Prevalence of movement disorders in adolescent patients with schizophrenia and in relationship to predominantly atypical antipsychotic treatment

European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

Volumn 15, Issue 7, 2006, Pages 371-382

  Gebhardt, Stefan ^a   Härtling, Fabian ^b   Hanke, Markus ^c   Mittendorf, Markus ^a   Theisen, Frank M ^a   Wolf Ostermann, Karin ^d   Grant, Phillip ^e   Martin, Matthias ^a   Fleischhaker, Christian ^f   Schulz, Eberhard ^f   Remschmidt, Helmut ^a  

^a PHILIPPS UNIVERSITY MARBURG   (Germany)

^b GOETHE UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

^c UNIVERSITY OF BERN   (Switzerland)

^d ALICE SALOMON UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES   (Germany)

^e JUSTUS LIEBIG UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

^f UNIVERSITY OF FREIBURG   (Germany)

Author keywords

Adolescents; Antipsychotics; Movement disorders; Schizophrenia

Indexed keywords

ATYPICAL ANTIPSYCHOTIC AGENT; CHOLINERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CLOZAPINE; FLUPENTIXOL; FLUPHENAZINE; HALOPERIDOL; LEVOMEPROMAZINE; MOOD STABILIZER; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; OLANZAPINE; PERAZINE; PIMOZIDE; RISPERIDONE; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; SULPIRIDE; THIORIDAZINE; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; ZUCLOPENTHIXOL;

ABNORMAL INVOLUNTARY MOVEMENT SCALE; ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AKATHISIA; ARTICLE; BARNES AKATHISIA SCALE; EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYMPTOM SCALE; FEMALE; HUMAN; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; MOTOR DYSFUNCTION; PARKINSONISM; RETROSPECTIVE STUDY; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SYMPTOMATIC EPILEPSY; SYMPTOMATOLOGY; TARDIVE DYSKINESIA; TARDIVE DYSKINESIA RATING SCALE; TREATMENT DURATION;

ADOLESCENT; AKATHISIA, DRUG-INDUCED; ANTIPSYCHOTIC AGENTS; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES; DYSKINESIA, DRUG-INDUCED; FEMALE; FOLLOW-UP STUDIES; GERMANY; HUMANS; MALE; NEUROLOGIC EXAMINATION; RETROSPECTIVE STUDIES; SCHIZOPHRENIA;

EID: 33750032283     PISSN: 10188827     EISSN: 1435165X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00787-006-0544-5     Document Type: Article

References (120)

1. Allison DB, Mentore JL, Heo M, Chandler LP, Cappelleri JC, Infante MC, Weiden PJ (1999) Antipsychotic-induced weight gain: a comprehensive research synthesis. Am J Psychiatry 156:1686-1696
2. Barnes TRE (1989) A rating scale for drug-induced akathisia. Br J Psychiatry 154:672-676
3. Barnes TRE, Halstead SM (1988) A scale for rating drug-induced akathisia. Schizophr Res 1:249
4. Beasley CM, Dellva MA (1999) Randomised double-blind comparison of the incidence of tardive dyskinesia in patients with schizophrenia during longterm treatment with olanzapine or haloperidol. Br J Psychiatry 174:23-30
5. Brüne M, Bräuning P, Höffler J, Börner I, Krüger S (1999) Prävalenz neuroleptikabedingter Bewegungsstörungen bei schizophrenen Psychosen. In: Bräuning P (ed) Motorische Störungen bei schizophrenen Psychosen. Schattauer, Stuttgart, New York, pp. 107-115
6. Bruun RD (1988) Subtile and underrecognized side effects of neuroleptic treatment in children with Tourette's disorder. Am J Psychiatry 145:621-624
7. Brunn RD, Budmann CL (1996) Risperidone as a treatment for Tourette's syndrome. J Clin Psychiatry 57:29-31
8. Campbell M, Adams P, Perry R, Spencer EK, Overall JE (1988) Tardive and withdrawal dyskinesia in autistic children: a prospective study. Psychopharmacol Bull 24:251-255
9. Campbell M, Anderson LT, Meier M (1979) A comparison of haloperidol, behavior therapy, and their interaction in autistic children [proceedings]. Psychopharmacol Bull 15:84-86
10. Campbell M, Anderson LT, Meier M, Cohen IL, Small AM, Samit C, Sachar EJ (1978) A comparison of haloperidol and behavior therapy and their interaction in autistic children. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 17:640-655
11. Campbell M, Armenteros JL, Malone RP, Adams PB, Eisenberg ZW, Overall JE (1997) Neuroleptic-related dyskinesias in autistic children: a prospective, longitudinal study. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 36:835-843
12. Campbell M, Grega DM, Green WH, Bennett WG (1983) Neuroleptic-induced dyskinesias in children. Clin Neuropharmacol 6:207-222
13. Campbell M, Palij M (1985) Measurement of side-effects including tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacol Bull 21:1063-1075
14. Caroff SN, Mann SC, Campbell EC, Sullivan KA (2002) Movement disorders associated with atypical antipsychotic drugs. J Clin Psychiatry 63(Suppl 4):12-19
15. Casey DE (1998) Effects of clozapine therapy in schizophrenic individuals at risk for tardive dyskinesia. J Clin Psychiatry 59(Suppl 3):31-37
16. Casey DE (1995) Motor and mental aspects of extrapyramidal syndromes. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 10(Suppl 3):105-114
17. Casey DE (1991) Neuroleptic-induced acute extrapyramidal syndromes and tardive dyskinesia. Schizophr Res 4:109-120
18. Casey DE (2004) Pathophysiology of antipsychotic drug-induced movement disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 65(Suppl 9):25-28
19. Cawthrone P, James A, Dell J, Seagroatt V (1994) Adolescent onset psychosis. A clinical and outcome study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 35:1321-1332
20. Chengappa KN, Shelton MD, Baker RW, Schooler NR, Baird J, Delaney J (1994) The prevalence of akathisia in patients receiving stable doses of clozapine. J Clin Psychiatry 55:142-145
21. Chouinard G (2004) New nomenclature for drug-induced movement disorders including tardive dyskinesia. J Clin Psychiatry 65(Suppl 9):9-15
22. Connor DE, Fletcher KE, Wood JS (2001) Neuroleptic-related dyskinesias in children and adolescents. J Clin Psychiatry 62:967-974
23. Dalack GW, Becks L, Meador-Woodruff JH (1998) Tardive dyskinesia, clozapine, and treatment response. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 22:567-573
24. DeLisi LE, Sakuma M, Tew W, Kushner M, Hoff AL, Grimson R (1997) Schizophrenia as a chronic active brain process: a study of progressive brain structural change subsequent to the onset of schizophrenia. Psychiatr Res 74:129-140
25. Dittmann R (2004) Efficacy, subjective well-being and safety of olanzapine in adolescent patients with schizophrenia: findings from a prospective open-label multicenter study. In: Remschmidt H, Belfer M (eds) Proceedings of the 16th World Congress of IACAPAP, Berlin, 22-26 August 2004. Steinkopff, Darmstadt, p. 25
26. Fenn DS, Moussaoui D, Hoffmann WF, Kadri N, Bentounssi B, Tilane A, Khomeis M, Casey DE (1996) Movements in never-medicated schizophrenics: a preliminary study. Psychopharmacol Berl 123:206-210
27. Fenton WS, Wyatt RJ, McGlashan TH (1994) Risk factors for spontaneous dyskinesia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51:643-650
28. Findling RL, McNamara NK (2004) Atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of children and adolescents: clinical applications. J Clin Psychiatry 65(Suppl 6):30-44
29. Findling RL, McNamara NK, Branicky LA, Schluchter MD, Lemon E, Blumer JL (2000) A double-blind pilot study of risperidone in the treatment of conduct disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 39:509-516
30. Fisman S, Steele M (1996) Use of risperidone in pervasive developmental disorders: a case series. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 6:177-190
31. Fleischhaker C, Schulz E, Tepper K, Martin M, Hennighausen K, Remschmidt H (2005) Long-term course of adolescent schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 31: 1-12
32. Frank S, Djavadi N (1980) Tardive dyskinesia and parkinsonian effects in adolescent psychiatric inpatients. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, Chiacago, IL, October 18
33. Frazier JA, Biederman J, Tohen M, Feldman PD, Jacobs TG, Toma V, Rater MA, Tarazi RA, Kim GS, Gar-field SB, Sohma M, Gonzalez-Heydrich J, Risser RC, Nowlin ZM (2001) A prospective open-label treatment trial of olanzapine monotherapy in children and adolescents with bipolar disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 11:239-250
34. Gerlach J, Casey DE (1988) Tardive dyskinesia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 77:369-378
35. Gervin M, Brown S, Lane A, Clarka M (1998) Spontaneous abnormal involuntary movements in first-episode schizophrenia and schizophreniform disorder: baseline rate in a group of patients from an Irish catchment area. Am J Psychiatry 155:1202-1206
36. Glazer WM (2000) Extrapyramidal side effects, tardive dyskinesia, and the concept of atypicality. J Psychiatry 61:16-21
37. Grcevich SJ, Findling RL, Rowane WA, Friedman L, Schulz SC (1996) Risperidone in the treatment of children and adolescents with schizophrenia: a retrospective study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 6:251-257
38. Gualtieri CT, Breuning SE, Schroeder SR, Quade D (1982) Tardive dyskinesia in mentally retarded children, adolescents and young adults. North Carolina and Michigan studies. Psychopharmacol Bull 18:62-65
39. Gualtieri CT, Schroeder SR, Hicks RE, Quade D (1986) Tardive dyskinesia in young mentally retarded individuals. Arch Gen Psychiatry 43:335-340
40. Guy W (1976) ECDEU assessment manual for psychopharmacology, revised edn. US Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, DC
41. Häfner H, Riecher A, Maurer K, Meissner S, Schmidtke A, Fätkenheuer B (1990) Ein Instrument zur retrospektiven Einschätzung des Erkrankungsbeginns bei Schizophrenie. Entwicklung und erste Ergebnisse. Z Klin Psychol 19:230-255
42. Halliday J, Farrington S, Macdonald S, MacEwan T, Sharkey V, McCreadie R (2002) Nithsdale schizophrenia Surveys 23: movement disorders. 20-year review. Br J Psychiatry 181:422-427
43. Held T, Weber T, Krausz H, Ahle G, Hager B, Alfter D, Schulze T, Knapp M, Maier W, Rietschel M (2000) Klinische Charakteristika von Patienten mit tardiven Dyskinesien. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr 68:321-331
44. de Jesus Mari J, Lima MS, Costa AN, Alexandrino N, Rodrigues-Filho S, de Oliveira IR, Tollefson GD (2004) The prevalence of tardive dyskinesia after a nine-month naturalistic randomized trial comparing olanzapine with conventional treatment for schizophrenia and related disorders. Eur Arch Psychiatr Clin Neurosc 254:356-361
45. Kane JM (1995) Tardive dyskinesia: epidemiological and clinical presentation. In: Bloom DE, Kupfer DJ (eds) Psychopharmacology: the fourth generation of progress. Raven Press, New York, pp. 1485-1496
46. Kane JM (2004) Tardive dyskinesia rates with atypical antipsychotics in adults: prevalence and incidence. J Clin Psychiatry 65(Suppl 9):16-20
47. Kane JM, Dauphinais D, Barnes TRE, Adler LA, Riflkin A (1993) Assessing negative symptoms and extrapyramidal symptoms in schizophrenia: workshop report. Psychopharmacol Bull 29:45-49
48. Kane JM, Smith JM (1982) Tardive dyskinesia: rate and risk factors, 1959-1979. Arch Gen Psychiatry 39:473-481
49. Kane JM, Woerner M, Borenstein M, Wegner J, Lieberman J (1986) Integrating incidence and prevalence of tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacol Bull 22: 254-258
50. Kane JM, Woerner M, Weinhold P, Wegner J, Kinon B, Borenstein M (1984) Incidence of tardive dyskinesia: five-year data from a prospective study. Psychopharmacol Bull 20:387-389
51. Klingelhöfer J, Spranger M (1997) Klinikleitfaden Neurologie, Psychiatrie: Untersuchungen, Diagnostik, Therapie, Notfall. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Ulm, Stuttgart, Jena, Lübeck
52. Kraepelin E (1919) Dementia praecox und paraphrenie. E. & S. Livingston, Edinburgh
53. Krausz M, Müller-Thompsen T (1993) Schizophrenia with onset in adolescence: a 11-year follow-up. Schizophr Bull 19:831-841
54. Kumra S, Jacobsen LK, Lenane M, Karp BI, Frazier JA, Smith AK, Bedwell J, Lee P, Malanga CJ, Hamburger S, Rapoport JL (1998) Childhood-onset schizophrenia: an open-label study of olanzapine in adolescents. J Am Child Adolesc Psychiatry 37:377-385
55. Kumra S, Jacobsen LK, Lenane M, Smith A, Lee P, Malanga CJ, Karp BI, Hamburger S, Rapoport JL (1998) Case series: spectrum of neuroleptic-induced movement disorders and extrapyramidal side effects in childhood-onset schizophrenia. J Am Child Adolesc Psychiatry 37:221-227
56. Lambert M, Moritz S, Haasen C, Naber D (2000) Umstellung von typischen auf atypische Neuroleptika. Richtlinien zur ambulanten und stationären Behandlung. Nervenarzt 71:859-875
57. Latimer PR (1995) Tardive dyskinesia: a review. Can J Psychiatry 40(Suppl 2):49-54
58. Lewis R (1998) Typical and atypical antipsychotics in adolescent schizophrenia: efficacy, tolerability, and differential sensivity to extrapyramidal symptoms. Can J Psychiatry 43:596-604
59. Lieberman JA, Saltz BL, Johns CA, Pollack S, Borenstein M, Kane J (1991) The effects of clozapine on tardive dyskinesia. Br J Psychiatry 158:503-510
60. Lieberman JA, Hsiao JK (2006) Interpreting the results of the CATIE study. Psychiatr Serv 57:139
61. Lieberman JA, Stroup TS, McEvoy JP, Swartz MS, Rosenheck RA, Perkins DO, Keefe RS, Davis SM, Davis CE, Lebowitz BD, Severe J, Hsiao JK (2005) Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness (CATIE) investigators. Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in patients with chronic schizophrenia. New Engl J Med 353:1209-1223
62. Llorca PM, Chereau I, Bayle FJ, Lancon C (2002) Tardive dyskinesias and antipsychotics: a review. Eur Psychiatry 17:129-138
63. Magulac M, Landsverk J, Golshan S, Jeste DV (1999) Abnormal involuntary movements in neuroleptic-naive children and adolescents. Can J Psychiatry 44:368-373
64. Malone RP, Maislin G, Choudhury MS, Gifford C, Delaney MA (2002) Risperidone treatment in children and adolescents with autism: short- and long-term safety and effectiveness. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 41:140-147
65. Marder SR, Meibach RC (1994) Risperidone in the treatment of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 151:825-835
66. Marsálek M (2000) Tardive drug-induced extrapyramidal syndromes. Pharmacopsychiatry 33(Suppl 11):14-33
67. McAndrew JB, Case Q, Treffert DA (1972) Effects of prolonged phenothiazine intake on psychotic and other hospitalized children. J Autism Child Schizophr 2:75-91
68. McConville B, Carrero L, Sweitzer D, Potter L, Chaney R, Foster K, Sorter M, Friedman L, Browne K (2003) Long-term safety, tolerability, and clinical efficacy of quetiapine in adolescents: an open-label extension trial. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 13:75-82
69. McConville BJ, Sorter MT (2004) Treatment challenges and safety considerations for antipsychotic use in children and adolescents with psychoses. J Clin Psychiatry 65(Suppl 6):20-29
70. McCreadie RG, Thara R, Kamath S, Padmavathy R, Latha S, Mathrubootham N, Menon MS (1996) Abnormal movements in never-medicated Indian patients with schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 168:221-226
71. McCreadie RG, Thara R, Padmavati R, Srinivasan TN, Jaipurkar SD (2002) Structural brain differences between never-treated patients with schizophrenia, with and without dyskinesia, and normal control subjects: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 59:332-336
72. McDermid SA, Hood J, Bockus S, D'Alessandro E (1998) Adolescents on neuroleptic medication: is this population at risk for tardive dyskinesia? Can J Psychiatry 43:629-631
73. Meltzer HY, McGurk S (1999) The effects of clozapine, risperidone, and olanzapine on cognitive function in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 25:233-255
74. Miller CH, Fleischhacker WW (2000) Neurologische Neuroleptika- Nebenwirkungen. In: Förstl H (ed) Klinische Neuro-Psychiatrie. Neurologie psychischer Störungen und Psychiatrie neurologischer Erkrankungen. Thieme, Stuttgart, New York, pp. 449-478
75. Miller CH, Mohr F, Umbricht D, Woerner M, Fleischhacker WW, Liebermann JA (1998) The prevalence of acute extrapyramidal signs and symptoms in patients with clozapine, risperidone and conventional antipsychotics. J Clin Psychiatry 59:69-75
76. Modestin J, Stephan PL, Erni T, Umari T (2000) Prevalence of extrapyramidal syndromes in psychiatric inpatients and the relationship of clozapine treatment to tardive dyskinesia. Schizophr Res 5:223-230
77. Mozes T, Toren P, Chernauzan N, Mester R, Yoran-Hegesh R, Blumensohn R, Weizman A (1994) Clozapine treatment in very early onset schizophrenia. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 33:65-70
78. Nicolson R, Awad G, Sloman L (1998) An open trial of risperidone in young autistic children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 37:372-376
79. Os J, Fahy T, Jones P, Harvey I, Toone B, Murray R (1997) Tardive dyskinesia: who is at risk? Acta Psychiatr Scand 96:206-216
80. Paulson GW, Rizvi CA, Crane GE (1975) Tardive Dyskinesia as a possible sequel of long-term therapy with phenothiazines. Clin Pediatry 14:953-955
81. Polizos P, Engelhardt DM (1980) Dyskinetic and neurolgical complications in children treated with psychotropic medication. In: Fann WE, Smith RC, Davis JM, Domino EF (eds) Tardive dyskinesia. Research and treatment. Spectrum Publications, Jamaica, New York, pp. 193-199
82. Polizos P, Engelhardt DM (1978) Dyskinetic phenomena in children treated with psychotropic medications. Psychopharmacol Bull 14:65-68
83. Polizos P, Engelhardt DM, Hoffman SP, Waizer J (1973) Neurological consequences of psychotropic drug withdrawal in schizophrenic children. J Autism Child Schizophr 3:247-253
84. Potenza MN, Holmes JP, Kanes SJ, McDougle CJ (1999) Olanzapine treatment of children, adolescents, and adults with pervasive developmental disorders: an open-label pilot study. J Clin Psychopharmacol 19:37-44
85. Reinbold H (1999) