Vitamin D and critical illness: What endocrinology can learn from intensive care and vice versa

Endocrine Connections

Volumn 7, Issue 12, 2018, Pages R304-R315

  Amrein, K ^a,b   Papinutti, A ^b   Mathew, E ^b,c   Vila, G ^d   Parekh, D ^e  

^a Thyroid Endocrinology Osteoporosis Institute Dobnig Graz   (Austria)

^b MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF GRAZ   (Austria)

^c St Elisabeth s Hospital   (Austria)

^d MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA   (Austria)

^e UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Bone; Calcium; Critical care; Stress response; Vitamin D

Indexed keywords

25 HYDROXYVITAMIN D; BISPHOSPHONIC ACID DERIVATIVE; CATHELICIDIN; COLECALCIFEROL; PLACEBO; VITAMIN D; VITAMIN D BINDING PROTEIN; VITAMIN D RECEPTOR;

ACUTE KIDNEY FAILURE; ACUTE RESPIRATORY FAILURE; ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; CHILD; CRITICAL ILLNESS; DRUG INTOXICATION; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG TOXICITY; ENDOCRINOLOGY; ENZYME IMMUNOASSAY; FRACTURE; HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY; HUMAN; HYPERCALCEMIA; HYPERPHOSPHATEMIA; IMMUNE RESPONSE; INTENSIVE CARE; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; KIDNEY DYSFUNCTION; LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY-MASS SPECTROMETRY; LIVER DYSFUNCTION; LOADING DRUG DOSE; LOW DRUG DOSE; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; OSTEOLYSIS; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SEPSIS; THYROID DISEASE; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY; VITAMIN D METABOLISM; VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTATION;

EID: 85061036486     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20493614     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1530/EC-18-0184     Document Type: Review

References (87)

