The Cerebellum and Psychiatric Disorders

Frontiers in Public Health

Volumn 3, Issue , 2015, Pages

  Phillips, Joseph R ^a   Hewedi, Doaa H ^b   Eissa, Abeer M ^b   Moustafa, Ahmed A ^a,c,d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN SYDNEY   (Australia)

^b AIN SHAMS UNIVERSITY   (Egypt)

^c WESTERN SYDNEY UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^d New Jersey Health Care System   (United States)

Author keywords

cerebellum; cognitive processes; motor processes; psychiatric disorders

Indexed keywords

EID: 85118955606     PISSN: None     EISSN: 22962565     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2015.00066     Document Type: Review

References (106)

1. Andreasen NC Pierson R. The role of the cerebellum in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry (2008) 64(2):81–8.10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.01.003
2. Bugalho P Correa B Viana-Baptista M. [Role of the cerebellum in cognitive and behavioural control: scientific basis and investigation models]. Acta Med Port (2006) 19(3):257–67.17234089
3. Gottwald B Mihajlovic Z Wilde B Mehdorn HM. Does the cerebellum contribute to specific aspects of attention? Neuropsychologia (2003) 41(11):1452–60.10.1016/S0028-3932(03)00090-312849763
4. Ravizza SM McCormick CA Schlerf JE Justus T Ivry RB Fiez JA. Cerebellar damage produces selective deficits in verbal working memory. Brain (2006) 129(Pt 2):306–20.10.1093/brain/awh68516317024
5. Schmahmann JD Weilburg JB Sherman JC. The neuropsychiatry of the cerebellum – insights from the clinic. Cerebellum (2007) 6(3):254–67.10.1080/1473422070149099517786822
6. Doya K. Complementary roles of basal ganglia and cerebellum in learning and motor control. Curr Opin Neurobiol (2000) 10(6):732–9.10.1016/S0959-4388(00)00153-711240282
7. Moustafa AA Wufong E Servatius RJ Pang KC Gluck MA Myers CE. Why trace and delay conditioning are sometimes (but not always) hippocampal dependent: a computational model. Brain Res (2013) 1493:48–67.10.1016/j.brainres.2012.11.02023178699
8. Schweighofer N Doya K Lay F. Unsupervised learning of granule cell sparse codes enhances cerebellar adaptive control. Neuroscience (2001) 103(1):35–50.10.1016/S0306-4522(00)00548-011311786
9. Manto M Oulad Ben Taib N. The contributions of the cerebellum in sensorimotor control: what are the prevailing opinions which will guide forthcoming studies? Cerebellum (2013) 12(3):313–5.10.1007/s12311-013-0449-z23315039
10. Stoodley CJ. The cerebellum and cognition: evidence from functional imaging studies. Cerebellum (2012) 11(2):352–65.10.1007/s12311-011-0260-7
11. Ichimiya T Okubo Y Suhara T Sudo Y. Reduced volume of the cerebellar vermis in neuroleptic-naive schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry (2001) 49(1):20–7.10.1016/S0006-3223(00)01081-711163776
12. Marien P Wackenier P De Surgeloose D De Deyn PP Verhoeven J. Developmental coordination disorder: disruption of the cerebello-cerebral network evidenced by SPECT. Cerebellum (2010) 9(3):405–10.10.1007/s12311-010-0177-620461488
13. Chen YL Tu PC Lee YC Chen YS Li CT Su TP. Resting-state fMRI mapping of cerebellar functional dysconnections involving multiple large-scale networks in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res (2013) 149(1–3):26–34.10.1016/j.schres.2013.05.02923810119
14. Fatemi SH Folsom TD Rooney RJ Thuras PD. Expression of GABAA alpha2-, beta1- and epsilon-receptors are altered significantly in the lateral cerebellum of subjects with schizophrenia, major depression and bipolar disorder. Transl Psychiatry (2013) 3:e303.10.1038/tp.2013.64
15. Baldacara L Nery-Fernandes F Rocha M Quarantini LC Rocha GG Guimaraes JL et al. Is cerebellar volume related to bipolar disorder? J Affect Disord (2011) 135(1–3):305–9.10.1016/j.jad.2011.06.05921783257
16. Liang MJ Zhou Q Yang KR Yang XL Fang J Chen WL et al. Identify changes of brain regional homogeneity in bipolar disorder and unipolar depression using resting-state FMRI. PLoS One (2013) 8(12):e79999.10.1371/journal.pone.007999924324588
