Medication-induced tardive dyskinesia: A review and update

Ochsner Journal

Volumn 17, Issue 2, 2017, Pages 162-174

  Cornett, Elyse M ^a   Novitch, Matthew ^b   Kaye, Alan David ^c   Kata, Vijay ^c   Kaye, Adam M ^d  

^a LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b MEDICAL COLLEGE OF WISCONSIN   (United States)

^c LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF THE PACIFIC   (United States)

Author keywords

Anti dyskinesia agents; Dyskinesias; Dyskinesia drug induced; Movement disorders; Tardive dyskinesia

Indexed keywords

AMANTADINE; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; ANTIEMETIC AGENT; ANTIHISTAMINIC AGENT; ANTIMALARIAL AGENT; ANTIPARKINSON AGENT; ANXIOLYTIC AGENT; ATYPICAL ANTIPSYCHOTIC AGENT; BIOGENIC AMINE; CHLORPROMAZINE; CHOLINERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CHOLINERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; CLONAZEPAM; CLOZAPINE; DECONGESTIVE AGENT; DOPAMINE RECEPTOR; DOPAMINE RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; GINKGO BILOBA EXTRACT; MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITOR; MOOD STABILIZER; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; OLANZAPINE; PLACEBO; PROPRANOLOL; QUETIAPINE; SEROTONIN 2C RECEPTOR; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; UNINDEXED DRUG; VALBENAZINE;

AGE DISTRIBUTION; ALLERGY; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; BIPOLAR DISORDER; BORDERLINE STATE; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASE; CHRONIC PAIN; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COMMON COLD; DEPRESSION; DOPAMINE METABOLISM; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYMPTOM; FLU LIKE SYNDROME; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; GLAUCOMA; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INCIDENCE; LIPID PEROXIDATION; LOW DRUG DOSE; MALARIA; MENTAL DISEASE; MIGRAINE; NEUROPATHIC PAIN; OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PARKINSON DISEASE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PREVALENCE; RACE DIFFERENCE; REVIEW; SCHIZOAFFECTIVE PSYCHOSIS; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SEDATION; SEIZURE; SIDE EFFECT; TARDIVE DYSKINESIA; WEIGHT GAIN;

EID: 85020533795     PISSN: 15245012     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1043/TOJ-16-0108     Document Type: Review

References (125)