1. Van den Berghe G, Van Roosbroeck D, Vanhove P, Wouters PJ, De Pourcq L & Bouillon R. Bone turnover in prolonged critical illness: effect of vitamin D. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2003 88 4623–4632. (https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2003-030358)
2. Lee P, Eisman JA & Center JR. Vitamin D deficiency in critically ill patients. New England Journal of Medicine. 2009 360 1912–1914. (https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc0809996)
3. McNally JD, Leis K, Matheson LA, Karuananyake C, Sankaran K & Rosenberg AM. Vitamin D deficiency in young children with severe acute lower respiratory infection. Pediatric Pulmonology 2009 44 981–988. (https://doi.org/10.1002/ppul.21089)
4. Amrein K, Amrein S, Holl A, Waltensdorfer A, Pieber T & Dobnig H. Vitamin D, parathyroid hormone and serum calcium levels and their association with hospital mortality in critically ill patients. Critical Care 2010 14 (Supplement 1) P589. (https://doi.org/10.1186/cc8821)
5. Braun A, Chang D, Mahadevappa K, Gibbons FK, Liu Y, Giovannucci E & Christopher KB. Association of low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and mortality in the critically ill. Critical Care Medicine 2011 39 671–677. (https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0b013e318206ccdf)
6. Perron RM & Lee P. Efficacy of high-dose vitamin D supplementation in the critically ill patients. Inflammation and Allergy-Drug Targets 2013 12 273–281. (https://doi.org/10.2174/18715281113129990047)
7. Zajic P & Amrein K. Vitamin D deficiency in the ICU: a systematic review. Minerva Endocrinologica 2014 39 275–287.
8. Al-Tarrah K, Hewison M, Moiemen N & Lord JM. Vitamin D status and its influence on outcomes following major burn injury and critical illness. Burns and Trauma 2018 6 11. (https://doi.org/10.1186/s41038-018-0113-4)
9. Rech MA, Colon Hidalgo D, Larson J, Zavala S & Mosier M. Vitamin D in burn-injured patients. Burns 2018 [epub]. (https://doi. org/10.1016/j.burns.2018.04.015)
10. Amrein K, Christopher KB & McNally JD. Understanding vitamin D deficiency in intensive care patients. Intensive Care Medicine 2015 41 1961–1964. (https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-015-3937-4)
11. Lee P. Vitamin D metabolism and deficiency in critical illness. Best Practice and Research: Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2011 25 769–781. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beem.2011.03.001)
12. Amrein K & Venkatesh B. Vitamin D and the critically ill patient. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care 2012 15 188–193. (https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0b013e32834f0027)
13. Amrein K, Zajic P, Schnedl C, Waltensdorfer A, Fruhwald S, Holl A, Purkart T, Wunsch G, Valentin T, Grisold A, et al. Vitamin D status and its association with season, hospital and sepsis mortality in critical illness. Critical Care 2014 18 R47. (https://doi.org/10.1186/cc13790)
14. Lucidarme O, Messai E, Mazzoni T, Arcade M & du Cheyron D. Incidence and risk factors of vitamin D deficiency in critically ill patients: results from a prospective observational study. Intensive Care Medicine 2010 36 1609–1611. (https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-010-1875-8)
15. McNally JD, Menon K, Chakraborty P, Fisher L, Williams KA, Al-Dirbashi OY & Doherty DR. The association of vitamin D status with pediatric critical illness. Pediatrics 2012 130 429–436. (https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-3059)
16. Rippel C, South M, Butt WW & Shekerdemian LS. Vitamin D status in critically ill children. Intensive Care Medicine 2012 38 2055–2062. (https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-012-2718-6)
17. Braun AB, Litonjua AA, Moromizato T, Gibbons FK, Giovannucci E & Christopher KB. Association of low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and acute kidney injury in the critically ill. Critical Care Medicine 2012 40 3170–3179. (https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0b013e318260c928)
18. de Haan K, Groeneveld AB, de Geus HR, Egal M & Struijs A. Vitamin D deficiency as a risk factor for infection, sepsis and mortality in the critically ill: systematic review and meta-analysis. Critical Care 2014 18 660. (https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-014-0660-4)
19. Parekh D, Patel JM, Scott A, Lax S, Dancer RC, D'Souza V, Greenwood H, Fraser WD, Gao F, Sapey E, et al. Vitamin D deficiency in human and murine sepsis. Critical Care Medicine. 2017 45 282–289. (https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0000000000002095)