17. Bledsoe JC Semrud-Clikeman M Pliszka SR. Neuroanatomical and neuropsychological correlates of the cerebellum in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder – combined type. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry (2011) 50(6):593–601.10.1016/j.jaac.2011.02.01421621143
18. Liu L Zeng LL Li Y Ma Q Li B Shen H et al. Altered cerebellar functional connectivity with intrinsic connectivity networks in adults with major depressive disorder. PLoS One (2012) 7(6):e39516.10.1371/journal.pone.003951622724025
19. Ma Q Zeng LL Shen H Liu L Hu D. Altered cerebellar-cerebral resting-state functional connectivity reliably identifies major depressive disorder. Brain Res (2013) 1495:86–94.10.1016/j.brainres.2012.12.00223228724
20. Peng J Liu J Nie B Li Y Shan B Wang G et al. Cerebral and cerebellar gray matter reduction in first-episode patients with major depressive disorder: a voxel-based morphometry study. Eur J Radiol (2011) 80(2):395–9.10.1016/j.ejrad.2010.04.00620466498
21. Nakao T Sanematsu H Yoshiura T Togao O Murayama K Tomita M et al. fMRI of patients with social anxiety disorder during a social situation task. Neurosci Res (2011) 69(1):67–72.10.1016/j.neures.2010.09.00820888872
22. Schutter DJ Koolschijn PC Peper JS Crone EA. The cerebellum link to neuroticism: a volumetric MRI association study in healthy volunteers. PLoS One (2012) 7(5):e37252.10.1371/journal.pone.003725222615955
23. Talati A Pantazatos SP Schneier FR Weissman MM Hirsch J. Gray matter abnormalities in social anxiety disorder: primary, replication, and specificity studies. Biol Psychiatry (2013) 73(1):75–84.10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.05.02222748614
24. An L Cao QJ Sui MQ Sun L Zou QH Zang YF et al. Local synchronization and amplitude of the fluctuation of spontaneous brain activity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a resting-state fMRI study. Neurosci Bull (2013) 29(5):603–13.10.1007/s12264-013-1353-823861089
25. Tomasi D Volkow ND. Abnormal functional connectivity in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry (2012) 71(5):443–50.10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.11.00322153589
26. Wang X Jiao Y Tang T Wang H Lu Z. Altered regional homogeneity patterns in adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Eur J Radiol (2013) 82(9):1552–7.10.1016/j.ejrad.2013.04.00923684384
27. Marko MK Crocetti D Hulst T Donchin O Shadmehr R Mostofsky SH. Behavioural and neural basis of anomalous motor learning in children with autism. Brain (2015) 138(Pt 3):784–97.10.1093/brain/awu39425609685
28. Wegiel J Flory M Kuchna I Nowicki K Ma S Imaki H et al. Stereological study of the neuronal number and volume of 38 brain subdivisions of subjects diagnosed with autism reveals significant alterations restricted to the striatum, amygdala and cerebellum. Acta Neuropathol Commun (2014) 2(1):141.10.1186/s40478-014-0141-725231243
29. Hoover JE Strick PL. The organization of cerebellar and basal ganglia outputs to primary motor cortex as revealed by retrograde transneuronal transport of herpes simplex virus type 1. J Neurosci (1999) 19(4):1446–63.9952421
30. Manzoni D. The cerebellum and sensorimotor coupling: looking at the problem from the perspective of vestibular reflexes. Cerebellum (2007) 6(1):24–37.10.1080/1473422060113213517366264
31. Meng H Blazquez PM Dickman JD Angelaki DE. Diversity of vestibular nuclei neurons targeted by cerebellar nodulus inhibition. J Physiol (2014) 592(Pt 1):171–88.10.1113/jphysiol.2013.25961424127616
32. Nowak DA Topka H Timmann D Boecker H Hermsdorfer J. The role of the cerebellum for predictive control of grasping. Cerebellum (2007) 6(1):7–17.10.1080/14734220600776379
33. Schmahmann JD Pandya DN. The cerebrocerebellar system. In: Schmahmann JD, editor. The Cerebellum and Cognition. San Diego, CA: Academic Press (1997). p. 31–60.
34. Clower DM West RA Lynch JC Strick PL. The inferior parietal lobule is the target of output from the superior colliculus, hippocampus, and cerebellum. J Neurosci (2001) 21(16):6283–91.11487651