1. Waln O, Jankovic J. An update on tardive dyskinesia: from phenomenology to treatment. Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y). 2013 Jul 12;3. doi: 10.7916/d88p5z71.
2. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association; 2013.
3. Kulkarni SK, Naidu PS. Pathophysiology and drug therapy of tardive dyskinesia: current concepts and future perspectives. Drugs Today (Barc). 2003 Jan;39(1):19-49.
4. Jensen N, Oliveira JRM. Basal ganglia vulnerability to oxidative stress. Front Neurosci. 2014 Apr 21;8:80. doi: 10. 3389/fnins.2014.00080.
5. Martins MR, Petronilho FC, Gomes KM, Dal-Pizzol F, Streck EL, Quevedo J. Antipsychotic-induced oxidative stress in rat brain. Neurotox Res. 2008 Jan;13(1):63-69.
6. Lepping P, Delieu J, Mellor R, Williams JHH, Hudson PR, Hunter-Lavin C. Antipsychotic medication and oxidative cell stress: a systematic review. J Clin Psychiatry. 2011 Mar;72(3): 273-285. doi: 10.4088/JCP.09r05268yel.
7. Tiwari AK, Deshpande SN, Rao AR, et al. Genetic susceptibility to tardive dyskinesia in chronic schizophrenia subjects: III. Lack of association of CYP3A4 and CYP2D6 gene polymorphisms. Schizophr Res. 2005 Jun 1;75(1):21-26. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2004.12.011.
8. Gałecki P, Pietras T, Szemraj J. Manganese superoxide dismutase gene (MnSOD) polimorphism in schizophrenics with tardive dyskinesia from central Poland [in Polish]. Psychiatr Pol. 2006 Sep-Oct;40(5):937-948.
9. Lee HJ, Kang SG. Genetics of tardive dyskinesia. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2011;98:231-264. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-381328-2.00010-9.
10. Müller DJ, Schulze TG, Knapp M, et al. Familial occurrence of tardive dyskinesia. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2001 Nov;104(5): 375-379.
11. Fedorenko OY, Loonen AJM, Lang F, et al. Association study indicates a protective role of phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate-5-kinase against tardive dyskinesia. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2014 Dec;18(6). doi: 10.1093/ijnp/pyu098.
12. Basile VS, Masellis M, Badri F, et al. Association of the MscI polymorphism of the dopamine D3 receptor gene with tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1999 Jul;21(1):17-27. doi: 10.1016/S0893-133X(98)00114-6.
13. Liao DL, Yeh YC, Chen HM, Chen H, Hong CJ, Tsai SJ. Association between the Ser9Gly polymorphism of the dopamine D3 receptor gene and tardive dyskinesia in Chinese schizophrenic patients. Neuropsychobiology. 2001; 44(2):95-98.
14. Mathews M, Gratz S, Adetunji B, George V, Mathews M, Basil B. Antipsychotic-induced movement disorders: evaluation and treatment. Psychiatry (Edgmont). 2005 Mar;2(3):36-41.
15. Miura I, Zhang JP, Nitta M, et al. BDNF Val66Met polymorphism and antipsychotic-induced tardive dyskinesia occurrence and severity: a meta-analysis. Schizophr Res. 2014 Feb;152(2-3):365-372. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2013.12.011.
16. Correll CU, Leucht S, Kane JM. Lower risk for tardive dyskinesia associated with second-generation antipsychotics: a systematic review of 1-year studies. Am J Psychiatry. 2004 Mar;161(3):414-425. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.161.3.414.
17. Gebhardt S, Härtling F, Hanke M, et al. Prevalence of movement disorders in adolescent patients with schizophrenia and in relationship to predominantly atypical antipsychotic treatment. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2006 Oct;15(7):371-382. doi: 10.1007/s00787-006-0544-5.
18. Yassa R, Jones BD. Complications of tardive dyskinesia: a review. Psychosomatics. 1985 Apr;26(4):305-313. doi: 10. 1016/S0033-3182(85)72863-0.
19. Kim J, Macmaster E, Schwartz TL. Tardive dyskinesia in patients treated with atypical antipsychotics: case series and brief review of etiologic and treatment considerations. Drugs Context. 2014 Apr 9;3:212259. doi: 10.7573/dic. 212259.
20. Yassa R, Jeste DV. Gender differences in tardive dyskinesia: a critical review of the literature. Schizophr Bull. 1992;18(4): 701-715.
