysaccharide Journal of Neuroimmunology 49 1–2 1994 125 134
149. E. Rakasz A. Gal J. Biro G. Balas A. Falus Modulation of glucocorticosteroid binding in human lymphoid, monocytoid and hepatoma cell lines by inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1 beta, IL-6 and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha Scandinavian Journal of Immunology 37 6 1993 684 689
150. A. Rasmussen Jr. J. Marsh N. Brill Increased susceptibility to herpes simplex in mice subjected to avoidance-learning stress or restraint Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Medicine 96 1957 183 189
151. A.F. Rasmussen Jr. Emotions and immunity Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 164 2 1969 458 462
152. E.S. Razvi R.M. Welsh Programmed cell death of T lymphocytes during acute viral infection: a mechanism for virus-induced immune deficiency Journal of Virology 67 10 1993 5754 5765
153. Y. Rafaeli D.N. Levy D.B. Weiner The glucocorticoid receptor type II complex is a target of the HIV -1 vpr gene product Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States ofAmerica 92 1995 3621 3625 (8)
154. C. Rivier Influence of immune signals on the hypothalamic-pituitary axis of the rodent Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology 16 1995 151 182
155. M. Rodriguez R.J. von Wedel R.S. Garrett P.W. Lampert M.B. Oldstone Pituitary dwarfism in mice persistently infected with lymphocytec choriomeningitis virus Laboratory Investigation 49 1 1983 48 53
156. G.A. Rook R. Hernandez-Pando S.L. Lightman Hormones, peripherally activated prohormones and regulation of the Th1/Th2 balance Immunology Today 15 7 1994 301 303 [see comments]
157. W. Rosner Plasma steroid-binding proteins Endocrinology & Metabolism Clinics of North America 20 4 1991 697 720
158. H. Rotterdam F. Dembitzer The adrenal gland in AIDS Endocrine Pathology 4 1 1993 4 14
159. M. Ruzek A. Miller B. Pearce R. Spencer C. Biron Evidence for endogenous glucocorticoid protection against MCMV-induced lethality 27th Annual Meeting of the Society for Neuroscience New Orleans 1997
160. M.C. Ruzek A.H. Miller S.M. Opal B.D. Pearce C.A. Biron Characterization of early cytokine responses and an interleukin (IL)-6-dependent pathway of endogenous glucocorticoid induction during murine cytomegalovirus infection Journal of Experimental Medicine 185 7 1997 1185 1192
161. M.C. Ruzek B.D. Pearce A.H. Miller C.A. Biron Endogenous glucocorticoids protect against cytokine-mediated lethality during viral infection Journal of Immunology 162 6 1999 3527 3533
162. M.A. Salas S.W. Evans M.J. Levell J.T. Whicher Interleukin-6 and ACTH act synergistically to stimulate the release of corticosterone from adrenal gland cells Clinical & Experimental Immunology 79 3 1990 470 473
163. T.P. Salazar-Mather T.A. Hamilton C.A. Biron A chemokine to cytokine to chemokine cascade critical in antiviral defense J. Clin. Invest. 105 2000 985 993
164. T.P. Salazar-Mather R. Ishikawa C.A. Biron NK cell trafficking and cytokine expression in splenic compartments after IFN induction and viral infection Journal of Immunology 157 7 1996 3054 3064
165. C.A. Salkowski S.N. Vogel IFN-gamma mediates increased glucocorticoid receptor expression in murine macrophages Journal of Immunology 148 9 1992 2770 2777
166. C.A. Salkowski S.N. Vogel Lipopolysaccharide increases glucocorticoid receptor expression in murine macrophages. A possible mechanism for glucocorticoid mediated suppression of endotoxicity Journal of Immunology 149 12 1992 4041 4047
167. S.R. Sarawar P.C. Doherty Concurrent production of interleukin-2, interleukin-10, and gamma interferon in the regional lymph nodes of mice with influenza pneumonia Journal of Virology 68 5 1994 3112 3119
