The demographic and adaptive history of central African hunter-gatherers and farmers

Current Opinion in Genetics and Development

Volumn 53, Issue , 2018, Pages 90-97

  Patin, Etienne ^a,b   Quintana Murci, Lluis ^a,b  

^a INSTITUT PASTEUR   (France)

^b CNRS   (France)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURAL WORKER; ANIMAL HUNTING; CENTRAL AFRICAN; DEMOGRAPHY; EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATION; GENE FLOW; GENE MUTATION; GENETIC VARIABILITY; HOLOCENE; HUMAN; LOCAL ADAPTATION; POPULATION SIZE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RAIN FOREST; REVIEW; UPPER PLEISTOCENE; ADAPTATION; AFRICA; BLACK PERSON; CENTRAL AFRICA; EPIDEMIOLOGY; GENETICS; POPULATION GENETICS;

ADAPTATION, PHYSIOLOGICAL; AFRICA; AFRICA, CENTRAL; AFRICAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; DEMOGRAPHY; FARMERS; GENE FLOW; GENETICS, POPULATION; HUMANS;

EID: 85051253734     PISSN: 0959437X     EISSN: 18790380     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2018.07.008     Document Type: Review

References (95)

1. Bahuchet, S., Changing language, remaining pygmy. Hum Biol 84 (2012), 11–43.
2. Hewlett, B.S., Cultural diversity among African pygmies. Kent, S., (eds.) Cultural Diversity Among Twentieth-Century Foragers, 1996, Cambridge University Press.
3. Phillipson, D.W., African Archaeology. 2005, Cambridge University Press.
4. Hewlett, B.S., Hunter-Gatherers of the Congo Basin: Cultures, Histories and Biology of African Pygmies. 2014, Transaction Publishers.
5. Ohenjo, N., Willis, R., Jackson, D., Nettleton, C., Good, K., Mugarura, B., Health of indigenous people in Africa. Lancet 367 (2006), 1937–1946.
6. Verdu, P., African pygmies. Curr Biol, 26, 2016 R12–14.
7. Perry, G.H., Dominy, N.J., Evolution of the human pygmy phenotype. Trends Ecol Evol 24 (2009), 218–225.
8. Cavalli-Sforza, L.L., African Pygmies. 1986, Academic Press.
9. Bostoen, K., Clist, B., Doumenge, C., Grollemund, R., Hombert, J.M., Koni Muluwa, J., Maley, J., Middle to late holocene paleoclimatic change and the early bantu expansion in the rain forests of western central Africa. Curr Anthropol 56 (2015), 354–384.
10. Vansina, J., Western Bantu expansion. J Afr Hist 25 (1984), 129–145.
11. Mellars, P., Why did modern human populations disperse from Africa ca. 60,000 years ago? A new model. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103 (2006), 9381–9386.
12. Mercader, J., Forest people: the role of African rainforests in human evolution and dispersal. Evol Anthropol 11 (2002), 117–124.
13. Crevecoeur, I., Brooks, A., Ribot, I., Cornelissen, E., Semal, P., Late stone age human remains from Ishango (Democratic Republic of Congo): new insights on Late Pleistocene modern human diversity in Africa. J Hum Evol 96 (2016), 35–57.
14. Hsieh, P., Veeramah, K.R., Lachance, J., Tishkoff, S.A., Wall, J.D., Hammer, M.F., Gutenkunst, R.N., Whole-genome sequence analyses of western central African Pygmy hunter-gatherers reveal a complex demographic history and identify candidate genes under positive natural selection. Genome Res 26 (2016), 279–290 Thorough study of the demographic past and history of adaptation of rainforest hunter-gatherers, based on whole-genome sequences. Simulation-based genomic scans for evidence of selective sweeps and polygenic selection identified candidate genes involved in short stature, bone synthesis, muscle development, and immune responses.