20. Parekh D, Thickett DR & Turner AM. Vitamin D deficiency and acute lung injury. Inflammation and Allergy-Drug Targets. 2013 12 253–261. (https://doi.org/10.2174/18715281113129990049)
21. McNally JD, Nama N, O'Hearn K, Sampson M, Amrein K, Iliriani K, McIntyre L, Fergusson D & Menon K. Vitamin D deficiency in critically ill children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Critical Care 2017 21 287. (https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-017-1875-y)
22. Zhang YP, Wan YD, Sun TW, Kan QC & Wang LX. Association between vitamin D deficiency and mortality in critically ill adult patients: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Critical Care 2014 18 684. (https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-014-0684-9)
23. Lasky-Su J, Dahlin A, Litonjua AA, Rogers AJ, McGeachie MJ, Baron RM, Gazourian L, Barragan-Bradford D, Fredenburgh LE, Choi AMK, et al. Metabolome alterations in severe critical illness and vitamin D status. Critical Care 2017 21 193. (https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-017-1794-y)
24. Czarnik T, Czarnik A, Gawda R, Gawor M, Piwoda M, Marszalski M, Maj M, Chrzan O, Said R, Rusek-Skora M, et al. Vitamin D kinetics in the acute phase of critical illness: a prospective observational study. Journal of Critical Care 2018 43 294–299. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jcrc.2017.09.179)
25. Nair P, Lee P, Reynolds C, Nguyen ND, Myburgh J, Eisman JA & Center JR. Significant perturbation of vitamin D-parathyroid-calcium axis and adverse clinical outcomes in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Medicine. 2013 39 267–274. (https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-012-2713-y)
26. Quraishi SA & Camargo CA Jr. Vitamin D in acute stress and critical illness. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care 2012 15 625–634. (https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0b013e328358fc2b)
27. De Pascale G & Quraishi SA. Vitamin D status in critically ill patients: the evidence is now bioavailable! Critical Care 2014 18 449. (https://doi.org/10.1186/cc13975)
28. Martucci G, Tuzzolino F, Arcadipane A, Pieber TR, Schnedl C, Urbanic Purkart T, Treiber G & Amrein K. The effect of high-dose cholecalciferol on bioavailable vitamin D levels in critically ill patients: a post hoc analysis of the VITdAL-ICU trial. Intensive Care Medicine 2017 43 1732–1734. (https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-017-4846-5)
29. Jenkinson C, Taylor AE, Hassan-Smith ZK, Adams JS, Stewart PM, Hewison M & Keevil BG. High throughput LC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous analysis of multiple vitamin D analytes in serum. Journal of Chromatography: B, Analytical Technologies in the Biomedical and Life Sciences 2016 1014 56–63. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jchromb.2016.01.049)
30. Prietl B, Treiber G, Pieber TR & Amrein K. Vitamin D and immune function. Nutrients 2013 5 2502–2521. (https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5072502)
31. Rejnmark L, Bislev LS, Cashman KD, Eiriksdottir G, Gaksch M, Grubler M, Grimnes G, Gudnason V, Lips P, Pilz S, et al. Non-skeletal health effects of vitamin D supplementation: a systematic review on findings from meta-analyses summarizing trial data. PLoS ONE 2017 12 e0180512. (https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0180512)
32. Bouillon R, Carmeliet G, Verlinden L, van Etten E, Verstuyf A, Luderer HF, Lieben L, Mathieu C & Demay M. Vitamin D and human health: lessons from vitamin D receptor null mice. Endocrine Reviews 2008 29 726–776. (https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2008-0004)
33. Campos LT, Brentani H, Roela RA, Katayama ML, Lima L, Rolim CF, Milani C, Folgueira MA & Brentani MM. Differences in transcriptional effects of 1alpha,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 on fibroblasts associated to breast carcinomas and from paired normal breast tissues. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 2013 133 12–24. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2012.08.002)
34. Hewison M. Vitamin D and immune function: an overview. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 2012 71 50–61. (https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665111001650)
35. Dancer RC, Parekh D, Lax S, D'Souza V, Zheng S, Bassford CR, Park D, Bartis DG, Mahida R, Turner AM, et al. Vitamin D deficiency contributes directly to the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Thorax 2015 70 617–624. (https://doi.org/10.1136/thoraxjnl-2014-206680)