168. P.E. Sawchenko L.W. Swanson W.W. Vale Co-expression of corticotropin releasing factor and vasopressin immunoreactivity in parvocellular neurosecretory neurons of the adrenalectomized rat Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States ofAmerica 81 1984 1883 1887 (6)
169. G.P. Sawiris R.J. Sydiskis N. Bashirelahi Hormonal modulation of herpes simplex virus replication in a mouse neuroblastoma cell line Journal of Clinical Laboratory Analysis 8 3 1994 135 139
170. R.I. Scheinman P.C. Cogswell A.K. Lofquist A.S. Baldwin Jr. Role of transcriptional activation of I kappa B alpha in mediation of immunosuppression by glucocorticoids Science 270 5234 1995 283 286 [see comments]
171. R. Schleimer H. Claman A. Oronsky Anti-inflammatory Steroid Action: Basic and Clinical Aspects 1989 Academic Press San Diego
172. E.D. Schmidt A.W. Janszen F.G. Wouterlood F.J. Tilders Interleukin-1-induced long-lasting changes in hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRF)-neurons and hyper responsiveness of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis Journal of Neuroscience 15 11 1995 7417 7426
173. B. Schobitz E.R. De Kloet F. Holsboer Gene expression and function of interleukin 1, interleukin 6 and tumor necrosis factor in the brain Progress in Neurobiology 44 4 1994 397 432
174. B. Schobitz W. Sutanto M.P. Carey F. Holsboer E.R. de Kloet Endotoxin and interleukin 1 decrease the affinity of hippocampal mineralocorticoid (type I) receptor in parallel to activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis Neuroendocrinology 60 2 1994 124 133
175. + T cells Annual Review of Immunology 12 1994 635 673
176. E.R. Sher D.Y. Leung W. Surs J.C. Kam G. Zieg A.K. Kamada S.J. Szefler Steroid-resistant asthma. Cellular mechanisms contributing to inadequate response to glucocorticoid therapy Journal of Clinical Investigation 93 1 1994 33 39
177. J.F. Sheridan Norman Cousins Memorial Lecture 1997. Stress-induced modulation of anti-viral immunity Brain, Behavior, & Immunity 12 1 1998 1 6
178. F.E. Sherman R.H. Michaels F.M. Kenny Acute encephalopathy (encephalitis) complicating rubella: Report of cases with virological studies, cortisol production estimations, and observations at autopsy JAMA 192 1965 675
179. K. Shizuya T. Komori R. Fujiwara S. Miyahara M. Ohmori J. Nomura The influence of restraint stress on the expression of mRNAs for IL-6 and the IL-6 receptor in the hypothalamus and midbrain of the rat Life Sciences 61 10 1997 L135 L140
180. G. Sica G. Lama R. Tartaglione L. Pierelli L. Frati G.R. della Cuna P. Marchetti Effects of natural beta-interferon and recombinant alpha-2B-interferon on proliferation, glucocorticoid receptor content, and antigen expression in cultured HL-60 cells Cancer 65 4 1990 920 925
181. P.K. Siiteri J.T. Murai G.L. Hammond J.A. Nisker W.J. Raymoure R.W. Kuhn The serum transport of steroid hormones Recent Progress in Hormone Research 38 1982 457 510
182. A. Sinicco A. Biglino M. Sciandra B. Forno A.M. Pollono R. Raiteri P. Gioannini Cytokine network and acute primary HIV-1 infection AIDS 7 9 1993 1167 1172
183. E.M. Smith W.J. Meyer J.E. Blalock Virus-induced corticosterone in hypophysectomized mice: a possible lymphoid adrenal axis Science 218 4579 1982 1311 1312
184. L.R. Smith S.L. Brown J.E. Blalock Interleukin-2 induction of ACTH secretion: presence of an interleukin-2 receptor alpha-chain-like molecule on pituitary cells Journal of Neuroimmunology 21 2–3 1989 249 254
185. H. Soudeyns R. Geleziunas G. Shyamala J. Hiscott M.A. Wainberg Identification of a novel glucocorticoid response element within the genome of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Virology 194 2 1993 758 768
186. J.D. Spahn S.J. Szefler W. Surs D.E. Doherty S.R. Nimmagadda D.Y. Leung A novel action of IL-13: induction of diminished monocyte glucocorticoid receptor-binding affinity Journal of Immunology 157 6 1996 2654 2659
