Elevated, sustained peroxynitrite levels as the cause of chronic fatigue syndrome

Medical Hypotheses

Volumn 54, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 115-125

  Pall, M L ^a  

^a WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLCYSTEINE; ALLOPURINOL; ANTIOXIDANT; ARGININE; ASCORBIC ACID; CARNITINE; CYTOKINE; EPIGALLOCATECHIN GALLATE; FLAVONOID; GAMMA INTERFERON; GENISTEIN; GLUCOCORTICOID; INTERLEUKIN 1BETA; INTERLEUKIN 6; NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; PEROXYNITRITE; ROQUINIMEX; SUPEROXIDE; SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE; TERPENOID; TOCOPHEROL; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; UBIDECARENONE; VITAMIN D DERIVATIVE;

BACTERIAL INFECTION; CHRONIC FATIGUE SYNDROME; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; THEORY; VIRUS INFECTION;

BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS);

EID: 0034013955     PISSN: 03069877     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1054/mehy.1998.0825     Document Type: Article

References (125)

1. Komaroff A. L., Buchwald D. S. Chronic fatigue syndrome: an update. Ann Rev Med. 49:1998;1-13.
2. Behan P. O., Goldberg D. P., Mowbray J. F. Postviral Fatigue Syndrome, Br Med Bull, vol 47. 1991;Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh.
3. Bell D. S. The Doctor's Guide to Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. 1995;Addison-Wesley, Reading.
4. Mowbray J. F., Yousef G. E. Immunology of postviral fatigue syndrome. Br Med Bull. 47:1991;886-894.
5. Behan P. O., Bakheit A. M. O. Clinical spectrum of postviral fatigue syndrome. Br Med Bull. 47:1991;793-808.
6. Gow J. W., Behan W. M., Simpson K., McGarry F., Keir S., Behan P. O. Studies of enterovirus in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. Clin Infect Dis. 18:1994;S126-129.
7. Komaroff A. L. Clinical presentation of chronic fatigue syndrome. Ciba Foundation Symp. 173:1993;43-54.
8. Chao C. C., DeLaHunt M., Hu S., Close K., Peterson P. K. Immunologically mediated fatigue: a murine model. Clin Immunol Immunopathol. 64:1992;161-165.
9. Sheng W. S., Hu S., Lamkin A., Peterson P. K., Chao C. C. Susceptibility to immunologically mediated fatigue in C57BL/6 versus Balb/c mice. Clin Immunol Immunopathol. 81:1996;161-167.
10. Beckman J. S., Crow J. P. Pathological implications of nitric oxide, superoxide and peroxynitrite formation. Biochem Soc Trans. 21:1993;330-334.
11. Beckman J. S., Koppenol W. H. Nitric oxide, superoxide and peroxynitrite: the good, the bad and the ugly. Am J Physiol. 271:1996;C1424-1437.
12. Pryor W. A., Squadrito G. L. The chemistry of peroxynitrite: a product from the reaction of nitric oxide and superoxide. Am J Physiol. 268:1995;L699-L722.
13. Sawada T., Falk L. A., Rao P., Murphy W. J., Pluznik D. H. IL-6 induction of protein-DNA complexes via a novel regulatory region of the inducible nitric oxide synthase gene promoter: role of octamer binding proteins. J Immunol. 158:1997;5267-5276.
14. Chandrasekar B., Streitman J. E., Colston J. T., Freeman G. L. Inhibition of nuclear factor κ B attenuates proinflammatory cytokine and inducibe nitric-oxide synthase expression in postischemic myocardium. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1406:1998;91-96.
15. Miyasaka N., Hirata Y. Nitric oxide and inflammatory athritides. Life Sci. 61:1997;2073-2081.
16. Chao C. C., Lokensgard J. R., Sheng W. S., Hu S., Peterson P. K. IL-1-induced iNOS expression in human astrocytes via NF-κB. Neuroreport. 8:1997;3163-3166.
17. Schroeder R. A., Gu J. S., Kuo P. C. Interleukin 1beta-stimulated production of nitric oxide in rat hepatocytes is mediated through endogenous synthesis of interferon gamma. Hepatology. 27:1998;711-719.
18. Pahan K., Sheikh F. G., Namboodiri A. M., Singh I. N-acetyl cysteine inhibits induction of NO production by endotoxin or cytokine stimulated rat peritoneal macrophages, C6 glial cells and astrocytes. Free Radic Biol Med. 24:1998;39-48.
