Microglia as effector cells in brain damage and repair: Focus on prostanoids and nitric oxide

Progress in Neurobiology

Volumn 54, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 99-125

  Minghetti, Luisa ^a   Levi, Giulio ^a  

^a Neurobiology Section   (Italy)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; ARACHIDONIC ACID; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR; CYCLIC AMP; CYTOKINE; DEXAMETHASONE; FREE RADICAL; GLUCOCORTICOID; GROWTH FACTOR; INDOMETACIN; ISOPRENALINE; NEUROTOXIN; NITRIC OXIDE; NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; PROSTAGLANDIN E2; PROSTAGLANDIN SYNTHASE INHIBITOR; PROSTANOID; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA;

AMINO ACID METABOLISM; ANIMAL CELL; ARTICLE; BRAIN INJURY; CELL PROTECTION; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; CYTOTOXICITY; EFFECTOR CELL; HUMAN; HUMAN CELL; MICROGLIA; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RAT; SPECIES DIFFERENCE;

ANIMALS; BRAIN INJURIES; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; MICROGLIA; NITRIC OXIDE; PROSTAGLANDINS;

EID: 0031985513     PISSN: 03010082     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0301-0082(97)00052-X     Document Type: Article

References (283)

1. Adams J., Collaço-Moraes Y., De Belleroche J. Cyclooxygenase-2 induction in cerebral cortex: An intracellular response to synaptic excitation. J. Neurochem. 66:1996;6-13.
2. Adamson D. C., Wildemann B., Sasaki M., Glass J. D., McArthur J. C., Christov V. I., Dawson T. M., Dawson V. L. Immunologic NO synthase: elevation in severe AIDS dementia and induction by HIV-1 gp41. Science. 274:1996;1917-1921.
3. Aeberhard E. E., Henderson S. A., Arabolos N. S., Grinscavage J. M., Castro F. E., Barrett C. T., Ignarro L. Non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs inhibit expression of the inducible nitric oxide synthase gene. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 208:1995;1053-1059.
4. Agresti C., D'Urso D., Levi G. Reversible inhibitory effects of interferon-γ and tumor necrosis factor-α on oligodendroglial lineage cell proliferation and differentiation in vitro. Eur. J. Neurosci. 8:1996;1106-1116.
5. 2 protects cultured cortical neurons against N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-mediated glutamate cytotoxicity. Brain Res. 663:1994;237-243.
6. Albina J. E. On the expression of nitric oxide synthase by human macrophages. Why no NO. J. Leukoc. Biol. 58:1995;643-649.
7. Aloisi F., Penna G., Cerase J., Menéndez Iglesias B., Adorini L. IL-12 production by central nervous system microglia is inhibited by astrocytes. J. Immunol. 159:1997;1604-1612.
8. Amin A. R., Vyas P., Attur M., Leszczynska-Piziak J., Patel I. R., Weissmann G., Abramson S. B. The mode of action of aspirin-like drugs: effect on inducible nitric oxide synthase. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92:1995;7926-7930.
9. Appleton I., Tomlinson A., Willoughby D. A. Induction of cyclo-oxygenase and nitric oxide synthase in inflammation. Adv. Pharmacol. 35:1996;27-78.
10. Aronsson M., Fuxe K., Dong Y., Agnati L. F., Oktret S., Gustafsson J. A. Localization of glucocorticoid receptor mRNA in the male rat brain by in situ hybridization. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 85:1988;9331-9335.
11. Bagasra O., Michaels F. H., Zheng Y. M., Bobroski L. E., Spitsin S. V., Fu Z. F., Tawadros R., Koprowski H. Activation of the inducible form of nitric oxide synthase in the brains of patients with multiple sclerosis. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92:1995;12041-12045.
12. Banati R. B., Graeber M. B. Surveillance, intervention and cytotoxicity: Is there a protective role of microglia? Devl Neurosci. 16:1994;114-127.
13. Bauer M. K. A., Lieb K., Schulze-Osthoff K., Berger M., Gebicke-Haerter P. J., Bauer J., Fiebich B. L. Expression and regulation of cyclooxygenase-2 in rat microglia. Eur. J. Biochem. 243:1997;726-731.
14. Bazan N. G., Marcheselli V. L., Mukherjee P. K. Inducible prostaglandin synthase in cell injury. Adv. Prostaglandin Thromboxane Leukot. Res. 23:1995;317-323.
15. Beauparlant P., Hiscott J. Biological and biochemical inhibitors of the NF-kB/Rel proteins and cytokine synthesis. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 7:1996;175-190.
16. Becher B., Antel J. P. Comparison of phenotypic and functional properties of immediately ex vivo and cultured human adult microglia. Glia. 18:1996;1-10.
17. Betz-Corradin S., Mauël J., Denis-Donini S., Quattrocchi E., Ricciardi-Castagnoli P. Inducible nitric oxide synthase activity of cloned murine microglial cells. Glia. 7:1993;255-262.
18. Bito L. Z. Saturable, energy-dependent, transmembrane transport of prostaglandins against concentration gradients. Nature. 256:1975;134-136.
19. Bito L. Z., Davson H., Hollingsworth J. R. Facilitated transport of prostaglandins across the blood-cerebrospinal fluid and blood-brain barriers. J. Physiol. (Lond.). 256:1976;273-285.
20. Bö L., Dawson T. M., Wesselingh S., Mörk S., Choi S., Kong P. A., Hanley D., Trapp B. D. Induction of nitric oxide synthase in demyelinating regions of multiple sclerosis brains. Ann. Neurol. 36:1994;778-786.
21. Bogle R. G., Baydoun A. R., Pearson J. D., Moncada S., Mann G. E. L-arginine transport is increased in macrophages generating nitric oxide. Biochem. J. 284:1992;15-18.
22. Boje K. M., Arora P. K. Microglial-produced nitric oxide and reactive nitrogen oxides mediate neuronal cell death. Brain Res. 587:1992;250-256.
23. Breder C. D., Dewitt D., Kraig R. P. Characterization of inducible cyclooxygenase in rat brain. J. Comp. Neurol. 355:1995;296-315.
24. Bukrinsky M. I., Nottet H. S. L. M., Schmidtmayerova H., Dubrovsky L., Flanagan C. R., Mullins M. E., Lipton S. A., Gendelman H. E. Regulation of nitric oxide synthase activity in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-infected monocytes: Implications for HIV-associated neurological disease. J. Exp. Med. 181:1995;735-745.
25. Caggiano A. O., Kraig R. P. Eicosanoids and nitric oxide influence induction of reactive gliosis from spreading depression in microglia but not astrocytes. J. Comp. Neurol. 369:1996;93-108.
26. Cannella B., Raine C. S. The adhesion molecule and cytokine profile of multiple sclerosis lesions. Ann. Neurol. 37:1995;424-435.
27. Castaño A., Lawson L. J., Fearn S., Perry V. H. Activation and proliferation of murine microglia are insensitive to glucocorticoids in Wallerian degeneration. Eur. J. Neurosci. 8:1996;581-588.
28. 2) protects rat cortical neurons in culture against hypoxia/reoxygenation and glutamate-induced injury. Neurosci. Lett. 160:1993;106-108.
29. Cazevieille C., Muller A., Meynier F., Dutrait N., Bonne C. Protection by prostaglandins from glutamate toxicity in cortical neurons. Neurochem. Int. 24:1994;395-398.