21. Kinon BJ, Kollack-Walker S, Jeste D, et al. Incidence of tardive dyskinesia in older adult patients treated with olanzapine or conventional antipsychotics. JGeriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2015 Mar;28(1):67-79. doi: 10.1177/0891988714541867.
22. Meltzer HY. Update on typical and atypical antipsychotic drugs. Annu Rev Med. 2013;64:393-406. doi: 10.1146/annurev-med-050911-161504.
23. Tenback DE, Bakker PR, van Harten PN. Risk factors for tardive movement disorders in schizophrenia [in Dutch]. Tijdschr Psychiatr. 2015;57(2):120-124.
24. Connor DF, Fletcher KE, Wood JS. Neuroleptic-related dyskinesias in children and adolescents. J Clin Psychiatry. 2001 Dec;62(12):967-974.
25. Wonodi I, Adami HM, Cassady SL, Sherr JD, Avila MT, Thaker GK. Ethnicity and the course of tardive dyskinesia in outpatients presenting to the motor disorders clinic at the Maryland psychiatric research center. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2004 Dec;24(6):592-598.
26. Go CL, Rosales RL, Caraos RJ, Fernandez HH. The current prevalence and factors associated with tardive dyskinesia among Filipino schizophrenic patients. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2009 Nov;15(9):655-659. doi: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2009.02.015.
27. Yassa R, Lal S, Korpassy A, Ally J. Nicotine exposure and tardive dyskinesia. Biol Psychiatry. 1987 Jan;22(1):67-72. doi: 10.1016/0006-3223(87)90131-4.
28. Burda K, Czubak A, Nowakowska E, Kus K, Metelska J, Nowakowska A. Interactions of nicotine and drugs used in the treatment of mental illnesses with respect to cognitive functions. Arzneimittelforschung. 2010;60(9):527-543. doi: 10.1055/s-0031-1296322.
29. Bordia T, McIntosh JM, Quik M. Nicotine reduces antipsychotic-induced orofacial dyskinesia in rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2012 Mar;340(3):612-619. doi: 10.1124/jpet.111.189100.
30. Cho CH, Lee HJ. Oxidative stress and tardive dyskinesia: pharmacogenetic evidence. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2013 Oct 1;46:207-213. doi: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.10.018.
31. Zhang ZJ, Zhang XB, Hou G, Yao H, Reynolds GP. Interaction between polymorphisms of the dopamine D3 receptor and manganese superoxide dismutase genes in susceptibility to tardive dyskinesia. Psychiatr Genet. 2003 Sep;13(3):187-192. doi: 10.1097/01.ypg.0000071600.59979.0e.
32. Malik P, Andersen MB, Peacock L. The effects of dopamine D3 agonists and antagonists in a nonhuman primate model of tardive dyskinesia. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2004 Aug; 78(4):805-810. doi: 10.1016/j.pbb.2004.05.019.
33. Zai CC, Tiwari AK, Basile V, et al. Association study of tardive dyskinesia and five DRD4 polymorphisms in schizophrenia patients. Pharmacogenomics J. 2009 Jun;9(3):168-174. doi: 10.1038/tpj.2009.2.
34. Clayton AH. Antidepressant-induced tardive dyskinesia: review and case report. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1995;31(2): 259-264.
35. Mander A, McCausland M, Workman B, Flamer H, Christophidis N. Fluoxetine induced dyskinesia. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 1994 Jun;28(2):328-330.
36. Tamminga CA, Crayton JW, Chase TN. Improvement in tardive dyskinesia after muscimol therapy. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1979 May;36(5):595-598.
37. van Zessen R, Phillips JL, Budygin EA, Stuber GD. Activation of VTA GABA neurons disrupts reward consumption. Neuron. 2012 Mar 22;73(6):1184-1194. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2012.02.016.
38. Lockwood JT, Remington G. Emerging drugs for antipsychotic-induced tardive dyskinesia: investigational drugs in Phase II and Phase III clinical trials. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs. 2015 Sep;20(3):407-421. doi: 10.1517/14728214.2015.1050376.
39. Galili-Mosberg R, Gil-Ad I, Weizman A, Melamed E, Offen D. Haloperidol-induced neurotoxicity—possible implications for tardive dyskinesia. J Neural Transm (Vienna). 2000;107(4): 479-490. doi: 10.1007/s007020070089.
40. Correll CU, Schenk EM. Tardive dyskinesia and new antipsychotics. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2008 Mar;21(2):151-156. doi: 10.1097/YCO.0b013e3282f53132.