19. Ketteler M., Cetto C., Kirdorf M., Jeschke G. S., Schafer J. H., Distler A. Nitric oxide in sepsis-syndrome: potential treatment of septic shock by nitric oxide synthase antagonists. Kidney Int. 64:1998;S27-S30.
20. Holzmann A. Nitric oxide and sepsis. Respir Care Clin N Am. 3:1997;537-550.
21. Radi R., Rodriguez M., Castro L., Telleri R. Inhibition of mitochondrial electron transport by peroxynitrite. Arch Biochem Biophys. 308:1994;89-95.
22. Keller J. N., Kindy M. S., Holtsberg F. W. Mitochondrial manganese superoxide dismutase prevents neural apoptosis and reduces ischemic brain injury: suppression of peroxynitrite production, lipid peroxidation and mitochondrial dysfunction. J Neurosci. 18:1998;687-697.
23. Castro L., Rodriguez M., Radi R. Aconitase is readily inactivated by peroxynitrite, but not by its precursor, nitric oxide. J Biol Chem. 269:1994;29409-29415.
24. MacMillan-Crow L. A., Crow J. P., Kerby J. D., Beckman J., Thompson J. A. Nitration and inactivation of manganese superoxide dismutase in chronic rejection of human renal allografts. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 93:1996;11853-11858.
25. MacMillan-Crow L. A., Crow J. P., Thompson J. A. Peroxynitrite-mediated inactivation of manganese superoxide dismutase involves nitration and oxidation of critical tyrosine residues. Biochemistry. 37:1998;1613-1622.
26. Poderoso J. J., Carreras M. C., Lisdero C., Riobo N., Schopfer F., Boveris A. Nitric oxide inhibits electron transfer and increases superoxide radical production in rat heart mitochondria and submitochondrial particles. Arch Biochem Biophys. 328:1996;85-92.
27. Boota A., Zar H., Kim Y. M., Johnson B., Pitt B., Davies P. IL-1 beta stimulates superoxide and delayed peroxynitrite production by pulmonary vascular smooth muscle cells. Am J Physiol. 271:1996;L932-L938.
28. Akira S., Kishimoto T. NF-IL6 and NF-κB in cytokine gene regulation. Adv Immunol. 65:1997;1-46.
29. Baeuerle P. A., Baichal V. R. NF-κB as a frequent target for immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory molecules. Adv Immunol. 65:1997;111-137.
30. Schreck R., Rieber P., Baeuerle P. A. Reactive oxygen intermediates as apparently widely used messengers in the activation of NF-κB transcription factor and HIV-1. EMBO J. 10:1991;2247-2258.
31. Grimble R. F. Modification of inflammatory aspects of immune function by nutrients. Nutr Res. 18:1998;1297-1317.
32. Piette J., Piret B., Bonizzi G. Multiple redox regulation in NF-κB transcription factor activation. Biol Chem. 378:1997;1237-1245.
33. Baueuerle P. A., Henkel T. Function and activation of the NF-κB in the immune system. Ann Rev Immunol. 12:1994;141-179.
34. McCord J. M., Roy R. S. The pathophysiology of superoxide: roles in inflammation and ischemia. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 60:1982;1346-1352.
35. McCord J. M. Oxygen-derived free radicals in postischemic tissue injury. N Engl J Med. 312:1985;159-163.
36. Szab'o C., Cuzzocrea S., Zingarelli B. Endothelial dysfunction in a rat model of endotoxic shock. Importance of the activation of poly (ADP-ribose) synthetase by peroxynitrite. J Clin Invest. 100:1997;723-735.
37. Szab'o C., Vir'ag L., Cuzzocrea S. Protection against peroxynitrite-induced fibroblast injury and arthritis development by inhibition of poly(ADP-ribose) synthase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 95:1998;3867-3872.
38. Kennedy M., Denenberg A. G., Szab'o C., Salzman A. L. Poly(ADP-ribose) synthetase activation mediates increased permeability induced by peroxynitrite in Caco-2BBe cells. Gastroenterology. 114:1998;510-518.
39. 2+changes with in vivo cell aging: measurement of 19F-NMR spectroscopy. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1270:1995;52-57.