36. Girgis CM, Clifton-Bligh RJ, Hamrick MW, Holick MF & Gunton JE. The roles of vitamin D in skeletal muscle: form, function, and metabolism. Endocrine Reviews 2013 34 33–83. (https://doi. org/10.1210/er.2012-1012)
37. Lugg ST, Howells PA & Thickett DR. Optimal vitamin D supplementation levels for cardiovascular disease protection. Disease Markers 2015 2015 864370. (https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/864370)
38. Orford N, Cattigan C, Brennan SL, Kotowicz M, Pasco J & Cooper DJ. The association between critical illness and changes in bone turnover in adults: a systematic review. Osteoporosis International 2014 25 2335–2346. (https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-014-2734-1)
39. Orford NR, Bailey M, Bellomo R, Pasco JA, Cattigan C, Elderkin T, Brennan-Olsen SL, Cooper DJ & Kotowicz MA. The association of time and medications with changes in bone mineral density in the 2 years after critical illness. Critical Care 2017 21 69. (https://doi. org/10.1186/s13054-017-1657-6)
40. Rousseau AF, Foidart-Desalle M, Ledoux D, Remy C, Croisier JL, Damas P & Cavalier E. Effects of cholecalciferol supplementation and optimized calcium intakes on vitamin D status, muscle strength and bone health: a one-year pilot randomized controlled trial in adults with severe burns. Burns 2015 41 317–325. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.burns.2014.07.005)
41. Orford NR, Lane SE, Bailey M, Pasco JA, Cattigan C, Elderkin T, Brennan-Olsen SL, Bellomo R, Cooper DJ & Kotowicz MA. Changes in bone mineral density in the year after critical illness. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 2016 193 736–744. (https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201508-1514OC)
42. Griffith DM & Walsh TS. Bone loss during critical illness: a skeleton in the closet for the intensive care unit survivor? Critical Care Medicine 2011 39 1554–1556. (https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0b013e318215beb4)
43. Grimm G, Vila G, Bieglmayer C, Riedl M, Luger A & Clodi M. Changes in osteopontin and in biomarkers of bone turnover during human endotoxemia. Bone 2010 47 388–391. (https://doi. org/10.1016/j.bone.2010.04.602)
44. Schwetz V, Schnedl C, Urbanic-Purkart T, Trummer C, Dimai HP, Fahrleitner-Pammer A, Putz-Bankuti C, Christopher KB, Obermayer-Pietsch B, Pieber TR, et al. Effect of vitamin D3 on bone turnover markers in critical illness: post hoc analysis from the VITdAL-ICU study. Osteoporosis International 2017 28 3347–3354. (https://doi. org/10.1007/s00198-017-4190-1)
45. Holick MF, Binkley NC, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Gordon CM, Hanley DA, Heaney RP, Murad MH & Weaver CM. Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin d deficiency: an Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2011 96 1911–1930. (https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2011-0385)
46. Ross AC, Manson JE, Abrams SA, Aloia JF, Brannon PM, Clinton SK, Durazo-Arvizu RA, Gallagher JC, Gallo RL, Jones G, et al. The 2011 report on dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D from the Institute of Medicine: what clinicians need to know. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2011 96 53–58. (https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2010-2704)
47. Hollander JM & Mechanick JI. Bisphosphonates and metabolic bone disease in the ICU. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care 2009 12 190–195. (https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0b013e328321cda6)
48. Lee P, Ng C, Slattery A, Nair P, Eisman JA & Center JR. Preadmission bisphosphonate and mortality in critically ill patients. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2016 101 1945–1953. (https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2015-3467)
49. Amrein K, Sourij H, Wagner G, Holl A, Pieber TR, Smolle KH, Stojakovic T, Schnedl C & Dobnig H. Short-term effects of high-dose oral vitamin D3 in critically ill vitamin D deficient patients: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. Critical Care 2011 15 R104. (https://doi.org/10.1186/cc10120)
50. Amrein K, Schnedl C, Holl A, Riedl R, Christopher KB, Pachler C, Urbanic Purkart T, Waltensdorfer A, Munch A, Warnkross H, et al. Effect of high-dose vitamin D3 on hospital length of stay in critically ill patients with vitamin D deficiency: the VITdAL-ICU randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2014 312 1520–1530. (https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.13204)