30. Chao C. C., Hu S., Molitor T. W., Shaskan E. G., Peterson P. K. Activated microglia mediate neuronal cell death injury via a nitric oxide mechanism. J. Immunol. 149:1992;2736-2741.
31. Chao C. C., Molitor T. W., Hu S. Neuroprotective role of IL-4 against activated microglia. J. Immunol. 151:1993;1473-1481.
32. Chao C. C., Hu S., Peterson P. K. Modulation of human microglial cell superoxide production by cytokines. J. Leukoc. Biol. 58:1995;65-70.
33. Chao C. C., Hu S., Sheng W. S., Peterson P. K. Tumor necrosis factor-α production by human fetal microglial cells: Regulation by other cytokines. Devl Neurosci. 17:1995;97-105.
34. Chao C. C., Hu S., Sheng W. S., Bu D., Burkinsky M. I., Peterson P. K. Cytokine-stimulated astrocytes damage human neurons via a nitric oxide mechanism. Glia. 16:1996;276-284.
35. Chamak B., Morandi V., Mallat M. Brain macrophages stimulate neurite growth and regeneration by secreting thrombospondin. J. Neurosci. Res. 38:1994;221-233.
36. Chartrain N. A., Geller D. A., Koty P. P., Sitrin N. F., Nussler A. K., Hoffman E. P., Billiar T. R., Hutchinson N. I., Mudgett J. S. Molecular cloning, structure, and chromosomal localization of the human inducible nitric oxide synthase gene. J. Biol. Chem. 269:1994;6765-6772.
37. Chen J., Marsh T., Zhang J. S., Graham S. H. Expression of cyclo-oxygenase 2 in rat brain following kainate treatment. NeuroReport. 6:1995;245-248.
38. Chilton F. H., Fonteh A. N., Surette M. E., Triggiani M., Winkler J. D. Control of arachidonate levels within inflammatory cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1299:1996;1-15.
39. Cho H. Y., Xie Q.-W., Calaycay J., Mumford R. A., Swiderek K. M., Lee T. D., Nathan C. Calmodulin as a tightly bound subunit of calcium-, calmodulin-independent nitric oxide synthase. J. Exp. Med. 176:1992;599-604.
40. Chou Y.-C., Luttge W. C., Sumners C. Characterization of glucocorticoids type I and glucocorticoids type II receptors in astrocyte glia as a function of time in culture. J. Neuroendocrinol. 2:1990;29-38.
41. Cintra A., Zoli M., Rosén L., Agnati L. F., Oktret S., Wikström A.-C., Gustafsson J.-A., Fuxe K. Mapping and computer assisted morphometry and microdensitometry of glucocorticoid receptor immunoreactive neurons and glial cells in the rat central nervous system. Neuroscience. 62:1994;843-897.
42. Clancy R. M., Leszczynska-Piziak J., Abramson S. B. Nitric oxide, an endothelial cell relaxation factor, inhibits neutrophil superoxide anion production via a direct action on the NADPH oxidase. J. Clin. Invest. 90:1992;1116-1121.
43. 2 after transient global forebrain ischemia in the rat. Stroke. 27:1996;527-535.
44. Colasanti M., Persichini T., Di Pucchio T., Gremo F., Lauro G. M. Human ramified microglial cells produce nitric oxide upon Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide and tumor necrosis factor α stimulation. Neurosci. Lett. 200:1995;144-146.
45. Colasanti M., Persichini T., Menegazzi M., Mariotto S., Giordano E., Caldarera C. M., Sogos V., Lauro G. M., Suzuki H. Induction of nitric oxide synthase mRNA expression. J. Biol. Chem. 270:1995;26731-26733.
46. Coleman R. A., Smith W. L., Narumiya S. Classification of prostanoid receptors: properties, distribution and structure of the receptors and their subtypes. Pharmacol. Rev. 46:1994;205-229.
47. Colton C., Wilt S., Gilbert D., Chernyshev O., Snell J., Dubois-Dalcq M. Species differences in the generation of reactive oxygen species by microglia. Molec. Chem. Neuropath. 28:1996;15-20.
48. Constam D., Philipp J., Malipiero U., Tendijke P., Schachner M., Fontana A. Differential expression of transforming growth factor-β1, factor-β2, and factor-β3 by glioblastoma cells, astrocytes, and microglia. J. Immunol. 148:1992;1404-1410.
49. Corbett J. A., Kwon G., Turk J., McDaniel M. L. IL-1β induces the coexpression of both nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase by islets of Langerhans: activation of cyclooxygenase by nitric oxide. Biochemistry. 32:1993;13767-13770.
50. Cross A. H., Misko T. P., Lin R. F., Hickey W. F., Trotter J. L., Tilton R. G. Aminoguanidine, an inhibitor of inducible nitric oxide synthase, ameliorates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in SJL mice. J. Clin. Invest. 93:1994;2684-2690.
51. Cupp C., Taylor P. T., Khalili K., Amini S. Evidence for stimulation of the transforming growth factor β1 promoter by HIV-1 Tat in cells derived from CNS. Oncogene. 8:1993;2231-2236.
52. Curtis J. F., Reddy N. G., Mason R. P., Kalyanaraman B., Eling T. E. Nitric oxide. A prostaglandin H synthase 1 and 2 reducing cosubstrate that does not stimulate cyclooxygenase activity of prostaglandin H synthase expression in murine macrophages. Archs Biochem. Biophys. 335:1996;369-376.
53. da Cunha A., Jefferson J. A., Jackson R. W., Vitkovic L. Glial cell-specific mechanisms of TGF-β1 induction by IL-1 in cerebral cortex. J. Neuroimmunol. 42:1993;71-86.
54. Dawson V. L., Dawson T. M., London E. D., Bredt D. S., Snyder S. H. Nitric oxide mediates glutamate neurotoxicity in primary cortical cultures. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 88:1991;6368-6371.
55. DeGroot C. J. A., Ruuls S. R., Theeuwes J. W. M., Dijkstra C. D., Vandervalk P. Immunocytochemical characterization of the expression of inducible and constitutive isoforms of nitric oxide synthase in demyelinating multiple sclerosis lesions. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 56:1997;10-20.
56. Denis M. Tumor necrosis factor and granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor stimulate human macrophages to restrict growth of virulent Mycobacterium avium and to kill avirulen M. avium: killing effector mechanism depends on the generation of reactive nitrogen intermediates. J. Leukoc. Biol. 49:1991;380-387.
57. Denis M. Human monocytes/macrophages: NO or no NO? J. Leukoc. Biol. 55:1994;682-684.
58. Desagher S., Glowinski J., Premont J. Astrocytes protect neurons from hydrogen peroxide toxicity. J. Neurosci. 16:1996;2553-2562.
59. Ding, M., St. Pierre, B. A., Parkinson, J. F., Medberry, P., Wong, J., Roger, N. E. Ignarro, L. J. and Merrill, J. E. (1997) Inducible nitric-oxide synthase and nitric oxide production in human fetal astrocytes and microglia. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 11327-11335.
60. Di Rosa M., Ialenti A., Ianaro A., Sautebin L. Interaction between nitric oxide and cyclooxygenase pathways. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids. 54:1996;229-238.
61. Di Rosa M., Radomski M., Carnuccio R., Moncada S. Glucocorticoids inhibit the induction of nitric oxide synthase in macrophages. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 172:1990;1246-1252.
62. Doni M. G., Whittle B. J. R., Palmer R. M. J., Moncada S. Actions of nitric oxide on the release of prostacyclin from bovine endothelial cells in culture. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 151:1988;19-25.