15. Lopez, M., Kousathanas, A., Quach, H., Harmant, C., Mouguiama-Daouda, P., Hombert, J.M., Froment, A., Perry, G.H., Barreiro, L.B., Verdu, P., et al. The demographic history and mutational load of African hunter-gatherers and farmers. Nat Ecol Evol 2 (2018), 721–730 Integrates simulations with empirical data to assess the temporal trajectories of mutational load in central African hunter-gatherers and farmers. Despite their contrasting demographic pasts, both groups present today similar loads under additive and recessive models of dominance, owing to various demographic events that have hampered hunter-gatherers to accumulate recessive load.
16. Lipson, M., Loh, P.R., Sankararaman, S., Patterson, N., Berger, B., Reich, D., Calibrating the human mutation rate via ancestral recombination density in diploid genomes. PLoS Genet, 11, 2015, e1005550.
17. Fenner, J.N., Cross-cultural estimation of the human generation interval for use in genetics-based population divergence studies. Am J Phys Anthropol 128 (2005), 415–423.
18. Patin, E., Laval, G., Barreiro, L.B., Salas, A., Semino, O., Santachiara-Benerecetti, S., Kidd, K.K., Kidd, J.R., Van der Veen, L., Hombert, J.M., et al. Inferring the demographic history of African farmers and pygmy hunter-gatherers using a multilocus resequencing data set. PLoS Genet, 5, 2009, e1000448.
19. Veeramah, K.R., Wegmann, D., Woerner, A., Mendez, F.L., Watkins, J.C., Destro-Bisol, G., Soodyall, H., Louie, L., Hammer, M.F., An early divergence of KhoeSan ancestors from those of other modern humans is supported by an ABC-based analysis of autosomal resequencing data. Mol Biol Evol 29 (2012), 617–630.
20. Green, R.E., Krause, J., Briggs, A.W., Maricic, T., Stenzel, U., Kircher, M., Patterson, N., Li, H., Zhai, W., Fritz, M.H., et al. A draft sequence of the Neandertal genome. Science 328 (2010), 710–722.
21. Prufer, K., Racimo, F., Patterson, N., Jay, F., Sankararaman, S., Sawyer, S., Heinze, A., Renaud, G., Sudmant, P.H., de Filippo, C., et al. The complete genome sequence of a Neanderthal from the Altai Mountains. Nature 505 (2014), 43–49.
22. Prufer, K., de Filippo, C., Grote, S., Mafessoni, F., Korlevic, P., Hajdinjak, M., Vernot, B., Skov, L., Hsieh, P., Peyregne, S., et al. A high-coverage Neandertal genome from Vindija Cave in Croatia. Science 358 (2017), 655–658.
23. Reich, D., Green, R.E., Kircher, M., Krause, J., Patterson, N., Durand, E.Y., Viola, B., Briggs, A.W., Stenzel, U., Johnson, P.L., et al. Genetic history of an archaic hominin group from Denisova Cave in Siberia. Nature 468 (2010), 1053–1060.
24. Reich, D., Patterson, N., Kircher, M., Delfin, F., Nandineni, M.R., Pugach, I., Ko, A.M., Ko, Y.C., Jinam, T.A., Phipps, M.E., et al. Denisova admixture and the first modern human dispersals into Southeast Asia and Oceania. Am J Hum Genet 89 (2011), 516–528.
25. Vernot, B., Tucci, S., Kelso, J., Schraiber, J.G., Wolf, A.B., Gittelman, R.M., Dannemann, M., Grote, S., McCoy, R.C., Norton, H., et al. Excavating Neandertal and Denisovan DNA from the genomes of Melanesian individuals. Science 352 (2016), 235–239.
26. Rightmire, G.P., Out of Africa: modern human origins special feature: middle and later Pleistocene hominins in Africa and Southwest Asia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106 (2009), 16046–16050.