51. Quraishi SA, De Pascale G, Needleman JS, Nakazawa H, Kaneki M, Bajwa EK, Camargo CA Jr & Bhan I. Effect of cholecalciferol supplementation on vitamin d status and cathelicidin levels in sepsis: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Critical Care Medicine 2015 43 1928–1937. (https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0000000000001148)
52. Han JE, Jones JL, Tangpricha V, Brown MA, Brown LAS, Hao L, Hebbar G, Lee MJ, Liu S, Ziegler TR, et al. High dose vitamin d administration in ventilated intensive care unit patients: a pilot double blind randomized controlled trial. Journal of Clinical and Translational Endocrinology 2016 4 59–65. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jcte.2016.04.004)
53. Holick MF. Vitamin D deficiency. New England Journal of Medicine 2007 357 266–281. (https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra070553)
54. Sempos CT, Heijboer AC, Bikle DD, Bollerslev J, Bouillon R, Brannon PM, DeLuca HF, Jones G, Munns CF, Bilezikian JP, et al. Vitamin D assays and the definition of hypovitaminosis D: results from the First International Conference on Controversies in Vitamin D. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 2018 [epub]. (https://doi.org/10.1111/bcp.13652)
55. Holick MF. The IOM D-lemma. Public Health Nutrition 2011 14 939–941. (https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980011000590)
56. Schnedl C, Dobnig H, Quraishi SA, McNally JD & Amrein K. Native and active vitamin D in intensive care: who and how we treat is crucially important. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 2014 190 1193–1194. (https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201407-1354LE)
57. McNally JD. Vitamin D as a modifiable risk factor in critical illness: questions and answers provided by observational studies. Journal of Pediatrics 2014 90 99–101. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jped.2013.12.002)
58. Vieth R. Vitamin D toxicity, policy, and science. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 2007 22 (Supplement 2) V64–V68. (https://doi. org/10.1359/jbmr.07s221)
59. Mata-Granados JM, Vargas-Vasserot J, Ferreiro-Vera C, Luque de Castro MD, Pavon RG & Quesada Gomez JM. Evaluation of vitamin D endocrine system (VDES) status and response to treatment of patients in intensive care units (ICUs) using an on-line SPE-LC-MS/ MS method. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 2010 121 452–455. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2010.03.078)
60. Nair P, Venkatesh B, Lee P, Kerr S, Hoechter DJ, Dimeski G, Grice J, Myburgh J & Center JR. A randomized study of a single dose of intramuscular cholecalciferol in critically ill adults. Critical Care Medicine 2015 43 2313–2320. (https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0000000000001201)
61. Sanders KM, Stuart AL, Williamson EJ, Simpson JA, Kotowicz MA, Young D & Nicholson GC. Annual high-dose oral vitamin D and falls and fractures in older women: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2010 303 1815–1822. (https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2010.594)
62. Jacobs TP, Kaufman M, Jones G, Kumar R, Schlingmann KP, Shapses S & Bilezikian JP. A lifetime of hypercalcemia and hypercalciuria, finally explained. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2014 99 708–712. (https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2013-3802)
63. Schlingmann KP, Kaufmann M, Weber S, Irwin A, Goos C, John U, Misselwitz J, Klaus G, Kuwertz-Broking E, Fehrenbach H, et al. Mutations in CYP24A1 and idiopathic infantile hypercalcemia. New England Journal of Medicine 2011 365 410–421. (https://doi. org/10.1056/NEJMoa1103864)
64. Scragg R, Khaw KT, Toop L, Sluyter J, Lawes CMM, Waayer D, Giovannucci E & Camargo CA Jr. Monthly high-dose vitamin D supplementation and cancer risk: a post hoc analysis of the vitamin D assessment randomized clinical trial. JAMA Oncology 2018 e182178. (https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaoncol.2018.2178)
65. Scragg R. Emerging evidence of thresholds for beneficial effects from vitamin D supplementation. Nutrients 2018 10 E561. (https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10050561)
66. Brenner H, Jansen L, Saum KU, Holleczek B & Schottker B. Vitamin D supplementation trials aimed at reducing mortality have much higher power when focusing on people with low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations. Journal of Nutrition 2017 147 1325–1333. (https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.117.250191)