41. Jeste DV, Okamoto A, Napolitano J, Kane JM, Martinez RA. Low incidence of persistent tardive dyskinesia in elderly patients with dementia treated with risperidone. Am J Psychiatry. 2000 Jul;157(7):1150-1155. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.157.7.1150.
42. Goyal R, Devi SH. A case of aripiprazole induced tardive dyskinesia in a neuroleptic-naïve patient with two years of follow up. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci. 2014 Apr;12(1): 69-71. doi: 10.9758/cpn.2014.12.1.69.
43. Coplan J, Gugger JJ, Tasleem H. Tardive dyskinesia from atypical antipsychotic agents in patients with mood disorders in a clinical setting. J Affect Disord. 2013 Sep 25; 150(3):868-871. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2013.04.053.
44. Ryu S, Yoo JH, Kim JH, et al. Tardive dyskinesia and tardive dystonia with second-generation antipsychotics in non-elderly schizophrenic patients unexposed to first-generation antipsychotics: a cross-sectional and retrospective study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2015 Feb;35(1):13-21. doi: 10.1097/JCP.0000000000000250.
45. Simpson GM. The treatment of tardive dyskinesia and tardive dystonia. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;61 Suppl 4:39-44.
46. Caroff SN, Mann SC, Campbell EC, Sullivan KA. Movement disorders associated with atypical antipsychotic drugs. J Clin Psychiatry. 2002;63 Suppl 4:12-19.
47. Desmarais JE, Beauclair L, Annable L, Bélanger MC, Kolivakis TT, Margolese HC. Effects of discontinuing anticholinergic treatment on movement disorders, cognition and psychopathology in patients with schizophrenia. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol. 2014 Dec;4(6):257-267. doi: 10.1177/2045125314553611.
48. Peters R. Ageing and the brain. Postgrad Med J. 2006 Feb; 82(964):84-88. doi: 10.1136/pgmj.2005.036665.
49. Vandel P, Bonin B, Leveque E, Sechter D, Bizouard P. Tricyclic antidepressant-induced extrapyramidal side effects. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 1997 Aug;7(3): 207-212.
50. Boyer P, Lecrubier Y, Stalla-Bourdillon A, Fleurot O. Amisulpride versus amineptine and placebo for the treatment of dysthymia. Neuropsychobiology. 1999;39(1): 25-32.
51. Dubovsky SL, Thomas M. Tardive dyskinesia associated with fluoxetine. Psychiatr Serv. 1996 Sep;47(9):991-993. doi: 10. 1176/ps.47.9.991.
52. Raveendranathan D, Rao SG. Sertraline induced acute mandibular dystonia. J Neurosci Rural Pract. 2015Oct-Dec; 6(4):586-587. doi: 10.4103/0976-3147.169804.
53. Tong J, Meyer JH, Furukawa Y, et al. Distribution of monoamine oxidase proteins in human brain: implications for brain imaging studies. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2013 Jun;33(6):863-871. doi: 10.1038/jcbfm.2013.19.
54. Volz HP, Gleiter CH. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors. A perspective on their use in the elderly. Drugs Aging. 1998 Nov;13(5):341-355.
55. Elmer L, Schwid S, Eberly S, et al. Rasagiline-associated motor improvement in PD occurs without worsening of cognitive and behavioral symptoms. J Neurol Sci. 2006Oct 25;248(1-2):78-83. doi: 10.1016/j.jns.2006.05.014.
56. Rao AS, Camilleri M. Review article: metoclopramide and tardive dyskinesia. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2010 Jan;31(1): 11-19. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2009.04189.x.
57. Lee A, Kuo B. Metoclopramide in the treatment of diabetic gastroparesis. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab. 2010;5(5): 653-662.
58. Wijemanne S, Jankovic J, Evans RW. Movement disorders from the use of metoclopramide and other antiemetics in the treatment of migraine. Headache. 2016 Jan;56(1): 153-161. doi: 10.1111/head.12712.
59. Madruga-Garrido M, Mir P. Tics and other stereotyped movements as side effects of pharmacological treatment. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2013;112:481-494. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-411546-0.00016-0.
60. Chadwick D, Reynolds EH, Marsden CD. Anticonvulsant-induced dyskinesias: a comparison with dyskinesias induced by neuroleptics. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1976 Dec; 39(12):1210-1218.
61. Zaatreh MM. Anticonvulsant-induced dyskinesia. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2003 Jul;2(4):385-393.
62. Zadikoff C, Munhoz RP, Asante AN, et al. Movement disorders in patients taking anticonvulsants. JNeurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2007 Feb;78(2):147-151. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.2006.100222.
63. Zaatreh M, Tennison M, D’Cruz O, Beach RL. Anticonvulsants-induced chorea: a role for pharmacodynamic drug interaction? Seizure. 2001 Dec;10(8): 596-599. doi: 10.1053/seiz.2001.0555.
64. Ahmad S, Laidlaw J, Houghton GW, Richens A. Involuntary movements caused by phenytoin intoxication in epileptic patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1975 Mar;38(3): 225-231.
65. Yoshida M, Yamada S, Ozaki Y, Nakanishi T. Phenytoin-induced orofacial dyskinesia. A case report. JNeurol. 1985; 231(6):340-342.
66. Harrison MB, Lyons GR, Landow ER. Phenytoin and dyskinesias: a report of two cases and review of the literature. Mov Disord. 1993;8(1):19-27. doi: 10.1002/mds.870080104.
67. Bellman MH, Haas L. Letter: Toxic reaction to phenytoin. Br Med J. 1974 Jul 27;3(5925):256-257.
68. Alford EL, Wheless JW, Phelps SJ. Treatment of generalized convulsive status epilepticus in pediatric patients. JPediatr Pharmacol Ther. 2015 Jul-Aug;20(4):260-289. doi: 10.5863/1551-6776-20.4.260.
69. Benzi G, Arrigoni E, Scelsi R, Marzatico F, Gorini A, Villa RF. Acetylcholine esterase sensitivity to chronic administration of diphenylhydantoin and effects on cerebral enzymatic activities related to energy metabolism. Neurochem Res. 1980 Aug;5(8):905-911.
70. Mendez JS, Cotzias GC, Mena I, Papavasiliou PS. Diphenylhydantoin. Blocking of levodopa effects. Arch Neurol. 1975 Jan;32(1):44-46.
71. Granacher RP Jr. Facial dyskinesia after antihistamines. N Engl J Med. 1977 Mar 3;296(9):516. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197703032960917.
72. Navarro Blasco FJ, Brotons Cuixart C, Alvarez Cristóbal ML. Acute dyskinesia caused by antihistamines [in Spanish]. Med Clin (Barc). 1984 Jan;82(3):137.
73. Barone DA, Raniolo J. Facial dyskinesia from overdose of an antihistamine. NEnglJMed. 1980 Jul 10;303(2):107. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198007103030211.
74. Clark BG, Araki M, Brown HW. Hydroxyzine-associated tardive dyskinesia. Ann Neurol. 1982 Apr;11(4):435-435. doi: 10.1002/ana.410110423.
75. Ananth J, Burgoyne KS, Niz D, Smith M. Tardive dyskinesia in 2 patients treated with ziprasidone. J Psychiatry Neurosci. 2004 Nov;29(6):467-469.
76. Heath HW, Allen JK. Acute dystonia following standard doses of a cold medicine containing phenylpropanolamine. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 1997 Jan;36(1):57-58.
77. Powers JM. Decongestant-induced blepharospasm and orofacial dystonia. JAMA. 1982 Jun 18;247(23):3244-3245.
78. Henry B, Fox SH, Peggs D, Crossman AR, Brotchie JM. The alpha2-adrenergic receptor antagonist idazoxan reduces dyskinesia and enhances anti-parkinsonian actions of L-dopa in the MPTP-lesioned primate model of Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 1999 Sep;14(5):744-753.
79. Buck K, Voehringer P, Ferger B. The alpha(2) adrenoceptor antagonist idazoxan alleviates L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia by reduction of striatal dopamine levels: an in vivo microdialysis study in 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rats. J Neurochem. 2010 Jan;112(2):444-452. doi: 10.1111/j. 1471-4159.2009.06482.x.
80. Osifo NG. Drug-related transient dyskinesias. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1979 Jun;25(6):767-771.
81. Giuffrida AM, Sjöstrand J, Cambria A, et al. In vitro action of chloroquine on nucleic acid and protein biosynthesis in the rabbit retina. Neuropharmacology. 1976 Jul;15(7): 439-441.
82. Metcalf G, Thompson JW. The effect of various amine-depleting drugs on the fever response exhibited by rabbits to bacterial or leucocyte pyrogen. Br J Pharmacol. 1975Jan; 53(1):21-27.
83. Sossi V, de la Fuente-Fernández R, Schulzer M, Adams J, Stoessl J. Age-related differences in levodopa dynamics in Parkinson’s: implications for motor complications. Brain. 2006 Apr;129(Pt 4):1050-1058. doi: 10.1093/brain/awl028.
84. Oliveri RL, Annesi G, Zappia M, et al. Dopamine D2 receptor gene polymorphism and the risk of levodopa-induced dyskinesias in PD. Neurology. 1999 Oct;53(7):1425-1430.
85. Bibbiani F, Costantini LC, Patel R, Chase TN. Continuous dopaminergic stimulation reduces risk of motor complications in parkinsonian primates. Exp Neurol. 2005 Mar;192(1):73-78. doi: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2004.11.013.
86. Rascol O, Sabatini U, Brefel C, et al. Cortical motor overactivation in parkinsonian patients with L-dopa-induced peak-dose dyskinesia. Brain. 1998 Mar;121 (Pt 3): 527-533.
87. Chase TN, Bibbiani F, Oh JD. Striatal glutamatergic mechanisms and extrapyramidal movement disorders. Neurotox Res. 2003;5(1-2):139-146.
88. Brotchie JM. Nondopaminergic mechanisms in levodopa-induced dyskinesia. Mov Disord. 2005 Aug;20(8):919-931. doi: 10.1002/mds.20612.
89. Calon F, Grondin R, Morissette M, et al. Molecular basis of levodopa-induced dyskinesias. Ann Neurol. 2000 Apr;47(4 Suppl 1):S70-S78.
90. Aosaki T, Miura M, Suzuki T, Nishimura K, Masuda M. Acetylcholine-dopamine balance hypothesis in the striatum: an update. Geriatr Gerontol Int. 2010 Jul;10 Suppl 1: S148-S157. doi: 10.1111/j.1447-0594.2010.00588.x.
91. Klawans HL, Rubovits R. Effect of cholinergic and anticholinergic agents on tardive dyskinesia. JNeurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1974 Aug;37(8):941-947.
92. Casey DE, Gerlach J, Magelund G, Christensen TR. gamma-Acetylenic GABA in tardive dyskinesia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1980 Dec;37(12):1376-1379.
93. Deik A, Saunders-Pullman R, Luciano MS. Substance of abuse and movement disorders: complex interactions and comorbidities. Curr Drug Abuse Rev. 2012 Sep;5(3):243-253.
94. Ramchandani D, López-Muñoz F, Alamo C. Meprobamate-tranquilizer or anxiolytic? A historical perspective. Psychiatr Q. 2006 Spring;77(1):43-53. doi: 10.1007/s11126-006-7960-z.
95. Naila A, Flint S, Fletcher G, Bremer P, Meerdink G. Control of biogenic amines in food—existing and emerging approaches. JFoodSci. 2010 Sep;75(7):R139-R150. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01774.x.
96. Sathyanarayana Rao TS, Yeragani VK. Hypertensive crisis and cheese. Indian J Psychiatry. 2009 Jan;51(1):65-66. doi: 10.4103/0019-5545.44910.
97. Malhi GS, Tanious M, Das P, Coulston CM, Berk M. Potential mechanisms of action of lithium in bipolar disorder. Current understanding. CNS Drugs. 2013 Feb;27(2):135-153. doi: 10.1007/s40263-013-0039-0.
98. Ghadirian AM, Annable L, Bélanger MC, Chouinard G. A cross-sectional study of parkinsonism and tardive dyskinesia in lithium-treated affective disordered patients. J Clin Psychiatry. 1996 Jan;57(1):22-28.
99. van Harten PN, Hoek HW, Matroos GE, van Os J. Evidence that lithium protects against tardive dyskinesia: the Curaçao extrapyramidal syndromes study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2008 Feb;18(2):152-155. doi: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2007.07.004.
100. Mukherjee S, Rosen AM, Caracci G, Shukla S. Persistent tardive dyskinesia in bipolar patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1986 Apr;43(4):342-346.
101. Correll CU, Detraux J, De Lepeleire J, De Hert M. Effects of antipsychotics, antidepressants and mood stabilizers on risk for physical diseases in people with schizophrenia, depression and bipolar disorder. World Psychiatry. 2015 Jun; 14(2):119-136. doi: 10.1002/wps.20204.
102. Schwarzschild MA. Caffeine in Parkinson disease: better for cruise control than snooze patrol? Neurology. 2012 Aug 14;79(7):616-618. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0b013e318263580e.
103. Wills AM, Eberly S, Tennis M, et al. Caffeine consumption and risk of dyskinesia in CALM-PD. Mov Disord. 2013 Mar; 28(3):380-383. doi: 10.1002/mds.25319.
104. Kish SJ. Pharmacologic mechanisms of crystal meth. CMAJ. 2008 Jun 17;178(13):1679-1682. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.071675.
105. Thiel A, Dressler D. Dyskinesias possibly induced by norpseudoephedrine. J Neurol. 1994 Jan;241(3):167-169.
106. Rusyniak DE. Neurologic manifestations of chronic methamphetamine abuse. Neurol Clin. 2011 Aug;29(3): 641-655. doi: 10.1016/j.ncl.2011.05.004.
107. Saltz BL, Robinson DG, Woerner MG. Recognizing and managing antipsychotic drug treatment side effects in the elderly. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;6(Suppl 2):14-19.
108. Kalachnik JE, Sprague RL. The Dyskinesia Identification System Condensed User Scale (DISCUS): reliability, validity, and a total score cut-off for mentally ill and mentally retarded populations. JClinPsychol. 1993 Mar;49(2):177-189.
109. Bergman J, Dwolatzky T, Brettholz I, Lerner V. Beneficial effect of donepezil in the treatment of elderly patients with tardive movement disorders. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005 Jan; 66(1):107-110.
110. Tammenmaa IA, Sailas E, McGrath JJ, Soares-Weiser K, Wahlbeck K. Systematic review of cholinergic drugs for neuroleptic-induced tardive dyskinesia: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2004 Nov;28(7):1099-1107. doi: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2004.05.045.
111. Warnez S, Alessi-Severini S. Clozapine: a review of clinical practice guidelines and prescribing trends. BMC Psychiatry. 2014 Apr 7;14:102. doi: 10.1186/1471-244X-14-102.
112. Lehman AF, Lieberman JA, Dixon LB, et al. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with schizophrenia, second edition. Am J Psychiatry. 2004 Feb;161(2 Suppl):1-56.
113. Agid O, Arenovich T, Sajeev G, et al. An algorithm-based approach to first-episode schizophrenia: response rates over 3 prospective antipsychotic trials with a retrospective data analysis. J Clin Psychiatry. 2011 Nov;72(11):1439-1444. doi:10.4088/JCP.09m05785yel.
114. Kane JM, Woerner MG, Pollack S, Safferman AZ, Lieberman JA. Does clozapine cause tardive dyskinesia? J Clin Psychiatry. 1993 Sep;54(9):327-330.
115. Emsley R, Turner HJ, Schronen J, Botha K, Smit R, Oosthuizen PP. A single-blind, randomized trial comparing quetiapine and haloperidol in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. JClinPsychiatry. 2004 May;65(5):696-701.
116. Katzenschlager R. Apomorphine in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Eur Neurol Rev. 2009;4(1):28-30. doi: 10.17925/ENR.2009.04.01.28.
117. Muller T. Valbenazine granted breakthrough drug status for treating tardive dyskinesia. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2015 Jun;24(6):737-742. doi: 10.1517/13543784.2015.1029573.
118. Lerner PP, Miodownik C, Lerner V. Tardive dyskinesia (syndrome): Current concept and modern approaches to its management. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2015 Jun;69(6): 321-334. doi: 10.1111/PCN.12270.
119. Sharma H. Treatment of tardive dyskinesia by tetrabenazine, clonazepam and vitamin E. Indian J Psychiatry. 2009Apr; 51(2):162-163. doi: 10.4103/0019-5545.49466.
120. Fukasawa T, Takahashi M, Otani K. A successful clonazepam treatment without tolerance in a patient with spontaneous oral dyskinesia. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2001 Oct;25(7):1477-1480.
121. Hatcher-Martin JM, Armstrong KA, Scorr LM, et al. Propranolol therapy for tardive dyskinesia: a retrospective examination. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2016 Nov;32: 124-126. doi: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2016.09.004.
122. Crosby NJ, Deane KH, Clarke CE. Amantadine for dyskinesia in Parkinson’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;(2): CD003467. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003467.
123. Richardson MA, Bevans ML, Weber JB, et al. Branched chain amino acids decrease tardive dyskinesia symptoms. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1999 Apr;143(4):358-364.
124. Richardson MA, Small AM, Read LL, Chao HM, Clelland JD. Branched chain amino acid treatment of tardive dyskinesia in children and adolescents. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004 Jan;65(1): 92-96.
125. Bhidayasiri R, Fahn S, Weiner WJ, et al. Evidence-based guideline: treatment of tardive syndromes: report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2013 Jul 30;81(5): 463-469. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0b013e31829d86b6. Erratum in: Neurology. 2013 Nov 26;81(22):1968.