27. Hammer, M.F., Woerner, A.E., Mendez, F.L., Watkins, J.C., Wall, J.D., Genetic evidence for archaic admixture in Africa. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108 (2011), 15123–15128.
28. Hsieh, P., Woerner, A.E., Wall, J.D., Lachance, J., Tishkoff, S.A., Gutenkunst, R.N., Hammer, M.F., Model-based analyses of whole-genome data reveal a complex evolutionary history involving archaic introgression in Central African Pygmies. Genome Res 26 (2016), 291–300.
29. Lachance, J., Vernot, B., Elbers, C.C., Ferwerda, B., Froment, A., Bodo, J.M., Lema, G., Fu, W., Nyambo, T.B., Rebbeck, T.R., et al. Evolutionary history and adaptation from high-coverage whole-genome sequences of diverse African hunter-gatherers. Cell 150 (2012), 457–469.
30. Racimo, F., Sankararaman, S., Nielsen, R., Huerta-Sanchez, E., Evidence for archaic adaptive introgression in humans. Nat Rev Genet 16 (2015), 359–371.
31. Maley, J., Doumenge, C., Giresse, P., Mahé G., Philippon, N., Hubau, W., Lokonda, M.O., Tshibamba, J.M., Chepstow-Lusty, A., Late Holocene forest contraction and fragmentation in central Africa. Quat Res 89 (2017), 43–59.
32. Bayon, G., Dennielou, B., Etoubleau, J., Ponzevera, E., Toucanne, S., Bermell, S., Intensifying weathering and land use in Iron Age Central Africa. Science 335 (2012), 1219–1222.
33. Holden, C.J., Bantu language trees reflect the spread of farming across sub-Saharan Africa: a maximum-parsimony analysis. Proc Biol Sci 269 (2002), 793–799.
34. Grollemund, R., Branford, S., Bostoen, K., Meade, A., Venditti, C., Pagel, M., Bantu expansion shows that habitat alters the route and pace of human dispersals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 112 (2015), 13296–13301.
35. Tishkoff, S.A., Reed, F.A., Friedlaender, F.R., Ehret, C., Ranciaro, A., Froment, A., Hirbo, J.B., Awomoyi, A.A., Bodo, J.M., Doumbo, O., et al. The genetic structure and history of Africans and African Americans. Science 324 (2009), 1035–1044.
36. Gurdasani, D., Carstensen, T., Tekola-Ayele, F., Pagani, L., Tachmazidou, I., Hatzikotoulas, K., Karthikeyan, S., Iles, L., Pollard, M.O., Choudhury, A., et al. The African genome variation project shapes medical genetics in Africa. Nature 517 (2015), 327–332.
37. Patin, E., Lopez, M., Grollemund, R., Verdu, P., Harmant, C., Quach, H., Laval, G., Perry, G.H., Barreiro, L.B., Froment, A., et al. Dispersals and genetic adaptation of Bantu-speaking populations in Africa and North America. Science 356 (2017), 543–546 Genomic data from 1318 individuals from different African regions provide proof-of-concept that admixture between human populations — Bantu-speaking farmers with local populations of hunter-gatherers and pastoralists — represents a rapid means to acquire new adaptive variation, with examples related to immune responses and metabolism.
38. Busby, G.B., Band, G., Si Le, Q., Jallow, M., Bougama, E., Mangano, V.D., Amenga-Etego, L.N., Enimil, A., Apinjoh, T., Ndila, C.M., et al. Admixture into and within sub-Saharan Africa. Elife, 5, 2016, e15266.
39. de Filippo, C., Bostoen, K., Stoneking, M., Pakendorf, B., Bringing together linguistic and genetic evidence to test the Bantu expansion. Proc Biol Sci 279 (2012), 3256–3263.
40. Aimé C., Laval, G., Patin, E., Verdu, P., Ségurel, L., Chaix, R., Hegay, T., Quintana-Murci, L., Heyer, E., Austerlitz, F., Human genetic data reveal contrasting demographic patterns between sedentary and nomadic populations that predate the emergence of farming. Mol Biol Evol 30 (2013), 2629–2644.