63. Duhe R. J., Nielsen M. D., Dittman A. H., Villacres E. C., Choi E.-J., Storm J. R. Oxidation of critical cysteine residues of type I adenylyl cyclase by o-iodosobenzoate or nitric oxide reversibly inhibits stimulation by calcium and calmodulin. J. Biol. Chem. 269:1994;7290-7296.
64. Elderfield A.-J., Newcombe J., Bolton C., Flower R. J. Lipocortins (annexins) 1, 2, 4 and 5 are increased in the central nervous system in multiple sclerosis lesions. J. Neuroimmunol. 39:1992;91-100.
65. Elkabes S., DiCicco-Bloom E. M., Black I. B. Brain microglia macrophages express neurotrophins that selectively regulate microglial proliferation and function. J. Neurosci. 16:1996;2508-2521.
66. Elmquist J. K., Breder C. D., Sherin J. E., Scammell T. E., Hickey W. F., Dewitt D., Saper C. B. Intravenous lipopolysaccharide induces cyclooxygenase 2-like immunoreactivity in rat brain perivascular microglia and meningeal macrophages. J. Comp. Neurol. 381:1997;119-129.
67. Farivar R. S., Chobanian A. V., Brecher P. Salicylate or aspirin inhibits the induction of the inducible nitric oxide synthase in rat cardiac fibroblasts. Circulation Res. 78:1996;759-768.
68. Farooqui A. A., Horrocks L. A. Excitatory amino acid receptors, neural membrane phospholipid metabolism and neurological disorders. Brain Res. Rev. 16:1991;171-191.
69. 2a-receptors. Glia. 18:1996;152-160.
70. Finch C. E., Laping N. J., Morgan T. E., Nichols N. R., Pasinetti G. M. TGF-β1 is an organizer of response to neurodegeneration. J. Cell Biochem. 53:1993;314-322.
71. Fletcher B. S., Kujubu D. A., Perrin D. M., Herschman H. R. Structure of the mitogen-inducible TIS10 gene and demonstration that the TIS10-encoded protein is a functional prostaglandin G/H synthase. J. Biol. Chem. 267:1992;4338-4344.
72. Flower R. J., Rothwell N. J. Lipocortin-1: Cellular mechanisms and clinical relevance. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 15:1994;71-76.
73. 2 is a ligand for the adipocyte determination factor PPARt. Cell. 83:1995;803-812.
74. Frantz B., O'Neill E. A. The effect of sodium salicylate and aspirin on NF-kB. Science. 270:1995;2017-2018.
75. Frei K., Malipiero U. V., Leist T. P., Zinkernagel R. M., Schwab M. E., Fontana A. On the cellular source and function of interleukin 6 produced in the central nervous system in viral diseases. Eur. J. Immunol. 19:1989;689-694.
76. Fretland D. J. Potential role of prostaglandins and leukotrienes in multiple sclerosis and experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids. 45:1992;249-257.
77. 2-adrenergic signal transduction mechanisms. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 85:1988;1292-1296.
78. Froldi M., Castagna A., Parma M., Piona A., Tedeschi A., Miadonna A., Lorini M., Nobile-Orazio E., Lazzarin A. Mediator release in cerebrospinal fluid of human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients with central nervous system involvement. J. Neuroimmunol. 38:1992;155-162.
79. 2 synthase (cyclooxygenase) in human monocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 265:1990;16737-16740.
80. Gallo P., Sivieri S., Rinaldi L., Yan X.-B., Lolli F., De Rossi A., Tavolato B. Intrathecal synthesis of interleukin-10 (IL-10) in viral and inflammatory diseases of the central nervous system. J. Neurol. Sci. 126:1994;49-53.
81. Ganter S., Northoff H., Mannel D., Gebicke-Haerter P. J. Growth control of cultured microglia. J. Neurosci. Res. 33:1992;218-230.
82. Gebicke-Haerter P. J., Bauer J., Schobert A., Northoff H. Lipopolysaccharide-free conditions in primary astrocyte cultures allow growth and isolation of microglial cells. J. Neurosci. 9:1989;183-194.
83. Genain C. P., Roberts T., Davis R. L., Nguyen M.-H., Uccelli A., Faulds D., Li Y., Hedgpeth J., Hauser S. L. Prevention of autoimmune demyelination in non-human primates by a cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase inhibitor. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92:1995;3601-3605.
84. Gilbert R. S., Herschman H. R. "Macrophage" nitric oxide synthase is a glucocorticoid-inhibitable primary response gene in 3T3 cells. J. Cell. Physiol. 157:1993;128-132.
85. Giulian D., Baker T. J. Characterization of ameboid microglia isolated from developing mammalian brain. J. Neurosci. 6:1986;2163-2178.
86. Giulian D., Haverkamp L. J., Li J., Karshin W. L., Yu J., Tom D., Li X., Kirkpatrick J. B. Senile plaques stimulate microglia to release a neurotoxin found in Alzheimer brain. Neurochem. Int. 27:1995;119-137.
87. Giulian D., Corpuz M., Richmond B., Wendt E., Hall E. R. Activated microglia are the principal glial source of thromboxane in the central nervous system. Neurochem. Int. 29:1996;65-76.
88. 2 enzymes: regulation and inhibition. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 14:1993;92-98.
89. Go K. G., Ter lHaar J. G., de Ley Zuiderveen F., Parente L., Solito E., Molenaar W. M. The effect of steroid treatment on lipocortin immunoreactivity of rat brain. Mediators of Inflammation. 3:1994;177-180.
90. Goodwin J. L., Uemura E., Cunnick J. E. Microglial release of nitric oxide by the synergistic action of β-amyloid and IFN-γ Brain Res. 692:1995;207-214.
91. Gopalakrishna R., Chen Z. H., Gundimeda U. Nitric oxide and nitric oxide-generating agents induce a reversible inactivation of protein kinase C activity and phorbol ester binding. J. Biol. Chem. 268:1993;27180-27185.
92. Goppelt-Struebe M. Regulation of prostaglandin endoperoxide (cyclooxygenase) isozyme expression. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids. 52:1995;213-222.
93. Gottschall P. E., Yu X., Bing B. Increased production of gelatinase B (matrix metalloproteinase-9) and interleukin-6 by activated rat microglia in culture. J. Neurosci. Res. 42:1995;335-342.
94. Griffin D. E., Wesselingh S. L., McArthur J. C. Elevated central nervous system prostaglandins in human immunodeficiency virus-associated dementia. Ann. Neurol. 35:1994;592-597.
95. Grilli M., Pizzi M., Memo M., Spano P. Neuroprotection by aspirin and sodium salicylate through blokade of NF-kB activation. Science. 274:1996;1383-1385.
96. Grimaldi M., Pozzoli G., Navarra P., Preziosi P., Schettini G. Vasoactive intestinal peptide and forskolin stimulate interleukin 6 production by rat cortical astrocytes in culture via a cyclic AMP-dependent, prostaglandin-independent mechanism. J. Neurochem. 63:1994;344-350.
97. Griscavage J. M., Rogers N. E., Sherman M. P., Ignarro L. J. Inducible nitric oxide synthase from a rat alveolar macrophage cell line is inhibited by nitric oxide. J. Immunol. 151:1993;6329-6337.
98. Gross S. S., Jaffe E. A., Levi R., Kilbourn R. G. Cytokine-activated endothelial cells express an isotype of nitric oxide synthase which is tetrahydrobiopterin-dependent, calmodulin-independent and inhibited by arginine analogs with a rank-order of potency characteristic of activated macrophages. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 178:1991;823-829.