35. Baldacara L Borgio JG Lacerda AL Jackowski AP. Cerebellum and psychiatric disorders. Rev Bras Psiquiatr (2008) 30(3):281–9.10.1590/S1516-4446200800030001618833430
36. Middleton FA Strick PL. Anatomical evidence for cerebellar and basal ganglia involvement in higher cognitive function. Science (1994) 266(5184):458–61.10.1126/science.79396887939688
37. Biederman J. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a selective overview. Biol Psychiatry (2005) 57(11):1215–20.10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.10.020
38. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Medical Disorders. 5th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association (2013).
39. Arnsten AF. Fundamentals of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: circuits and pathways. J Clin Psychiatry (2006) 67(Suppl 8):7–12.16961424
40. Biederman J Faraone SV. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Lancet (2005) 366(9481):237–48.10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66915-216023516
41. Gilliam M Stockman M Malek M Sharp W Greenstein D Lalonde F et al. Developmental trajectories of the corpus callosum in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry (2011) 69(9):839–46.10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.11.02421247556
42. Hauser TU Iannaccone R Ball J Mathys C Brandeis D Walitza S et al. Role of the medial prefrontal cortex in impaired decision making in juvenile attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. JAMA Psychiatry (2014) 71(10):1165–73.10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.109325142296
43. Qiu A Crocetti D Adler M Mahone EM Denckla MB Miller MI et al. Basal ganglia volume and shape in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry (2009) 166(1):74–82.10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.0803042619015232
44. Valera EM Faraone SV Murray KE Seidman LJ. Meta-analysis of structural imaging findings in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry (2007) 61(12):1361–9.10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.06.01116950217
45. Ivanov I Murrough JW Bansal R Hao X Peterson BS. Cerebellar morphology and the effects of stimulant medications in youths with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology (2014) 39(3):718–26.10.1038/npp.2013.25724077064
46. Castellanos FX Lee PP Sharp W Jeffries NO Greenstein DK Clasen LS et al. Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. JAMA (2002) 288(14):1740–8.10.1001/jama.288.14.174012365958
47. Mackie S Shaw P Lenroot R Pierson R Greenstein DK Nugent TF III et al. Cerebellar development and clinical outcome in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry (2007) 164(4):647–55.10.1176/ajp.2007.164.4.64717403979
48. Townsend J Courchesne E Covington J Westerfield M Harris NS Lyden P et al. Spatial attention deficits in patients with acquired or developmental cerebellar abnormality. J Neurosci (1999) 19(13):5632–43.10377369
49. Limperopoulos C Bassan H Gauvreau K Robertson RL Jr Sullivan NR Benson CB et al. Does cerebellar injury in premature infants contribute to the high prevalence of long-term cognitive, learning, and behavioral disability in survivors? Pediatrics (2007) 120(3):584–93.10.1542/peds.2007-104117766532
50. Tsai PT Hull C Chu Y Greene-Colozzi E Sadowski AR Leech JM et al. Autistic-like behaviour and cerebellar dysfunction in Purkinje cell Tsc1 mutant mice. Nature (2012) 488(7413):647–51.10.1038/nature1131022763451
51. Wang SS Kloth AD Badura A. The cerebellum, sensitive periods, and autism. Neuron (2014) 83(3):518–32.10.1016/j.neuron.2014.07.01625102558
52. Skefos J Cummings C Enzer K Holiday J Weed K Levy E et al. Regional alterations in Purkinje cell density in patients with autism. PLoS One (2014) 9(2):e81255.10.1371/journal.pone.008125524586223
53. Catani M Jones DK Daly E Embiricos N Deeley Q Pugliese L et al. Altered cerebellar feedback projections in Asperger syndrome. Neuroimage (2008) 41(4):1184–91.10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.03.04118495494