41. Patin, E., Siddle, K.J., Laval, G., Quach, H., Harmant, C., Becker, N., Froment, A., Regnault, B., Lemee, L., Gravel, S., et al. The impact of agricultural emergence on the genetic history of African rainforest hunter-gatherers and agriculturalists. Nat Commun, 5, 2014, 3163.
42. Quintana-Murci, L., Quach, H., Harmant, C., Luca, F., Massonnet, B., Patin, E., Sica, L., Mouguiama-Daouda, P., Comas, D., Tzur, S., et al. Maternal traces of deep common ancestry and asymmetric gene flow between Pygmy hunter-gatherers and Bantu-speaking farmers. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105 (2008), 1596–1601.
43. Verdu, P., Austerlitz, F., Estoup, A., Vitalis, R., Georges, M., Thery, S., Froment, A., Le Bomin, S., Gessain, A., Hombert, J.M., et al. Origins and genetic diversity of pygmy hunter-gatherers from Western Central Africa. Curr Biol 19 (2009), 312–318.
44. Verdu, P., Becker, N.S., Froment, A., Georges, M., Grugni, V., Quintana-Murci, L., Hombert, J.M., Van der Veen, L., Le Bomin, S., Bahuchet, S., et al. Sociocultural behavior, sex-biased admixture, and effective population sizes in Central African Pygmies and non-Pygmies. Mol Biol Evol 30 (2013), 918–937.
45. Jarvis, J.P., Scheinfeldt, L.B., Soi, S., Lambert, C., Omberg, L., Ferwerda, B., Froment, A., Bodo, J.M., Beggs, W., Hoffman, G., et al. Patterns of ancestry, signatures of natural selection, and genetic association with stature in Western African pygmies. PLoS Genet, 8, 2012, e1002641.
46. ••].
47. ••] report remarkable, novel datasets of whole genome sequences from different populations worldwide. They address questions of major importance in human evolution, including the genetic structure of understudied populations such as Aboriginal Australians and western Melanesians, the timing of past population divergence and early dispersals out of Africa, and the history of archaic admixture of modern humans.
48. Tennessen, J.A., Bigham, A.W., O'Connor, T.D., Fu, W., Kenny, E.E., Gravel, S., McGee, S., Do, R., Liu, X., Jun, G., et al. Evolution and functional impact of rare coding variation from deep sequencing of human exomes. Science 337 (2012), 64–69.
49. Agarwala, V., Flannick, J., Sunyaev, S., Go, T.D.C., Altshuler, D., Evaluating empirical bounds on complex disease genetic architecture. Nat Genet 45 (2013), 1418–1427.
50. Maher, M.C., Uricchio, L.H., Torgerson, D.G., Hernandez, R.D., Population genetics of rare variants and complex diseases. Hum Hered 74 (2012), 118–128.
51. Lohmueller, K.E., The distribution of deleterious genetic variation in human populations. Curr Opin Genet Dev 29 (2014), 139–146.
52. Simons, Y.B., Sella, G., The impact of recent population history on the deleterious mutation load in humans and close evolutionary relatives. Curr Opin Genet Dev 41 (2016), 150–158.
53. Henn, B.M., Botigue, L.R., Bustamante, C.D., Clark, A.G., Gravel, S., Estimating the mutation load in human genomes. Nat Rev Genet 16 (2015), 333–343.
54. Becker, N.S., Verdu, P., Froment, A., Le Bomin, S., Pagezy, H., Bahuchet, S., Heyer, E., Indirect evidence for the genetic determination of short stature in African Pygmies. Am J Phys Anthropol 145 (2011), 390–401.