40. Bredt D. S., Snyder S. H. Nitric oxide: a physiologic messenger molecule. Ann Rev Biochem. 63:1994;175-195.
41. Hiscott J., Marois J., Garoufalis J. Characterization of a functional NF-κB site in the human interleukin 1β promoter: evidence for a positive autoregulatory loop. Mol Cell Biol. 13:1993;6231-6240.
42. Grimble R. F. Modification of inflammatory aspects of immune function by nutrients. Nutr Res. 18:1998;1297-1317.
43. Iwanaga M., Mori K., Iida T. Nuclear factor kappa B dependent induction of gamma glutamylcysteine synthetase by ionizing radiation in T98G human glioblastoma cells. Free Rad Biol Med. 24:1998;1256-1268.
44. Kifle Y., Monnier J., Chesrown S. E., Raizada M. K., Nick H. S. Regulation of manganese superoxide dismutase and inducible nitric oxide synthase in rat neuronal and glial cells. J Neurochem. 66:1996;2128-2135.
45. Das K. C., Lewis-Molock Y., White C. W. Thiol modulation of TNF alpha and IL-1 induced MnSOD gene expression and activation of NF-kappa B. Mol Cell Biochem. 148:1995;45-57.
46. Shuttleworth C. W. R., Sanders K. M. Involvement of nitric oxide in neuromuscular transmission in canine proximal colon. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 211:1996;16-23.
47. Demitrack M. A., Dale J. K., Strauss S. E. Evidence for inpaired activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 73:1992;1224-1234.
48. Griep E. N., Boersma J. W., de Kloet E. R. Altered reactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in the primary fibromyalgia syndrome. J Rheumatol. 20:1993;469-474.
49. Wessely S. The neuropsychiatry of chronic fatigue syndrome. Ciba Foundation Symp. 173:1993;212-229.
50. Scott L. V., Dinan T. G. Urinary free cortisol excretion in chronic fatigue syndrome, major depression and in healthy volunteers. J Affect Disord. 47:1998;49-54.
51. Demitrack M. A. Neuroendocrine correlates of chronic fatigue syndrome: a brief review. J Psychiatr Res. 31:1997;69-82.
52. Demitrack M. A. Chronic fatigue syndrome: a disease of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis? Ann Med. 26:1994;1-5.
53. Moutschen M., Triffaux J. M., Demonty J., Legros J. J., Lefebvre P. J. Pathogenic tracks in fatigue syndromes. Acta Clin Belg. 49:1994;274-289.
54. Visser J., Blauw B., Hinloopen B. T. CD4 T lymphocytes from patients with chronic fatigue syndrome have decreased interferon-gamma production and increased sensitivity to dexamethasone. J Infect Dis. 177:1998;451-454.
55. Yamamoto Y., Friedman H. Steroids and infection. Friedman H., Klein T. W., Friedman A. L. Psychoimmunology, Stress and Infection. 1996;173-194 CRC Press, Boca Raton.
56. Jacobs R. A., Satta M. A., Dahia P. L. M., Chew S. L., Grossman A. B. Induction of nitric oxide synthase and interleukin-1β, but not heme oxygenase, messenger RNA in rat brain following peripheral administration of endotoxin. Mol Brain Res. 49:1997;238-246.
57. Rivier C. Blockade of nitric oxide formation augments adrenocorticotropin released blood-born interleukin-1β: role of vasopressin, prostaglandins, and α1-adrenergic receptors. Endocrinology. 135:1995;2314-2317.
58. Rivier C., Shen G. H. In the rat, endogenous nitric oxide modulates the response of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis to interleukin-1β, vasopressin, and oxytocin. J Neurosci. 14:1994;1985-1993.
59. McCann S. M., Karanth S., Kimura M., Yu W. H., Rettori V. The role of nitric oxide (NO) in control of hypothalamic-pituitary function. Rev Bras Biol. 56:1996;105-112.
60. Sandi C., Guaza C. Evidence for a role of nitric oxide in the corticotropin-releasing factor release induced by interleukin-1β Eur J Pharmacol. 274:1995;17-23.
61. Brunetti L., Preziosi P., Ragazzoni E., Vacca M. Involvement of nitric oxide in basal and interleukin-1β-induced CRH and ACTH release in vitro. Life Sci. 53:1993;219-222.
62. Costa A., Trainer P., Besser M., Grossman A. Nitric oxide modulates the release of corticotropin-releasing hormone from the rat hypothalamus. Brain Res. 605:1993;187-192.