54. Hanaie R Mohri I Kagitani-Shimono K Tachibana M Azuma J Matsuzaki J et al. Altered microstructural connectivity of the superior cerebellar peduncle is related to motor dysfunction in children with autistic spectrum disorders. Cerebellum (2013) 12(5):645–56.10.1007/s12311-013-0475-x23564050
55. Townsend J Westerfield M Leaver E Makeig S Jung T Pierce K et al. Event-related brain response abnormalities in autism: evidence for impaired cerebello-frontal spatial attention networks. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res (2001) 11(1):127–45.10.1016/S0926-6410(00)00072-011240116
56. Rogers TD McKimm E Dickson PE Goldowitz D Blaha CD Mittleman G. Is autism a disease of the cerebellum? An integration of clinical and pre-clinical research. Front Syst Neurosci (2013) 7:15.10.3389/fnsys.2013.0001523717269
57. Sivaswamy L Kumar A Rajan D Behen M Muzik O Chugani D et al. A diffusion tensor imaging study of the cerebellar pathways in children with autism spectrum disorder. J Child Neurol (2010) 25(10):1223–31.10.1177/088307380935876520179000
58. Dunn HG MacLeod PM. Rett syndrome: review of biological abnormalities. Can J Neurol Sci (2001) 28(1):16–29.
59. Baron-Cohen S Ashwin E Ashwin C Tavassoli T Chakrabarti B. Talent in autism: hyper-systemizing, hyper-attention to detail and sensory hypersensitivity. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci (2009) 364(1522):1377–83.10.1098/rstb.2008.033719528020
60. Razzouk D Mari Jde J Shirakawa I Wainer J Sigulem D. How do experts recognize schizophrenia: the role of the disorganization symptom. Rev Bras Psiquiatr (2006) 28(1):5–9.10.1590/S1516-4446200600010000316612483
61. Aleman A Hijman R de Haan EH Kahn RS. Memory impairment in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry (1999) 156(9):1358–66.10484945
62. Saykin AJ Gur RC Gur RE Mozley PD Mozley LH Resnick SM et al. Neuropsychological function in schizophrenia. Selective impairment in memory and learning. Arch Gen Psychiatry (1991) 48(7):618–24.10.1001/archpsyc.1991.018103100360072069492
63. Ueland T Oie M Inge Landro N Rund BR. Cognitive functioning in adolescents with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Psychiatry Res (2004) 126(3):229–39.10.1016/j.psychres.2004.02.01415157749
64. Landgrebe M Marienhagen J Langguth B Sand P Eichhammer P Hajak G. Cerebellar and thalamic metabolic changes visualized by [18]-FDG-PET in olanzapine-induced acute akathisia. Neuro Endocrinol Lett (2006) 27(6):737–9.17187000
65. Vitrac C Peron S Frappe I Fernagut PO Jaber M Gaillard A et al. Dopamine control of pyramidal neuron activity in the primary motor cortex via D2 receptors. Front Neural Circuits (2014) 8:13.10.3389/fncir.2014.0001324616667
66. Konarski JZ McIntyre RS Grupp LA Kennedy SH. Is the cerebellum relevant in the circuitry of neuropsychiatric disorders? J Psychiatry Neurosci (2006) 30(3):178–86.15944742
67. Laidi C d’Albis MA Wessa M Linke J Phillips ML Delavest M et al. Cerebellar volume in schizophrenia and bipolar I disorder with and without psychotic features. Acta Psychiatr Scand (2015) 131(3):223–33.10.1111/acps.1236325430729
68. Andreasen NC O’Leary DS Cizadlo T Arndt S Rezai K Ponto LL et al. Schizophrenia and cognitive dysmetria: a positron-emission tomography study of dysfunctional prefrontal-thalamic-cerebellar circuitry. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A (1996) 93(18):9985–90.10.1073/pnas.93.18.99858790444
69. Levitt JJ McCarley RW Nestor PG Petrescu C Donnino R Hirayasu Y et al. Quantitative volumetric MRI study of the cerebellum and vermis in schizophrenia: clinical and cognitive correlates. Am J Psychiatry (1999) 156(7):1105–7.10401463
70. Nopoulos PC Ceilley JW Gailis EA Andreasen NC. An MRI study of cerebellar vermis morphology in patients with schizophrenia: evidence in support of the cognitive dysmetria concept. Biol Psychiatry (1999) 46(5):703–11.10.1016/S0006-3223(99)00093-110472423