99. Gross S. S., Levi R. Tetrahydrobiopterin synthesis: an absolute requirement for cytokine-induced nitric oxide generation by vascular smooth muscle. J. Biol. Chem. 257:1992;25722-25729.
100. Gross S. S., Wolin M. S. Nitric oxide: pathophysiological mechanisms. A. Rev. Physiol. 57:1995;737-769.
101. 2 synthesis is differentially affected by reactive nitrogen intermediates in cultured rat microglia and RAW 264.7 cells. FEBS Lett. 413:1997;314-318.
102. Habib A., Bernard C., Lebret M., Créminon C., Esposito B., Tedgui A., Maclouf J. Regulation of the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 by nitric oxide in rat peritoneal macrophages. J. Immunol. 158:1997;3845-3851.
103. Hajjar D. P., Lander H. M., Pearce S. F. A., Upmacis R. K., Pomerantz K. B. Nitric oxide enhances prostaglandin-H synthase-1 activity by a heme-independent mechanism: evidence implicating nitrosothiols. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 117:1995;3340-3346.
104. Hattori Y., Campbell E. B., Gross S. S. Argininosuccinate synthetase mRNA and activity are induced by immunostimulants in vascular smooth muscle. Role in the regeneration of arginine for nitric oxide synthesis. J. Biol. Chem. 269:1994;9405-9408.
105. Hayaishi O., Matsumura H., Urade Y. Prostaglandin D synthase is the key enzyme in the promotion of physiological sleep. J. Lipid Mediat. 6:1993;429-431.
106. Herschman H. R. Prostaglandin synthase 2. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1299:1996;125-140.
107. Hess D. T., Patterson S. I., Smith D. S., Skene J. H. P. Neuronal growth cone collapse and inhibition of protein fatty acylation by nitric oxide. Nature. 366:1993;562-565.
108. Hetier E., Ayala J., Bousseau A., Prochiantz A. Modulation of interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor expression by β-adrenergic agonists in mouse ameboid microglial cells. Expl Brain Res. 86:1991;407-413.
109. Heyes M. P., Achim C. L., Wiley C. A., Major E. O., Saito K., Markey S. P. Human microglia convert L-tryptophan into the neurotoxic quinolinic acid. Biochem. J. 320:1996;595-597.
110. Hogg N., Darley-Usmar V. M., Wilson M. T., Moncada S. The oxidation of α-tocopherol in human low-density lipoprotein by the simultaneous generation of superoxide and nitric oxide. FEBS Lett. 326:1993;199-203.
111. Hogg N., Kalayanaraman B., Joseph J., Struck A., Parthasarathy S. Inhibition of low-density lipoprotein oxidation by nitric oxide. FEBS Lett. 334:1993;170-174.
112. Hu S. X., Chao C. C., Khanna K. V., Gekker G., Peterson P. K., Molitor T. W. Cytokine and free radical production by porcine microglia. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 78:1996;93-96.
113. 2 production by vascular smooth muscle cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 194:1993;420-424.
114. 2α. Glia. 6:1992;67-74.
115. 2a production in human microglial cells but not in astrocytes. J. Immunol. 157:1996;2129-2135.
116. Jaranowska A., Bussolino F., Sogos V., Arese M., Lauro G. M., Gremo F. Platelet-activating factor production by human fetal microglia. Molec. Chem. Neuropathol. 24:1995;95-106.
117. 2 do not regulate the synthesis of each other in interleukin-1-β-stimulated rat articular cartilage. Inflammation. 20:1996;683-692.
118. Kanner J., Harel S., Granit R. Nitric oxide, an inhibitor of lipid oxidation by lipoxygenase, cyclooxygenase and hemoglobin. Lipids. 27:1992;46-49.
119. Kato H., Araki T., Itoyama Y., Kogure K. Rolipram, a cyclic AMP-selective phosphodiesterase inhibitor, reduces neuronal damage following cerebral ischemia in the gerbil. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 272:1995;107-110.
120. Katsuki H., Okuda S. Arachidonic acid as a neurotoxic and neurotrophic substance. Prog. Neurobiol. 46:1995;607-636.
121. +, prevent arachidonic acid toxicity on neuronal cultures. NeuroReport. 6:1995;1101-1104.
122. Kaufmann W. E., Worley P. F., Pegg J., Bremer M., Isakson P. COX-2, a synaptically induced enzyme, is expressed by excitatory neurons at postsynaptic sites in rat cerebral cortex. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 93:1996;2317-2321.
123. Keller M., Jackisch R., Seregi A., Hertting G. Comparison of prostanoid forming capacity of neuronal and astroglial cells in primary cultures. Neurochem. Int. 7:1985;655-665.
124. 2 isomerase activity of PDGF: involvement of nitric oxide. Archs Biochem. Biophys. 312:1994;240-243.
125. Kennedy I., Coleman R. A., Humphrey P. P. A., Levy G. P., Lumley P. Studies on the characterisation of prostanoid receptors: a proposed classification. Prostaglandins. 24:1982;667-689.
126. Kennedy M. K., Torrance D. S., Picha K. S., Mohler K. M. Analysis of cytokine mRNA expression in the central nervous system of mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis reveals that IL-10 mRNA expression correlates with recovery. J. Immunol. 149:1992;2496-2505.
127. Kepka-Lenhart D., Chen L.-C., Morris S. M. Jr. Novel actions of aspirin and sodium salicylate: discordant effects on nitric oxide synthesis and induction of nitric oxide synthase mRNA in a murine macrophage cell line. J. Leukoc. Biol. 59:1996;840-846.
128. Khatsenko O. G., Gross S. S., Rifkind A. R., Vane J. R. Nitric oxide is a mediator of the decrease in cytochrome P450-dependent metabolism caused by immunostimulants. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 90:1993;11147-11151.
129. Khoury S. J., Hancock W. W., Weiner H. L. Oral tollerance to myelin basic protein and natural recovery from experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis are associated with downregulation of inflammatory cytokines and differential upregulation of transforming growth factor β, interleukin 4 and prostaglandin E expression in the brain. J. Exp. Med. 176:1992;1355-1364.
130. Kiefer R., Kreutzberg G. W. Effects of dexamethasone on microglial activation in vivo: selective downregulation of major histocompatibility complex class II expression in regenerating facial nucleus. J. Neuroimmunol. 34:1991;99-108.
131. Kiefer R., Gold R., Gehrmann J., Lindholm D., Wekerle H., Kreutzberg G. W. Transforming growth factor β expression in reactive spinal cord microglia and meningeal inflammatory cells during experimental allergic neuritis. J. Neurosci. Res. 36:1993;391-398.
132. 2α on the postsynaptic actions of inhibitory and excitatory amino acids in cerebellar Purkinje cell dendrites in vitro. Brain Res. 330:1985;235-244.
133. Kitanaka J., Hashimoto H., Gotoh M., Kondo K., Sakata K., Hirasawa Y., Sawada M., Suzumura A., Marunouchi T., Matsuda T., Baba A. Expression pattern of messenger RNAs for prostanoid receptors in glial cell cultures. Brain Res. 707:1996;282-287.
134. 2 metabolite binds peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ and promotes adipocyte differentiation. Cell. 83:1995;813-819.
135. Knai N., Lu R., Satriano J. A., Bao Y., Wolkoff A. W., Schuster V. L. Identification and characterization of a prostaglandin transporter. Science. 268:1995;866-869.