187. B.L. Spangelo A.M. Judd R.M. MacLeod D.W. Goodman P.C. Isakson Endotoxin-induced release of interleukin-6 from rat medial basal hypothalami Endocrinology 127 4 1990 1779 1785
188. R.L. Spencer A.H. Miller H. Moday B.S. McEwen R.J. Blanchard D.C. Blanchard R.R. Sakai Chronic social stress produces reductions in available splenic type II corticosteroid receptor binding and plasma corticosteroid binding globulin levels Psychoneuroendocrinology 21 1 1996 95 109
189. R.L. Spencer A.H. Miller H. Moday M. Stein B.S. McEwen Diurnal differences in basal and acute stress levels of type I and type II adrenal steroid receptor activation in neural and immune tissues Endocrinology 133 5 1993 1941 1950
190. E. Spinedi R. Hadid T. Daneva R.C. Gaillard Cytokines stimulate the CRF but not the vasopressin neuronal system: evidence for a median eminence site of interleukin-6 action Neuroendocrinology 56 1 1992 46 53
191. J. Stein-Streilein Natural effector cells in influenza virus infection C. Reynolds R. Wiltrout Functions of the Natural Immune Systems 1988 Plenum Publishing Corp New York 67 83
192. E.M. Sternberg J.M. Hill G.P. Chrousos T. Kamilaris S.J. Listwak P.W. Gold R.L. Wilder Inflammatory mediator-induced hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activation is defective in streptococcal cell wall arthritis-susceptible Lewis rats Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 86 1989 2374 2378 (7)
193. R.D. Stith R.E. McCallum Down regulation of hepatic glucocorticoid receptors after endotoxin treatment Infection & Immunity 40 2 1983 613 621
194. R.D. Stith R.E. McCallum M.R. Hill Effect of interleukin-6/interferonbeta 2 on glucocorticoid action in rat hepatoma cells Journal of Steroid Biochemistry 34 1–6 1989 479 481
195. + T cell interactions in IFN-gamma and IL-4 responses to viral infections: requirements for IL-2 Journal of Immunology 160 10 1998 5007 5017
196. H.C. Su J.S. Orange L.D. Fast A.T. Chan S.J. Simpson C. Terhorst C.A. Biron IL-2-dependent NK cell responses discovered in virus-infected beta 2 microglobulin-deficient mice Journal of Immunology 153 12 1994 5674 5681
197. T. Suds F. Tozawa T. Ushiyama T. Sumitomo M. Yamada H. Demura Interleukin-1 stimulates corticotropin-releasing factor gene expression in rat hypothalamus Endocrinology 126 2 1990 1223 1228
198. E. Suzuki F. Shintani S. Kanba M. Asai T. Nakaki Immobilization stress increases mRNA levels of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in various rat brain regions Cellular & Molecular Neurobiology 17 5 1997 557 562
199. H. Tagoh H. Nishijo T. Uwano H. Kishi T. Ono A. Muraguchi Reciprocal IL-1 beta gene expression in medial and lateral hypothalamic areas in SART stressed mice Neuroscience Letters 184 1 1995 17 20
200. J. Tanaka T. Ogura S. Kamiya H. Sato T. Yoshie H. Ogura M. Hatano Enhanced replication of human cytomegalovirus in human fibroblasts treated with dexamethasone Journal of General Virology 65 1984 1759 1767 (Pt 10)
201. C.H. Tay R.M. Welsh Distinct organ-dependent mechanisms for the control of murine cytomegalovirus infection by natural killer cells Journal of Virology 71 1 1997 267 275
202. J. Trgovcich K. Ryman P. Extrom J.C. Eldridge J.F. Aronson R.E. Johnston Sindbis virus infection of neonatal mice results in a severe stress response Virology 227 1 1997 234 238
203. G. Trinchieri Biology of natural killer cells Advances in Immunology 47 1989 187 376
204. A.V. Turnbull C.L. Rivier Regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by cytokines: actions and mechanisms of action Physiological Reviews 79 1 1999 1 71
205. T.H. Turney A.G. Harmsen M.A. Jarpe Modification of the antitumor action of Corynebacterium parvum by stress Physiology & Behavior 37 4 1986 555 558
206. A. Vacca M.P. Felli A.R. Farina S. Martinotti M. Maroder I. Screpanti D. Meco E. Petrangeli L. Frati A. Gulino Glucocorticoid receptor-mediated suppression of the interleukin 2 gene expression through impairment of the cooperativity between nuclear factor of activated T cells and AP-1 enhancer elements Journal of Experimental Medicine 175 3 1992 637 646
207. A.M. van Dam M. Brouns S. Louisse F. Berkenbosch Appearance of interleukin-1 in macrophages and in ramified microglia in the brain of endotoxin treated rats: a pathway for the induction of non-specific symptoms of sickness? Brain Research 588 2 1992 291 296
208. M.F. van den Broek U. Muller S. Huang M. Aguet R.M. Zinkernagel Antiviral defense in mice lacking both alpha/beta and gamma interferon receptors Journal of Virology 69 8 1995 4792 4796
209. H. Vankelecom P. Carmeliet H. Heremans J. Van Damme R. Dijkmans A. Billiau C. Denef Interferon-gamma inhibits stimulated adrenocorticotropin, prolactin, and growth hormone secretion in normal rat anterior pituitary cell cultures Endocrinology 126 6 1990 2919 2926
210. H.E. Varmus G. Ringold K.R. Yamamoto Regulation of mouse mammary tumor virus gene expression by glucocorticoid hormones Monographs on Endocrinology 12 1979 253 278
211. M.M. Verheggen P.T. van Hal P.W. Adriaansen-Soeting B.J. Goense H.C. Hoogsteden A.O. Brinkmann M.A. Versnel Modulation of glucocorticoid receptor expression in human bronchial epithelial cell lines by IL-1 beta, TNF-alpha and LPS European Respiratory Journal 9 10 1996 2036 2043
212. C.M. Walsh M. Matloubian C.C. Liu R. Ueda C.G. Kurahara J.L. Christensen M.T. Huang J.D. Young R. Ahmed W.R. Clark Immune function in mice lacking the perforin gene Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 91 1994 10854 10858 (23)
213. L.R. Watkins S.F. Maier L.E. Goehler Cytokine-to-brain communication: a review & analysis of alternative mechanisms Life Sciences 57 11 1995 1011 1026
214. M.M. Weber P. Michl C.J. Auernhammer D. Engelhardt Interleukin-3 and interleukin-6 stimulate cortisol secretion from adult human adrenocortical cells Endocrinology 138 5 1997 2207 2210
215. R.M. Welsh Jr. Cytotoxic cells induced during lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection of mice. I. Characterization of natural killer cell induction Journal of Experimental Medicine 148 1 1978 163 181
216. S.L. Wesselingh B. Levine R.J. Fox S. Choi D.E. Griffin Intracerebral cytokine mRNA expression during fatal and nonfatal alphavirus encephalitis suggests a predominant type 2 T cell response Journal of Immunology 152 3 1994 1289 1297
217. B. Wu-Hsieh D.H. Howard R. Ahmed Virus-induced immunosuppression: a murine model of susceptibility to opportunistic infection Journal of Infectious Diseases 158 1 1988 232 235
218. A.H. Wyllie Glucocorticoid-induced thymocyte apoptosis is associated with endogenous endonuclease activation Nature 284 1980 555 556 5756
219. R. Yirmiya Endotoxin produces a depressive-like episode in rats Brain Research 711 1–2 1996 163 174
220. C.M. Zacharchuk M. Mercep P.K. Chakraborti S.S. Simons Jr. J.D. Ashwell Programmed T lymphocyte death. Cell activation- and steroid-induced pathways are mutually antagonistic Journal of Immunology 145 12 1990 4037 4045
221. M.M. Zeitoun A.I. Hassan Z.M. Hussein M.S. Fahmy M. Ragab M. Hussein Adrenal glucocorticoid function in acute viral infections in children Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 62 6 1973 608 614
222. R.M. Zinkernagel H. Hengartner T-cell-mediated immunopathology versus direct cytolysis by virus: implications for HIV and AIDS Immunology Today 15 6 1994 262 268
223. A.M. Zubiaga E. Munoz B.T. Huber IL-4 and IL-2 selectively rescue Th cell subsets from glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis Journal of Immunology 149 1 1992 107 112