71. Nasrallah HA Jacoby CG McCalley-Whitters M. Cerebellar atrophy in schizophrenia and mania. Lancet (1981) 1(8229):1102.10.1016/S0140-6736(81)92266-2
72. Okugawa G Sedvall G Nordstrom M Andreasen N Pierson R Magnotta V et al. Selective reduction of the posterior superior vermis in men with chronic schizophrenia. Schizophr Res (2002) 55(1–2):61–7.10.1016/S0920-9964(01)00248-111955964
73. Keller A Castellanos FX Vaituzis AC Jeffries NO Giedd JN Rapoport JL. Progressive loss of cerebellar volume in childhood-onset schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry (2003) 160(1):128–33.10.1176/appi.ajp.160.1.12812505811
74. DeLisi LE Sakuma M Tew W Kushner M Hoff AL Grimson R. Schizophrenia as a chronic active brain process: a study of progressive brain structural change subsequent to the onset of schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res (1997) 74(3):129–40.10.1016/S0925-4927(97)00012-79255858
75. Nopoulos PC Ceilley JW Gailis EA Andreasen NC. An MRI study of midbrain morphology in patients with schizophrenia: relationship to psychosis, neuroleptics, and cerebellar neural circuitry. Biol Psychiatry (2001) 49(1):13–9.10.1016/S0006-3223(00)01059-311163775
76. Crespo-Facorro B Barbadillo L Pelayo-Teran JM Rodriguez-Sanchez JM. Neuropsychological functioning and brain structure in schizophrenia. Int Rev Psychiatry (2007) 19(4):325–36.10.1080/0954026070148664717671866
77. Andreasen NC Calarge CA O’Leary DS. Theory of mind and schizophrenia: a positron emission tomography study of medication-free patients. Schizophr Bull (2008) 34(4):708–19.10.1093/schbul/sbn03418559406
78. Rogers TD Dickson PE Heck DH Goldowitz D Mittleman G Blaha CD. Connecting the dots of the cerebro-cerebellar role in cognitive function: neuronal pathways for cerebellar modulation of dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex. Synapse (2011) 65(11):1204–12.10.1002/syn.2096021638338
79. Andersen BB Pakkenberg B. Stereological quantitation in cerebella from people with schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry (2003) 182:354–61.10.1192/bjp.182.4.35412668413
80. Whalley HC Gountouna VE Hall J McIntosh A Whyte MC Simonotto E et al. Correlations between fMRI activation and individual psychotic symptoms in un-medicated subjects at high genetic risk of schizophrenia. BMC Psychiatry (2007) 7:61.10.1186/1471-244X-7-6117967171
81. Rocca CC Lafer B. [Neuropsychological disturbances in bipolar disorder]. Rev Bras Psiquiatr (2006) 28(3):226–37.10.1590/S1516-44462006000300016
82. Brambilla P Barale F Caverzasi E Soares JC. Anatomical MRI findings in mood and anxiety disorders. Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc (2002) 11(2):88–99.10.1017/S1121189X00005558
83. Jurjus GJ Weiss KM Jaskiw GE. Schizophrenia-like psychosis and cerebellar degeneration. Schizophr Res (1994) 12(2):183–4.10.1016/0920-9964(94)90076-0
84. Monkul ES Hatch JP Sassi RB Axelson D Brambilla P Nicoletti MA et al. MRI study of the cerebellum in young bipolar patients. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry (2008) 32(3):613–9.10.1016/j.pnpbp.2007.09.01618272276
85. Soares JC Mann JJ. The anatomy of mood disorders – review of structural neuroimaging studies. Biol Psychiatry (1997) 41(1):86–106.10.1016/S0006-3223(96)00006-68988799
86. Mills NP Delbello MP Adler CM Strakowski SM. MRI analysis of cerebellar vermal abnormalities in bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry (2005) 162(8):1530–2.10.1176/appi.ajp.162.8.153016055777
87. Kim D Cho HB Dager SR Yurgelun-Todd DA Yoon S Lee JH et al. Posterior cerebellar vermal deficits in bipolar disorder. J Affect Disord (2013) 150(2):499–506.10.1016/j.jad.2013.04.05023769608
88. Ketter TA Kimbrell TA George MS Dunn RT Speer AM Benson BE et al. Effects of mood and subtype on cerebral glucose metabolism in treatment-resistant bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry (2001) 49(2):97–109.10.1016/S0006-3223(00)00975-611164756