136. Kochanek P. M., Dutka A. J., Kumaroo K. K., Hallenbeck J. M. Effect of prostacyclin, indomethacin, and heparin on blood flow and platelet adhesion after multifocal ischemia of canine brain. Stroke. 19:1988;693-699.
137. Koka P., He K. Y., Zack J. A., Kitchen S., Peacock W., Fried I., Tran T., Yashar S. S., Merrill J. E. Human immunodeficiency virus 1 envelope proteins induce interleukin 1, tumor necrosis factor α, and nitric oxide in glial cultures derived from fetal, neonatal, and adult human brain. J. Exp. Med. 182:1995;941-951.
138. Kopp E., Ghosh S. Inhibition of NF-kB by sodium salicylate and aspirin. Science. 265:1994;956-959.
139. Kosaka T., Miyata A., Ihara Y., Hara S., Sugimoto T., Takeda O., Takahashi E., Tanabe T. Characterization of the human gene (PTGS2) encoding prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase 2. Eur. J. Biochem. 221:1994;889-897.
140. Kreutzberg G. W. Microglia: a sensor for pathological events in the CNS. Trends Neurosci. 19:1996;312-318.
141. Kurumbail R. G., Stevens A. M., Gierse J. K., McDonald J. J., Stegeman R. A., Pak J. Y., Gildehaus D., Miyashiro J. M., Penning T. D., Seibert K., Isakson P. C., Stallings W. C. Structural basis for selective inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 by anti-inflammatory agents. Nature. 384:1996;644-648.
142. Lander H. M. An essential role for free radicals and derived species in signal transduction. FASEB J. 11:1997;118-124.
143. Lander H. M., Sehajpal P. K., Novogrodsyk A. Nitric oxide signaling: a possible role for G proteins. Immunology. 151:1993;7182-7187.
144. Landino L. M., Crews B. C., Timmons M. D., Morrow J. D., Marnett L. J. Peroxinitrite, the coupling product of nitric oxide and superoxide, activates prostaglandin biosynthesis. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 93:1996;15069-15704.
145. Lee S. C., Dickson D. W., Liu W., Brosnan C. F. Induction of nitric oxide synthase activity in human astrocytes by interleukin-1β and interferon-γ J. Neuroimmunol. 46:1993;19-24.
146. Lee S. C., Liu W., Dickson D. W., Brosnan C. F., Berman J. W. Cytokine production by human fetal microglia and astrocytes. J. Immunol. 150:1993;2659-2667.
147. Lee S. H., Soyoola E., Chanmugam P., Hart S., Sun W., Zhong H., Liou S., Simmons D., Hwang D. Selective expression of mitogen-inducible cyclooxygenase in macrophages stimulated with lipopolysaccharide. J. Biol. Chem. 267:1992;25034-25038.
148. Lei S. Z., Pan Z.-H., Aggarwal S. K., Chen H.-S. V., Hartman J., Sucher N. J., Lipton S. A. Effect of nitric oxide production on the redox modulatory site of the NMDA receptor-channel complex. Neuron. 8:1992;1087-1099.
149. Levi G., Patrizio M., Bernardo A., Petrucci T. C., Agresti C. Human immunodeficiency virus coat protein gp120 inhibits the β-adrenergic regulation of astroglial and microglial functions. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 90:1993;1541-1545.
150. 2 is phosphorylated and activated by MAP kinase. Cell. 72:1993;269-278.
151. Lindholm D., Castren E., Kiefer R., Zafra F., Thoenen H. Transforming growth factor-β1 in the rat brain: increase after injury and inhibition of astrocyte proliferation. J. Cell Biol. 117:1992;395-400.
152. Ling E.-A., Wong W.-C. The origin and nature of ramified and amoeboid microglia: a historical review and current concepts. Glia. 7:1993;9-18.
153. Lodge P. A., Sriram S. Regulation of microglial activation by TGF-β, IL-10, and CSF-1. J. Leukoc. Biol. 60:1996;502-508.
154. Lowenstein C. J., Snyder S. H. Nitric oxide, a novel biologic messenger. Cell. 70:1992;705-707.
155. Lowenstein C. J., Alley E. W., Raval P., Snowman A. M., Snyder S. H., Russell S. W., Murphy W. J. Macrophage nitric oxide synthase gene: two upstream regions mediate induction by interferon γ and lipopolysaccharide. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 90:1993;9730-9734.
156. Maccarone M., Corasaniti M. T., Guerrieri P., Nisticò G., Agro A. F. Nitric oxide-donor compounds inhibit lipoxygenase activity. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 219:1996;128-133.
157. Mallat M., Chamak B. Brain macrophages: Neurotoxic or neurotrophic effector cells. J. Leukoc. Biol. 56:1994;416-422.
158. Mallat M., Houlgatte R., Brachet P., Prochiantz A. Lipopolysaccharide-stimulated rat brain macrophages release NGF in vitro. Devl Biol. 133:1989;309-311.
159. Marcheselli V. L., Bazan N. G. Sustained induction of prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase-2 by seizures in hippocampus. J. Biol. Chem. 271:1996;24794-24799.
160. Marotta P., Sautebin L., Di Rosa M. Modulation of the induction of nitric oxide synthase by eicosanoids in the murine macrophages cell line J774. Br. J. Pharmacol. 107:1992;640-641.
161. Marshall P. J., Kulmacz R. J., Lands W. E. M. Constraints of prostaglandin biosynthesis in tissues. J. Biol. Chem. 262:1987;3510-3517.
162. Masferrer J. L., Seibert K., Zweifel B. S., Needleman P. Endogenous glucocorticoids regulate an inducible cyclooxygenase enzyme. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 89:1992;3917-3921.
163. 2 in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated rat peritoneal macrophages. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 230:1997;110-114.
164. Matsuo M., Hamasaki Y., Fujiyama F., Miyazaki S. Eicosanoids are produced by microglia, not by astrocytes, in rat glial cell cultures. Brain Res. 685:1995;201-204.
165. 2 and of agents that raise cAMP levels on macrophage activation induced by IFN-γ and TNF-α J. Leukoc. Biol. 58:1995;217-224.
166. McGeer P. L., McGeer E. G. The inflammatory response system of brain: Implications for therapy of Alzheimer and other neurodegenerative diseases. Brain Res. Rev. 21:1995;195-218.
167. McKanna J. A. Lipocortin 1 immunoreactivity identifies microglia in adult rat brain. J. Neurosci. Res. 36:1993;491-500.
168. 1 after hypoxic-ischaemic brain injury. NeuroReport. 5:1994;901-904.
169. + content, and p53 accumulation. Archs Biochem. Biophys. 327:1996;1-10.
170. Meda L., Cassatella M. A., Szendrei G. I., Otvos L. Jr., Baron P., Villalba M., Ferrari D., Rossi F. Activation of microglial cells by β-amyloid protein and interferon-γ Nature. 374:1995;647-650.
171. 2 and cyclic AMP-elevating agents. J. Neuroimmunol. 72:1997;83-93.
172. Merrill J. E., Ignarro L. J., Sherman M. P., Melinek J., Lane T. E. Microglial cell cytotoxicity of oligodendrocytes is mediated through nitric oxide. J. Immunol. 151:1993;2132-2141.
173. 2 regulates inducible nitric oxide synthase in the murine macrophage cell line J774. Prostaglandins. 49:1995;105-115.
174. Minghetti L., Levi G. Induction of prostanoid biosynthesis by bacterial lipopolysaccharide and isoproterenol in rat microglial cultures. J. Neurochem. 65:1995;2690-2698.