63. Kunz D., Walker G., Eberhardt W., Pfeilschifter J. Molecular mechanisms of dexamethasone inhibition of nitric oxide synthase expression in interleukin 1 beta-stimulated mesangial cells: evidence for the involvement of transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 93:1996;255-259.
64. Ur E., White P. D., Grossman A. Hypothesis: cytokines may be activated to cause depressive illness and chronic fatigue syndrome. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 241:1992;317-322.
65. Chao C. C., Janoff E. N., Hu S., Thomas T. W., Gallagher M., Peterson P. K. Altered cytokine release in peripheral blood mononuclear cell cultures from patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. Cytokine. 3:1991;292-298.
66. Chao C. C., Gallagher M., Phair J., Perterson P. K. Serum neopterin and interleukin-6 levels in chronic fatigue syndrome. J Infect Dis. 162:1990;1412-1413.
67. Gupta S., Aggarwal S., See D., Starr A. Cytokine production by adherent and non-adherent mononuclear cells in chronic fatigue syndrome. J Psychiatr Res. 31:1997;149-156.
68. Cannon J. G., Angel J. B., Abad L. W. Interleukin-1β, interleukin-1 receptor antagonist and soluble interleukin-1 receptor type II secretion in chronic fatigue syndrome. J Clin Immunol. 17:1997;253-261.
69. Vgontzas A. N., papanicolaou D. A., Bixler E. O., Kales A., Tyson K., Chrousos G. P. Elevation of plasma cytokines in disorders of excessive daytime sleepiness: role of sleep disturbance and obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 82:1997;1313-1316.
70. Rinehart J., Hersh E., Issell B., Triozzi P., Buhles W., Neidhart J. Phase 1 trial of recombinant human interleukin-1β (rhIL1β), carboplatin and etoposide in patients with solid cancers: Southwest Oncology Group Study 8940. Cancer Invest. 15:1997;403-410.
71. Smith J. W., Urba W. J., Clark J. W. Phase I evaluation of recombinant tumor necrosis factor given in combination with recombinant interferon-γ J Immunother. 10:1991;355-362.
72. Saks S., Rosenblum M. Recombinant human TNF-α: preclinical studies and results from early clinical trials. Immunol Ser. 56:1992;567-587.
73. Weiner L. M., Padavic-Shaller K., Kitson J., Watts P., Krigel R. L., Litwin S. Phase I evaluation of combination therapy with interleukin 2 and gamma-interferon. Cancer Res. 51:1991;3910-3918.
74. Weber J., Yang J. C., Topalian S. L., Parkinson D. R. Phase I trial of subcutaneous interleukin-6 in patients with advanced malignancies. J Clin Oncol. 11:1993;499-506.
75. Gordon M. S., Nemunaitis J., Hoffman R. A phase I trial of recombinant human interleukin-6 in patients with myelodysplastic syndromes and thrombocytopenia. Blood. 85:1995;3066-3076.
76. Bell D. S. Chronic fatigue syndrome update: findings now point to CNS involvement. Postgrad Med. 96:1994;73-81.
77. Lloyd A., Hickie I., Brockman A., Dwyer J., Wakefield D. Cytokine levels in serum and cerebrospinal fluid with chronic fatigue syndrome and control subjects. J Infect Dis. 164:1991;1023-1024.
78. Edwards R. H. T., Newham D. J., Peters T. J. Muscle biochemistry and pathophysiology in postviral fatigue syndrome. Br Med Bull. 47:1991;826-837.
79. Behan W. M. H., More I. A. R., Behan P. O. Mitochondrial abnormalities in the postviral fatigue syndrome. Acta Neuropathol. 83:1991;61-65.
80. Vecchiet L., Mantanari G., Pizzigallo E. Sensory characterization of somatic parietal tissues in humans with chronic fatigue syndrome. Neurosci Lett. 208:1996;117-120.
81. Plioplys A. V., Plioplys S. Serum levels of carnitine in chronic fatigue syndrome: clinical correlates. Neuropsychobiology. 32:1995;132-138.
82. Zhang C., Baumer A., Mackay I. R., Linnane A. W., Nagley P. Unusual pattern of mitochondrial DNA deletions in skeletal muscle of an adult human with chronic fatigue syndrome. Hum Mol Genet. 4:1995;751-754.
83. Kuratsuni H., Yamaguti K., Takahashi M., Misaki H., Tagawa S., Kitani T. Acylcarnitine deficiency in chronic fatigue syndrome. Clin Infect Dis. 18:1994;S62-67.