89. Hamada M Strigaro G Murase N Sadnicka A Galea JM Edwards MJ et al. Cerebellar modulation of human associative plasticity. J Physiol (2012) 590(Pt 10):2365–74.10.1113/jphysiol.2012.230540
90. Drevets WC. Functional anatomical abnormalities in limbic and prefrontal cortical structures in major depression. Prog Brain Res (2000) 126:413–31.10.1016/S0079-6123(00)26027-511105660
91. Yucel K Nazarov A Taylor VH Macdonald K Hall GB Macqueen GM. Cerebellar vermis volume in major depressive disorder. Brain Struct Funct (2013) 218(4):851–8.10.1007/s00429-012-0433-222696069
92. Schmahmann JD. Disorders of the cerebellum: ataxia, dysmetria of thought, and the cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci (2004) 16(3):367–78.10.1176/jnp.16.3.36715377747
93. Guo W Liu F Xue Z Gao K Liu Z Xiao C et al. Abnormal resting-state cerebellar-cerebral functional connectivity in treatment-resistant depression and treatment sensitive depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry (2013) 44:51–7.10.1016/j.pnpbp.2013.01.01023352887
94. Guo WB Liu F Chen JD Gao K Xue ZM Xu XJ et al. Abnormal neural activity of brain regions in treatment-resistant and treatment-sensitive major depressive disorder: a resting-state fMRI study. J Psychiatr Res (2012) 46(10):1366–73.10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.07.00322835912
95. Liotti M Mayberg HS McGinnis S Brannan SL Jerabek P. Unmasking disease-specific cerebral blood flow abnormalities: mood challenge in patients with remitted unipolar depression. Am J Psychiatry (2002) 159(11):1830–40.10.1176/appi.ajp.159.11.183012411216
96. Alalade E Denny K Potter G Steffens D Wang L. Altered cerebellar-cerebral functional connectivity in geriatric depression. PLoS One (2011) 6(5):e20035.10.1371/journal.pone.002003521637831
97. Ravnkilde B Videbech P Clemmensen K Egander A Rasmussen NA Rosenberg R. Cognitive deficits in major depression. Scand J Psychol (2002) 43(3):239–51.10.1111/1467-9450.00292
98. Torres IJ Boudreau VG Yatham LN. Neuropsychological functioning in euthymic bipolar disorder: a meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl (2007) 434:17–26.10.1111/j.1600-0447.2007.01055.x17688459
99. Kimbrell TA Ketter TA George MS Little JT Benson BE Willis MW et al. Regional cerebral glucose utilization in patients with a range of severities of unipolar depression. Biol Psychiatry (2002) 51(3):237–52.10.1016/S0006-3223(01)01216-1
100. Videbech P Ravnkilde B Pedersen AR Egander A Landbo B Rasmussen NA et al. The Danish PET/depression project: PET findings in patients with major depression. Psychol Med (2001) 31(7):1147–58.10.1017/S003329170100446911681541
101. Graeff FG. [Anxiety, panic and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis]. Rev Bras Psiquiatr (2007) 29(Suppl 1):S3–6.10.1590/S1516-44462007000500002
102. Abadie P Boulenger JP Benali K Barre L Zarifian E Baron JC. Relationships between trait and state anxiety and the central benzodiazepine receptor: a PET study. Eur J Neurosci (1999) 11(4):1470–8.10.1046/j.1460-9568.1999.00556.x10103141
103. Bonne O Gilboa A Louzoun Y Brandes D Yona I Lester H et al. Resting regional cerebral perfusion in recent posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry (2003) 54(10):1077–86.10.1016/S0006-3223(03)00525-014625150
104. Critchley HD Corfield DR Chandler MP Mathias CJ Dolan RJ. Cerebral correlates of autonomic cardiovascular arousal: a functional neuroimaging investigation in humans. J Physiol (2000) 523(Pt 1):259–70.10.1111/j.1469-7793.2000.t01-1-00259.x10673560
105. Sakai Y Kumano H Nishikawa M Sakano Y Kaiya H Imabayashi E et al. Cerebral glucose metabolism associated with a fear network in panic disorder. Neuroreport (2005) 16(9):927–31.10.1097/00001756-200506210-0001015931063
106. Sang L Qin W Liu Y Han W Zhang Y Jiang T et al. Resting-state functional connectivity of the vermal and hemispheric subregions of the cerebellum with both the cerebral cortical networks and subcortical structures. Neuroimage (2012) 61(4):1213–25.10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.04.01122525876