175. Minghetti L., Polazzi E., Nicolini A., Créminon C., Levi G. Interferon-γ and nitric oxide down-regulate lipopolysaccharide-induced prostanoid production in cultured rat microglial cells by inhibiting cyclooxygenase-2 expression. J. Neurochem. 66:1996;1963-1970.
176. 2 and by cyclooxygenase inhibitors. Glia. 19:1997;152-160.
177. 2, cyclic AMP and non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Eur. J. Neurosci. 9:1997;934-940.
178. 2 synthesis by transforming growth factor-β1 and interleukin 10 in activated microglial cultures. J. Neuroimmunol., in press.
179. Mitchell J. A., Belvisi M. G., Akarasereenont P., Robbins R. A., Kwon O.-J., Croxtall J., Barnes P. J., Vane J. R. Induction of cyclo-oxygenase-2 by cytokines in human pulmonary epithelial cells: Regulation by dexamethasone. Br. J. Pharmacol. 113:1994;1008-1014.
180. Mitrovic B., Ignarro L. J., Vinters H. V., Akers M.-A., Schmid I., Uittenbogaart C., Merrill J. E. Nitric oxide induces necrotic but not apoptotic cell death in oligodendrocytes. Neuroscience. 65:1995;531-539.
181. Mitrovic B., St Pierre B. A., Mackenzie-Graham A. J., Merrill J. E. The role of nitric oxide in glial pathology. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 738:1994;436-446.
182. Mizuno T., Sawada M., Marunouchi T., Suzumura A. Production of interleukin-10 by mouse glial cells in culture. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 205:1994;1907-1915.
183. Molina-Holgado F., Lledó A., Guaza C. Evidence for cyclooxygenase activation by nitric oxide in astrocytes. Glia. 15:1995;167-172.
184. Mönning U., Sandbrink R., Weidemann A., Banati R. B., Masters C. L., Beyreuther K. Extracellular matrix influences the biogenesis of amyloid precursor protein in microglial cells. J. Biol. Chem. 270:1995;7104-7110.
185. Moore K. W., O'Garra A., De Waal Malefyt R., Vieira P., Mosmann T. R. Interleukin-10. A. Rev. Immunol. 11:1993;165-190.
186. Moore S., Thanos S. The concept of microglia in relation to central nervous system disease and regeneration. Prog. Neurobiol. 48:1996;441-460.
187. Morgan T. E., Nichols N. R., Pasinetti G. M., Finch C. E. TGF-β1 mRNA increases in macrophage/microglial cells of the hippocampus in response to deafferentation and kainic acid-induced neurodegeneration. Expl Neurol. 120:1993;291-301.
188. Morita I., Schindler M., Regier M. K., Otto J. C., Hori T., DeWitt D. L., Smith W. L. Different intracellular locations for prostaglandin endoperoxide H synthase-1 and -2. J. Biol. Chem. 270:1995;10902-10908.
189. Murphy S., Simmons M. L., Agullò L., Garcia A., Feinstein D. L., Galea E., Reis D. J., Minc-Golomb D., Schwartz J. P. Synthesis of nitric oxide in CNS glial cells. Trends Neurosci. 16:1993;323-328.
190. Nakajima K., Tsuzaki N., Shimojo M., Hamanoue M., Kohsaka S. Microglia isolated from rat brain secrete a urokinase-type plasminogen activator. Brain Res. 577:1992;285-292.
191. Nakajima K., Tsuzaki N., Nagata K., Takemoto N., Kohsaka S. Production and secretion of plasminogen in cultured rat brain microglia. FEBS Lett. 308:1992;179-182.
192. Nakajima K., Nagata K., Hamanoue M., Takemoto N., Kohsaka S. Microglia-derived elastase produces a low-molecular-weight plasminogen that enhances neurite outgrowth in rat neocortical explant cultures. J. Neurochem. 61:1993;2155-2163.
193. 2 in rat brain, spinal cord and pituitary: basal level and regional distribution. Life Sci. 31:1982;2093-2103.
194. Nathan C. Nitric oxide as a secretory product of mammalian cells. FASEB J. 6:1992;3051-3064.
195. Navikas V., Link H. Cytokines and pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. J. Neurosci. Res. 45:1996;322-333.
196. Needleman P., Turk J., Jakschik B. A., Morrison A. R., Lefkowith J. B. Arachidonic acid metabolism. A. Rev. Biochem. 55:1986;69-102.
197. Negishi M., Sugimoto Y., Ichikawa A. Molecular mechanisms of diverse actions of prostanoids receptors. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1259:1995;109-120.
198. Nogawa S., Zhang F., Ross M. E., Iadecola C. Cyclo-oxygenase-2 gene expression in neurons contributes to ischemic brain damage. J. Neurosci. 17:1997;2746-2755.
199. Nusing R. M., Goerig M., Habenicht A. J. R., Ullrich V. Selective eicosanoid formation during HL-60 macrophage differentiation. Regulation of thromboxane synthase. Eur. J. Biochem. 212:1993;371-376.
200. Nussler A. K., Billiar T. R., Liu Z.-Z., Morris S. M. Jr. Coinduction of nitric oxide synthase and argininosuccinate synthetase in a murine macrophage cell line. Implications for regulation of nitric oxide production. J. Biol. Chem. 269:1994;1257-1261.
201. O'Banion M. K., Miller J. C., Chang J. W., Kaplan M. D., Coleman P. D. Interleukin-1β induces prostaglandin G/H synthase-2 (cyclooxygenase-2) in primary murine astrocyte cultures. J. Neurochem. 66:1996;2532-2540.
202. O'Banion M. K., Winn V. D., Young D. A. cDNA cloning and functional activity of a glucocorticoid-regulated inflammatory cyclooxygenase. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 89:1992;4888-4892.
203. 2a and related enzymes in postmortem human brain. J. Neurochem. 43:1984;71-82.
204. 2 and luteinizing hormone-release from the median eminence. Endocrinology. 50:1982;889-894.
205. Okuda S., Saito H., Katsuki H. Arachidonic acid: Toxic and trophic effects on cultured hippocampal neurons. Neuroscience. 63:1994;691-699.
206. Paller M. S., Manivel J. C. Prostaglandins protect kidneys against ischemic and toxic injury by a cellular effect. Kidney Int. 42:1992;1345-1354.
207. 2 production. Glia, (in press).
208. Park S. K., Lin H. L., Murphy S. Nitric oxide limits transcriptional induction of nitric oxide synthase in CNS glial cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 201:1994;762-768.
209. Patel P. M., Drummond J. C., Sano T., Cole D. J., Kalkman C. J., Yaksh T. L. Effect of ibuprofen on regional eiocosanoid production and neuronal injury after forebrain ischemia in rats. Brain Res. 614:1993;315-324.
210. Patrizio M., Costa T., Levi G. Interferon-γ and lipopolysaccharide reduce cAMP responses in cultured glial cells: reversal by a type IV phosphodiesterase inhibitor. Glia. 14:1995;94-100.
211. Patrizio M., Riitano D., Costa T., Levi G. Selective enhancement by serum factors of cyclic AMP accumulation in microglia cultures. Neurochem. Int. 29:1996;89-96.
212. Peng H.-B., Libby P., Liao J. K. Induction and stabilization of IkBa by nitric oxide mediates inhibition of NF-kB. J. Biol. Chem. 270:1995;14214-14219.