84. Wong R., Lopaschuk G., Zhu G. Skeletal muscle metabolism in the chronic fatigue syndrome. In vivo assessment by 31P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Chest. 102:1992;1716-1722.
85. McGregor N. R., Dunstan R. H., Zerbes M., Butt H. L., Roberts T. K., Klineberg I. J. Preliminary determination of a molecular basis to chronic fatigue syndrome. Biochem Mol Med. 57:1996;73-80.
86. McGregor N. R., Dunstan R. H., Zerbes M., Butt H. L., Roberts T. K., Klineberg I. J. Preliminary determination of the association between symptom expression with urinary metabolites in subjects with chronic fatigue syndrome. Biochem Mol Med. 58:1996;85-92.
87. Horrobin D. F. Post-viral fatigue syndrome, viral infections in atopic eczema, and essential fatty acids. Med Hypotheses. 32:1990;211-217.
88. Aoki T., Miyakoshi H., Usuda Y., Heberman R. B. Low NK syndrome and its relationship to chronic fatigue syndrome. Clin Immunol Immunopathol. 69:1993;253-265.
89. Dröge W., Holm E. Role of cysteine and glutathione in HIV infection and other diseases associated with muscle wasting and immunological dysfunction. FASEB J. 11:1997;1077-1089.
90. Cannon J. G., St Pierre B. A. Gender differences in host defense mechanisms. J Psychiatr Res. 31:1997;99-113.
91. Stratman N. C., Carter D. B., Sethy V. H. Ibuprofen: effect on inducible nitric oxide synthase. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 50:1997;107-112.
92. Amin A. R., Vyas P., Attur M. The mode of action of aspirin-like drugs: effect on inducible nitric oxide synthase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 92:1995;7926-7930.
93. Day B. J., Shawen S., Liochev S. I., Crapo J. D. A metalloporphyrin superoxide dismutase mimetic protects against paraquat-induced endothelial cell injury, in vitro. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 275:1995;1227-1232.
94. Melov S., Schneider J. A., Day B. J. A novel neurological phenotype in mice lacking mitochondrial manganese superoxide dismutase. Nat Genet. 18:1998;159-163.
95. Garcion E., Nataf S., Berod A., Darcy F., Brachet P. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in rat central nervous system. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 45:1997;255-267.
96. Corbett J. A., Kwon G., Marino M. H. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors prevent cytokine-induced expression of iNOS and COX-2 by human islets. Am J Physiol. 270:1996;PC1581-1587.
97. Geng Y., Zhang B., Lotz M. Protein tyrosine kinase activation is required for lipopolysaccharide induction of cytokines in human blood monocytes. J Immunol. 151:1993;6692-6700.
98. Nishiya T., Uehara T., Nomura Y. Herbimycin A suppresses NF-kappa B activation and tyrosine phosphorylation of JAK2 and the subsequent induction of nitric oxide synthase in C6 glioma cells. FEBS Lett. 371:1995;333-336.
99. Lee B. S., Kang H. S., Pyun K. H., Choi I. Roles of tyrosine kinases in the regulation of nitric oxide synthesis in murine liver cells: modulation of NF-kappa B activity by tyrosine kinases. Hepatology. 25:1997;913-919.
100. Chan M. M., Fong D., Huang H. I. Inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase gene expression and enzyme activity be epigallocatechin gallate, a natural product from green tea. Biochem Pharmacol. 54:1997;1281-1286.
101. Hortelano S., D'iaz-Guerra M. J., Gonzalez-Garc'ia A. Linomide administration to mice attenuates the induction of nitric oxide synthase elicited by lipopolysaccharide-activated macrophages and prevents nephritis in MRL/Mp-1pr/1pr mice. J Immunol. 158:1997;1402-1408.
102. Suh N., Honda T., Finlay H. J., Barchowsky -A. Novel triterpenoids suppress inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and inducible cyclooxygenase (COX-2) in mouse macrophages. Cancer Res. 58:1998;717-723.
103. Wolf G. γ-Tocopherol: an efficient protector of lipids against nitric oxide-initiated peroxidative damage. Nutr Revs. 55:1997;376-378.
104. Vatassery G. T., Smith W. F., Quach H. T. a-Tocopherol in rat brain subcellular fractions is oxidized rapidly during incubations with low concentrations of peroxynitrite. J Nutr. 128:1998;152-157.