55. Perry, G.H., Foll, M., Grenier, J.C., Patin, E., Nedelec, Y., Pacis, A., Barakatt, M., Gravel, S., Zhou, X., Nsobya, S.L., et al. Adaptive, convergent origins of the pygmy phenotype in African rainforest hunter-gatherers. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 111 (2014), E3596–3603.
56. Diamond, J.M., Anthropology. Why are pygmies small?. Nature 354 (1991), 111–112.
57. Migliano, A.B., Vinicius, L., Lahr, M.M., Life history trade-offs explain the evolution of human pygmies. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104 (2007), 20216–20219.
58. Perry, G.H., Verdu, P., Genomic perspectives on the history and evolutionary ecology of tropical rainforest occupation by humans. Quat Int 448 (2017), 150–157.
59. Mendizabal, I., Marigorta, U.M., Lao, O., Comas, D., Adaptive evolution of loci covarying with the human African Pygmy phenotype. Hum Genet 131 (2012), 1305–1317.
60. Amorim, C.E., Daub, J.T., Salzano, F.M., Foll, M., Excoffier, L., Detection of convergent genome-wide signals of adaptation to tropical forests in humans. PLoS One, 10, 2015, e0121557.
61. Migliano, A.B., Romero, I.G., Metspalu, M., Leavesley, M., Pagani, L., Antao, T., Huang, D.W., Sherman, B.T., Siddle, K., Scholes, C., et al. Evolution of the pygmy phenotype: evidence of positive selection for genome-wide scans in African, Asian, and Melanesian pygmies. Hum Biol 85 (2013), 251–284.
62. Lopez Herraez, D., Bauchet, M., Tang, K., Theunert, C., Pugach, I., Li, J., Nandineni, M.R., Gross, A., Scholz, M., Stoneking, M., Genetic variation and recent positive selection in worldwide human populations: evidence from nearly 1 million SNPs. PLoS One, 4, 2009, e7888.
63. Rozzi, F.V., Koudou, Y., Froment, A., Le Bouc, Y., Botton, J., Growth pattern from birth to adulthood in African pygmies of known age. Nat Commun, 6, 2015, 7672 This in-depth longitudinal study of height and weight in hundreds of African rainforest hunter-gatherers suggests that small adult body size of western and eastern groups was achieved through different evolutionary trajectories, with the pygmy phenotype in western central Africa resulting from a slow growth during infancy.
64. Pritchard, J.K., Pickrell, J.K., Coop, G., The genetics of human adaptation: hard sweeps, soft sweeps, and polygenic adaptation. Curr Biol 20 (2010), 208–215.
65. Barreiro, L.B., Quintana-Murci, L., From evolutionary genetics to human immunology: how selection shapes host defence genes. Nat Rev Genet 11 (2010), 17–30.
66. Fan, S., Hansen, M.E., Lo, Y., Tishkoff, S.A., Going global by adapting local: a review of recent human adaptation. Science 354 (2016), 54–59 Comprehensive review of how modern human popoulations have biologically adapted to varying selective pressures, with examples of local adaptations related to dairy consumption, artic and tropical rainforest environments, hypoxia, ultraviolet exposure and infectious agents.
67. Kwiatkowski, D.P., How malaria has affected the human genome and what human genetics can teach us about malaria. Am J Hum Genet 77 (2005), 171–192.
68. Sabeti, P.C., Reich, D.E., Higgins, J.M., Levine, H.Z., Richter, D.J., Schaffner, S.F., Gabriel, S.B., Platko, J.V., Patterson, N.J., McDonald, G.J., et al. Detecting recent positive selection in the human genome from haplotype structure. Nature 419 (2002), 832–837.
69. Hamblin, M.T., Di Rienzo, A., Detection of the signature of natural selection in humans: evidence from the Duffy blood group locus. Am J Hum Genet 66 (2000), 1669–1679.
70. Allison, A.C., Protection afforded by sickle-cell trait against subtertian malareal infection. Br Med J 1 (1954), 290–294.