213. Perry, V. H. (1994) Macrophages and the Nervous System. R. G. Landes Company, CRC Press: Austin, Texas.
214. Perry V. H., Gordon S. Macrophages and the nervous system. Int. Rev. Cytol. 125:1991;203-244.
215. Perry V. H., Lawson L. J., Reid D. M. Biology of the mononuclear phagocyte system of the central nervous system and HIV infection. J. Leukoc. Biol. 56:1994;399-406.
216. Peterson D. A., Peterson D. C., Archer S., Weir E. K. The non specificity of specific nitric oxide synthase inhibitors. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 187:1992;797-801.
217. Peterson P. K., Hu S., Anderson W. R., Chao C. C. Nitric oxide production and neurotoxicity mediated by activated microglia from human versus mouse brain. J. Infect. Dis. 170:1994;457-460.
218. Pettigrew L. C., Grotta J. C., Rhoades H. M., Wu K. K. Effect of thromboxane synthase inhibition on eicosanoid levels and blood flow in ischemic rat brain. Stroke. 20:1989;627-632.
219. Peunova N., Enikolopov G. Amplification of calcium-induced gene transcription by nitric oxide in neuronal cells. Nature. 364:1993;450-453.
220. Phipps R. P., Stein S. H., Roper R. L. A new view of prostaglandin E regulation of the immune response. Immunol. Today. 12:1991;349-352.
221. Piomelli D. Arachidonic acid in cell signaling. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 5:1993;274-280.
222. Pitchford S., Levine J. D. Prostaglandins sensitize nociceptors in cell culture. Neurosci. Lett. 132:1991;105-108.
223. Presta M., Urbinati C., Dell'Era P., Lauro G. M., Sogos V., Balaci L., Ennas M. G., Gremo F. Expression of basic fibroblast growth factor and its receptors in human fetal microglia cells. Int. J. Dev. Neurosci. 13:1995;29-39.
224. Reder A. T., Thapar M., Sapugay A. M., Jensen M. A. Prostaglandins and inhibitors of arachidonate metabolism suppress experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. J. Neuroimmunol. 54:1994;117-127.
225. Reiling N., Ulmer A. J., Duchrow M., Ernst M., Flad H.-D., Hauschildt S. Nitric oxide synthase: mRNA expression of different isoforms in human monocytes/macrophages. Eur. J. Immunol. 24:1994;1941-1944.
226. Relton J. K., Strijbos P. J. L. M., O'Shaughnessy C. T., Carey F., Forder R. A., Tilders F. J. H., Rothwell N. J. Lipocortin-1 is an endogenous inhibitor of ischemic damage in the rat brain. J. Exp. Med. 174:1991;305-310.
227. Robert A., Nezamis J. E., Lancaster C., Hanchar A. J. Cytoprotection by prostaglandins in rats. Prevention of gastric necrosis produced by alcohol, HCl, NaOH, hypertonic NaCl, and thermal injury. Gastroenterology. 77:1979;433-443.
228. Rothwell N. J. Eicosanoids, thermogenesis and thermoregulation. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids. 46:1992;1-7.
229. Rozera C., Carattoli A., De Marco A., Amici C., Giorgi C., Santoro M. G. Inhibition of HIV-1 replication by cyclopentenone prostaglandins in acutely infected human cells. J. Clin. Invest. 97:1996;1795-1803.
230. Rubbo H., Radi R., Trujillo M., Telleri R., Kalayanaraman B., Barnes S., Kirk M., Freeman B. A. Nitric oxide regulation of superoxide and peroxynitrite-dependent lipid peroxidation. J. Biol. Chem. 269:1994;26066-26075.
231. Salvemini D., Manning P. T., Zweifel B. S., Seibert K., Connor J., Currie M. G., Needleman P., Masferrer J. L. Dual inhibition of nitric oxide and prostaglandin production contributed to the antiinflammatory properties of nitric oxide synthase inhibitors. J. Clin. Invest. 96:1995;301-308.
232. Salvemini D., Misko T. P., Masferrer J. L., Seibert K., Currie M. G., Needleman P. Nitric oxide activates cyclooxygenase enzymes. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 90:1993;7240-7244.
233. Sasaki A., Levison S. W., Ting J. P.-Y. Differential suppression of interferon-γ-induced Ia antigen expression on cultured rat astroglia and microglia by second messengers. J. Neuroimmunol. 29:1990;213-222.
234. Sawada M., Suzumura A., Itoh Y., Marunouchi T. Production of interleukin-5 by mouse astrocytes and microglia in culture. Neurosci. Lett. 155:1993;175-178.
235. 2 and the a subtype of protein kinase C. Brain Res. 613:1993;67-73.
236. Scott G. S., Williams K. I., Bolton C. A pharmacological study on the role of nitric oxide in the pathogenesis of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Inflamm. Res. 45:1996;524-529.
237. Seregi A., Kelley M., Jackisch R., Hertting G. Comparison of prostanoid forming capacity in homogenates from primary neuronal and astroglial cell cultures. Biochem. Pharmacol. 33:1984;3315-3318.
238. Sheffler L. A., Wink D. A., Melillo G., Cox G. W. Exogenous nitric oxide regulates IFN-γ plus lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide synthase expression in mouse macrophages. J. Immunol. 155:1995;886-894.
239. Sheng W. S., Hu S., Kravitz F. H., Peterson P. K., Chao C. C. Tumor necrosis factor alpha upregulates human microglial cell production of interleukin-10 in vitro. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immun. 2:1995;604-608.
240. Shimizu T., Wolfe L. S. Arachidonic acid cascade and signal transduction. J. Neurochem. 55:1990;1-15.
241. Shimojo M., Nakajima K., Takei N., Hamanoue M., Kohsaka S. Production of basic fibroblast growth factor in cultured rat brain microglia. Neurosci. Lett. 123:1991;229-231.
242. Slepko N., Levi G. Progressive activation of adult microglial cells in vitro. Glia. 16:1996;241-246.
243. Slepko, N., Minghetti, L., Polazzi, E., Nicolini, A. and Levi, G. (1997) Re-orientation of prostanoid production accompanies "activation" of adult microglial cells in culture. J. Neurosci. Res., (in press).
244. Smith, W. L., Marnett, L. J. and DeWitt, D. L. (1993) Prostaglandin and thromboxane biosynthesis. In: Intracellular Messengers. pp. 101-136. Ed. C. W. Taylor. Pergamon Press: Amsterdam.
245. Sommer N., Löschmann P.-A., Northoff G. H., Weller M., Steinbrecher A., Steinbach J. P., Lichtenfels R., Meyermann R., Riethmüller A., Fontana A., Dichgans J., Martin R. The antidepressant rolipram suppresses cytokine production and prevents autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Nature Med. 1:1995;244-248.
246. Southan G. J., Szabó C. Selective pharmacological inhibition of distinct nitric oxide synthase isoforms. Biochem. Pharmacol. 51:1996;383-394.
247. Stadler J., Harbrecht B. G., Di Silvio M., Curran R. D., Jordan M. L., Simmons R. L., Billiar T. R. Endogenous nitric oxide inhibits the synthesis of cyclooxygenase products and interleukin-6 by rat Kupffer cells. J. Leukoc. Biol. 53:1993;165-172.
248. Stadler J., Stefanovic-Racic M., Billiar T. R., Curran R. D., McIntyre L. A., Georgescu H. I., Simmons R. L., Evans C. H. Articular chondrocytes synthesize nitric oxide in response to cytokines and lipopolysaccharide. J. Immunol. 147:1991;3015-3020.
249. Stamler J. S. Redox signaling: nitrosylation and related target interactions of nitric oxide. Cell. 78:1994;931-936.
250. 2. J. Exp. Med. 180:1994;2365-2370.
251. 3 in the mouse nervous system. Neuroscience. 62:1994;919-928.
252. Swierkosz T. A., Mitchell J. A., Warner T. D., Botting R. M., Vane J. R. Co-induction of nitric oxide synthase and cyclo-oxygenase: interactions between nitric oxide and prostanoids. Br. J. Pharmacol. 114:1995;1335-1342.
253. Taupenot L., Ciesielski-Treska J., Ulrich G., Chasserot-Golaz S., Aunis D., Bader M.-F. Chromogranin A triggers a phenotypic transformation and the generation of nitric oxide in brain microglial cells. Neuroscience. 72:1996;377-389.
254. 2 negatively modulates induction of nitric oxide synthase by interleukin 1. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 91:1994;12168-12172.
255. Thery C., Chamak B., Mallat M. Cytotoxic effect of brain macrophages on developing neurons. Eur. J. Neurosci. 3:1991;1155-1164.
256. 2 and a β-adrenergic agonist. Glia. 11:1994;383-386.
257. Thomas S. R., Mohr D., Stocker R. Nitric oxide inhibits indolamine 2,3-dioxygenase activity in interferon-primed mononuclear phagocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 269:1994;14457-14464.
258. Traylor T. G., Sharma V. S. Why NO? Biochemistry. 31:1992;2847-2849.
259. Tsai A.-L. How does NO activate hemeproteins? FEBS Lett. 341:1994;141-145.
260. Tsubokura S., Watanabe Y., Ehara H., Imamura K., Sugimoto O., Kagamiyama H., Yamamoto S., Hayaishi O. Localization of prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase in neurons and glia in monkey brain. Brain Res. 543:1991;15-24.
261. Van Dam A.-M., Bauer J., Man-A-Hing W. K. H., Marquette C., Tilders F. J. H., Berkenbosch F. Appearance of inducible nitric oxide synthase in the rat central nervous system after rabies virus infection and during experimental allergic encephalomyelitis but not after peripheral administration of endotoxin. J. Neurosci. Res. 40:1995;251-260.
262. 2 is a potent inhibitor of human interleukin 12 production. J. Exp. Med. 181:1995;775-779.
263. Vane J. R., Mitchell J. A., Appleton I., Tomlinson A., Bishop-Bailey D., Croxtall J., Willoughby D. A. Inducible isoforms of cyclooxygenase and nitric-oxide synthase in inflammation. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 91:1994;2046-2050.
264. Vincent S. R. Nitric oxide: A radical neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. Prog. Neurobiol. 42:1994;129-160.
265. von Lubitz D. K. J. E., Carter M. F., Beenhakker M., Lin R. C.-S., Jacobson K. A. Adenosine: a prototherapeutic concept in neurodegeneration. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 739:1995;163-178.
266. Wahl S. M., Allen J. B., McCartney-Francis N., Morganti-Kossmann M. C., Kossmann T., Ellingsworth L., Mai U. E. H., Mergenhagen S. E., Orestein J. M. Macrophage- and astrocyte-derived transforming growth factor β as a mediator of central nervous system dysfunction in acquired immune deficiency syndrome. J. Exp. Med. 173:1991;981-991.
267. Walker D. G., Kim S. U., McGeer P. L. Complement and cytokine gene expression in cultured microglia derived from postmortem human brains. J. Neurosci. Res. 40:1995;478-493.
268. Watkins S. C., Macaulay W., Turner D., Kang R., Rubash H. E., Evans C. H. Identification of inducible nitric oxide synthase in human macrophages surrounding loosened hip prostheses. Am. J. Pathol. 150:1997;1199-1206.
269. Weinberg, J. B., Misukonis, M. A., Wood, E. R., Smith, G. L., Shami, P. L., Mason, S. N. and Granger, D. L. (1993) Human mononuclear phagocyte nitric oxide synthase (NOS): evidence for induction of NOS mRNA and protein without detectable capacity for nitric oxide production. Blood 82 (Suppl. 1), 186a (730) Abstract.
270. Weissmann G. Prostaglandins as modulators rather than mediators of inflammation. J. Lipid Mediat. 6:1993;275-286.
271. Werner-Felmayer G., Werner E. R., Fuchs D., Hausen A., Reibnegger G., Wachter H. Tetrahydrobiopterin-dependent formation of nitric oxide and nitrate in murine fibroblasts. J. Exp. Med. 172:1990;1599-1607.
272. Wiegmann K., Muthyala S., Kim D. H., Arnason B. G. W., Chelmicka-Schorr E. β-adrenergic agonists suppress chronic/relapsing experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (CREAE) in Lewis rats. J. Neuroimmunol. 56:1995;201-206.
273. Williams K., Bar-Or A., Ulvestad E., Olivier A., Antel J. P., Yong V. W. Biology of adult microglia in culture: comparisons with peripheral blood monocytes and astrocytes. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 51:1992;538-549.
274. Wink D. A., Hanbauer I., Grisham M. B., Laval F., Nims R. W., Laval J., Cook J., Pacelli R., Liebmann J., Krishna M., Ford P. C., Mitchell J. B. Chemical biology of nitric oxide: regulation and protective and toxic mechanisms. Curr. Top. Cell. Regul. 34:1996;159-187.
275. Wink D. A., Hanbauer I., Krishna M., DeGraff W., Gamson J., Mitchell J. B. Nitric oxide protects against cellular damage and cytotoxycity from reactive oxygen species. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 90:1993;9813-9817.
276. Wood P. L., Choksi S., Bocchini V. Inducible microglial nitric oxide synthase: A large membrane pool. NeuroReport. 5:1994;977-980.
277. Wu C.-C., Croxtall J., Perretti M., Bryant C. E., Thiemermann C., Flower R. J., Vane J. R. Lipocortin 1 mediates the inhibition by dexamethasone of the induction by endotoxin of nitric oxide synthase in the rat. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92:1995;3473-3477.
278. Xie Q., Kashiwabara Y., Nathan C. Role of transcription factor NF-kappaB/Rel in induction of nitric oxide synthase. J. Biol. Chem. 269:1994;4705-4708.
279. Yamagata K., Andreasson K. I., Kaufmann W. E., Barnes C. A., Worley P. F. Expression of a mitogen-inducible cyclooxygenase in brain neurons: regulation by synaptic activity and glucocorticoids. Neuron. 11:1993;371-386.
280. Zembala M., Siedlar M., Marcinkiewicz J., Pryjma J. Human monocytes are stimulated for nitric oxide release in vitro by some tumor cells but not by cytokines and lipopolysaccharide. Eur. J. Immunol. 24:1994;435-439.
281. Zhang X. O., Laubach V. E., Alley E. W., Edwards K. A., Sherman P. A., Russell S. W., Murphy W. J. Transcriptional basis for hyporesponsiveness of the human inducible nitric oxide synthase gene to lipopolysaccharide/interferon-γ J. Leukoc. Biol. 59:1996;575-585.
282. Zielasek J., Jung S., Gold R., Liew F. Y., Toyka K. V., Hartung H.-P. Administration of nitric oxide synthase inhibitors in experimental autoimmune neuritis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J. Neuroimmunol. 58:1995;81-88.
283. Zielasek J., Tausch M., Toyka K., Hartung H.-P. Production of nitrite by neonatal rat microglial cells/brain macrophages. Cell Immunol. 141:1992;111-120.