105. Rauhala P., Chiueh C. C. Neuroprotection by S-nitrosoglutathione of brain dopamine neurons from oxidative stress. FASEB J. 12:1998;165-173.
106. Haenen G. R., Paquay J. B., Korthouwer R. E., Bast A. Peroxynitrite scavenging by flavonoids. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 236:1997;591-593.
107. Fiala E. S., Sodum R. S., Bhattacharya M., Li-H. (-)-Epigallocatechin gallate, a polyphenolic tea antioxidant, inhibits peroxynitrite-mediated formation of 8-oxodeoxyguanosine and 3-nitrotyrosine. Experientia. 52:1996;922-926.
108. Shi X., Rojanasakul Y., Gannett P. Generation of thiyl and ascorbyl radicals in the reaction of peroxynitrite with thiols and ascorbate at physiological pH. J Inorg Biochem. 56:1994;77-86.
109. Whiteman M., Halliwell B. Protection against peroxynitrite-dependent nitration and a-1-antiproteinase inactivation by ascorbic acid. A comparison with other biological antioxidants. Free Radic Res. 25:1996;275-283.
110. Kashiba-Iwatsuki M., Yamaguchi M., Inoue M. Role of ascorbic acid in the metabolism of S-nitroso-glutathione. FEBS Lett. 389:1996;149-152.
111. Hansen D. W. Jr, Peterson K. B., Trivedi M. 2-Iminohomopiperidinium salts as selective inhibitors of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). J Med Chem. 41:1998;1361-1366.
112. Holstad M., Jansson L., Sandler S. Inhibition of nitric oxide formation by aminoguanidine: An attempt to prevent insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Gen Phamacol. 29:1997;697-700.
113. Morigi M., Zoja C., Colleoni S. Xenogeneic human serum promotes leukocyte adhesion to porcine endothelium under flow conditions, possibly through the activation of the transcription factor NF-kappa B. Xenotransplantation. 5:1998;57-60.
114. Parikh A. A., Salzman A. L., Kane C. D., Fischer J. E., Hasselgren P. O. IL-6 production in human intestinal epithelial cells following stimulation with IL-1 beta is associated with activation of the transcription factor NF-kappa B. J Surg Res. 69:1997;139-144.
115. Chang W. S., Lee Y. J., Chiang H. C. Inhibitory effects of flavonoids on xanthine oxidase. Anticancer Res. 13:1993;2165-2170.
116. Hanasaki Y., Ogawa S., Fukui S. The correlation between active oxygen scavenging and antioxidative effects of flavonoids. Free Radic Biol Med. 16:1994;845-850.
117. Haraguchi H., Saito T., Ishikawa H. Antiperoxidative components in Thymus vulgaris. Planta Med. 62:1996;217-212.
118. Cos P., Ying L., Calomme M. Structure-activity relationship and classification of flavonoids as inhibitors of xanthine oxidase and superoxide scavengers. J Nat Prod. 61:1998;71-76.
119. Matsuda J., Gohchi K., Gotoh N. Serum concentrations of 2′, 5′-oligoadenylate synthetase, neopterin, and beta-glucan in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome and in patients with major depression. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 57:1994;1015-1016.
120. Buchwald D., Wener M. H., Pearlman T., Kith P. Markers of inflammation and immune activation in chronic fatigue syndrome. J Rheumatol. 24:1997;372-376.
121. Patarca R., Klimas N. G., Lugtendorf S., Antoni M., Fletcher M. A. Dysregulated expression of tumor necrosis factor in chronic fatigue syndrome: interrelations with cellular sources and patterns of soluble immune mediator expression. Clin Infect Dis. 18:1994;S147-153.
122. Linde A., Andersson B., Svenson S. B. Serum levels of lymphokines and soluble cellular receptors in primary Epstein-Barr virus infection and in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. J Infect Dis. 165:1992;994-1000.
123. Werner E. R., Werner-Felmayer G., Wachter H. Tetrahydrobiopterin and cytokines. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 203:1993;1-12.
124. Werner E. R., Werner-Felmayer G., Fuchs D. Biochemistry and function of pteridine synthesis in human and murine macrophages. Macrophage. 59:1990;276-279.
125. Wachter H., Fuchs D., Hausen A. Neopterin Biochemistry - Methods - Clinical Application. 1992;Walter De Gruyter, Berlin.