71. Ruwende, C., Khoo, S.C., Snow, R.W., Yates, S.N., Kwiatkowski, D., Gupta, S., Warn, P., Allsopp, C.E., Gilbert, S.C., Peschu, N., et al. Natural selection of hemi- and heterozygotes for G6PD deficiency in Africa by resistance to severe malaria. Nature 376 (1995), 246–249.
72. Fry, A.E., Ghansa, A., Small, K.S., Palma, A., Auburn, S., Diakite, M., Green, A., Campino, S., Teo, Y.Y., Clark, T.G., et al. Positive selection of a CD36 nonsense variant in sub-Saharan Africa, but no association with severe malaria phenotypes. Hum Mol Genet 18 (2009), 2683–2692.
73. Deschamps, M., Laval, G., Fagny, M., Itan, Y., Abel, L., Casanova, J.L., Patin, E., Quintana-Murci, L., Genomic signatures of selective pressures and introgression from archaic hominins at human innate immunity genes. Am J Hum Genet 98 (2016), 5–21.
74. Barreiro, L.B., Laval, G., Quach, H., Patin, E., Quintana-Murci, L., Natural selection has driven population differentiation in modern humans. Nat Genet 40 (2008), 340–345.
75. Ko, W.Y., Rajan, P., Gomez, F., Scheinfeldt, L., An, P., Winkler, C.A., Froment, A., Nyambo, T.B., Omar, S.A., Wambebe, C., et al. Identifying Darwinian selection acting on different human APOL1 variants among diverse African populations. Am J Hum Genet 93 (2013), 54–66.
76. Andersen, K.G., Shylakhter, I., Tabrizi, S., Grossman, S.R., Happi, C.T., Sabeti, P.C., Genome-wide scans provide evidence for positive selection of genes implicated in Lassa fever. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 367 (2012), 868–877.
77. Grossman, S.R., Andersen, K.G., Shlyakhter, I., Tabrizi, S., Winnicki, S., Yen, A., Park, D.J., Griesemer, D., Karlsson, E.K., Wong, S.H., et al. Identifying recent adaptations in large-scale genomic data. Cell 152 (2013), 703–713.
78. Vattathil, S., Akey, J.M., Small amounts of archaic admixture provide big insights into human history. Cell 163 (2015), 281–284.
79. Kelso, J., Prufer, K., Ancient humans and the origin of modern humans. Curr Opin Genet Dev 29 (2014), 133–138.
80. Jeong, C., Alkorta-Aranburu, G., Basnyat, B., Neupane, M., Witonsky, D.B., Pritchard, J.K., Beall, C.M., Di Rienzo, A., Admixture facilitates genetic adaptations to high altitude in Tibet. Nat Communs, 5, 2014, 3281.
81. Busby, G., Christ, R., Band, G., Leffler, E.M., Le QS, Rockett K., Kwiatkowski, D., Spencer, C., Inferring adaptive gene-flow in recent African history. bioRxiv, 2017, 10.1101/205252 Detailed study of how gene flow in African populations, occurring within the last 4000 years, has driven local adaptation. Applying a novel method to detect strong deviations in local ancestry, this study identifies adaptive functions, including lactase persistence in adulthood and resistance to malaria, acquired by the western African Fulani via gene flow.
82. Laso-Jadart, R., Harmant, C., Quach, H., Zidane, N., Tyler-Smith, C., Mehdi, Q., Ayub, Q., Quintana-Murci, L., Patin, E., The genetic legacy of the Indian Ocean slave trade: recent admixture and post-admixture selection in the Makranis of Pakistan. Am J Hum Genet 101 (2017), 977–984.
83. Pierron, D., Heiske, M., Razafindrazaka, H., Pereda-Loth, V., Sanchez, J., Alva, O., Arachiche, A., Boland, A., Olaso, R., Deleuze, J.F., et al. Strong selection during the last millennium for African ancestry in the admixed population of Madagascar. Nat Commun, 9, 2018, 932 Analysis of local ancestry and positive selection in the admixed Malagasy, who offer an excellent opportunity to explore the adaptive nature of relatively ancient admixture, occurring ∼700 years ago, between Asian and African populations.
84. Hodgson, J.A., Mulligan, C.J., Al-Meeri, A., Raaum, R.L., Early back-to-Africa migration into the Horn of Africa. PLoS Genet, 10, 2014, e1004393.
85. Nielsen, R., Akey, J.M., Jakobsson, M., Pritchard, J.K., Tishkoff, S., Willerslev, E., Tracing the peopling of the world through genomics. Nature 541 (2017), 302–310.
86. Montinaro, F., Busby, G.B., Pascali, V.L., Myers, S., Hellenthal, G., Capelli, C., Unravelling the hidden ancestry of American admixed populations. Nat Commun, 6, 2015, 6596.
87. Bryc, K., Durand, E.Y., Macpherson, J.M., Reich, D., Mountain, J.L., The genetic ancestry of African Americans, Latinos, and European Americans across the United States. Am J Hum Genet 96 (2015), 37–53.
88. Moreno-Estrada, A., Gravel, S., Zakharia, F., McCauley, J.L., Byrnes, J.K., Gignoux, C.R., Ortiz-Tello, P.A., Martinez, R.J., Hedges, D.J., Morris, R.W., et al. Reconstructing the population genetic history of the Caribbean. PLoS Genet, 9, 2013, e1003925.
89. Mathias, R.A., Taub, M.A., Gignoux, C.R., Fu, W., Musharoff, S., O'Connor, T.D., Vergara, C., Torgerson, D.G., Pino-Yanes, M., Shringarpure, S.S., et al. A continuum of admixture in the Western Hemisphere revealed by the African Diaspora genome. Nat Commun, 7, 2016, 12522.
90. Baharian, S., Barakatt, M., Gignoux, C.R., Shringarpure, S., Errington, J., Blot, W.J., Bustamante, C.D., Kenny, E.E., Williams, S.M., Aldrich, M.C., et al. The great migration and African-American genomic diversity. PLoS Genet, 12, 2016, e1006059 Combining genomic data from 3726 African-Americans across the US with refined demographic modeling of ancestry and relatedness, this study explores the timing and geographic location of admixture between their ancestors, and shows that their history of ancestry-biased migration has affected regional differences in ancestry among African-Americans.
91. Fortes-Lima, C., Gessain, A., Ruiz-Linares, A., Bortolini, M.C., Migot-Nabias, F., Bellis, G., Moreno-Mayar, J.V., Restrepo, B.N., Rojas, W., Avendano-Tamayo, E., et al. Genome-wide ancestry and demographic history of African-descendant maroon communities from French Guiana and Suriname. Am J Hum Genet 101 (2017), 725–736.
92. Eltis, D., Richardson, D., Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade. 2010, Yale University Press.
93. Domingues da Silva, D.B., The Atlantic slave trade from Angola: a port-by-port estimate of slaves embarked, 1701–1867. Int J Afr Hist Stud 46 (2013), 105–122.
94. Jagadeesan, A., Gunnarsdottir, E.D., Ebenesersdottir, S.S., Guethmundsdottir, V.B., Thordardottir, E.L., Einarsdottir, M.S., Jonsson, H., Dugoujon, J.M., Fortes-Lima, C., Migot-Nabias, F., et al. Reconstructing an African haploid genome from the 18th century. Nat Genet 50 (2018), 199–205.
95. Hay, S.I., Guerra, C.A., Gething, P.W., Patil, A.P., Tatem, A.J., Noor, A.M., Kabaria, C.W., Manh, B.H., Elyazar, I.R., Brooker, S., et al. A world malaria map: Plasmodium falciparum endemicity in 2007. PLoS Med, 6, 2009, e1000048.