67. Smith H, Anderson F, Raphael H, Maslin P, Crozier S & Cooper C. Effect of annual intramuscular vitamin D on fracture risk in elderly men and women – a population-based, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Rheumatology 2007 46 1852–1857. (https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/kem240)
68. Martineau AR, Jolliffe DA, Hooper RL, Greenberg L, Aloia JF, Bergman P, Dubnov-Raz G, Esposito S, Ganmaa D, Ginde AA, et al. Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory tract infections: systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data. BMJ 2017 356 i6583. (https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i6583)
69. Ilahi M, Armas LA & Heaney RP. Pharmacokinetics of a single, large dose of cholecalciferol. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2008 87 688–691. (https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/87.3.688)
70. Langlois PL, Szwec C, D'Aragon F, Heyland DK & Manzanares W. Vitamin D supplementation in the critically ill: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Nutrition 2018 37 1238–1246. (https://doi. org/10.1016/j.clnu.2017.05.006)
71. Putzu A, Belletti A, Cassina T, Clivio S, Monti G, Zangrillo A & Landoni G. Vitamin D and outcomes in adult critically ill patients. A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Journal of Critical Care 2017 38 109–114. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jcrc.2016.10.029)
72. Weng H, Li JG, Mao Z & Zeng XT. Randomised trials of vitamin D3 for critically ill patients in adults: systematic review and meta-analysis with trial sequential analysis. Intensive Care Medicine 2017 43 277–278. (https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-016-4591-1)
73. Amrein K, Martucci G & McNally JD. When not to use meta-analysis: Analysing the meta-analyses on vitamin D in critical care. Clinical Nutrition 2017 36 1729–1730. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j. clnu.2017.08.009)
74. McNally JD, Ginde AA & Amrein K. Clarification needed for the systematic review of vitamin D trials in the ICU. Intensive Care Medicine 2017 43 595–596. (https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-016-4643-6)
75. Venkatram S, Chilimuri S, Adrish M, Salako A, Patel M & Diaz-Fuentes G. Vitamin D deficiency is associated with mortality in the medical intensive care unit. Critical Care 2011 15 R292.
76. Higgins DM, Wischmeyer PE, Queensland KM, Sillau SH, Sufit AJ & Heyland DK. Relationship of vitamin D deficiency to clinical outcomes in critically ill patients. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 2012 36 713–720. (https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607112444449)
77. Chun RF, Liu PT, Modlin RL, Adams JS & Hewison M. Impact of vitamin D on immune function: lessons learned from genome-wide analysis. Frontiers Physiology 2014 5 151.
78. Jimenez-Sousa MA, Martinez I, Medrano LM, Fernandez-Rodriguez A & Resino S. Vitamin D in human immunodeficiency virus infection: influence on immunity and disease. Frontiers Immunology 2018 9 458.
79. Thompson J, Nitiahpapand R, Bhatti P & Kourliouros A. Vitamin D deficiency and atrial fibrillation. International Journal of Cardiology 2015 184 159–162.
80. Kassi E, Adamopoulos C, Basdra EK & Papavassiliou AG. Role of vitamin D in atherosclerosis. Circulation 2013 128 2517–2531.
81. Hassan-Smith ZK, Jenkinson C, Smith DJ, Hernandez I, Morgan SA, Crabtree NJ, et al. 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 exert distinct effects on human skeletal muscle function and gene expression. PLoS One 2017 12 e0170665.
82. Gunton JE & Girgis CM. Vitamin D and muscle. Bone Reports 2018 8 163–167.
83. Amrein K, Fahrleitner-Pammer A & Dimai HP. Bone-a casualty of ICU survival? Critical Care 2015 19 253.
84. Jurutka PW, Bartik L, Whitfield GK, Mathern DR, Barthel TK, Gurevich M, et al. Vitamin D receptor: key roles in bone mineral pathophysiology, molecular mechanism of action, and novel nutritional ligands. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 2007 22 (Suppl 2) V2–V10.
85. Shoback D. Clinical practice. Hypoparathyroidism. New England Journal of Medicine 2008 359 391–403.
86. Alizadeh N, Khalili H, Mohammadi M, Abdollahi A & Ala S. Effect of vitamin D on stress-induced hyperglycaemia and insulin resistance in critically ill patients. International Journal of Clinical Practice 2016 70 396–405.
87. Miroliaee AE, Salamzadeh J, Shokouhi S, Fatemi A, Ardehali SH, Hajiesmaeili MR, et al. Effect of Vitamin D supplementation on procalcitonin as prognostic biomarker in patients with ventilator associated pneumonia complicated with Vitamin D deficiency. Iran Journal of Pharmaceutical Research 2017 16 1254–1263.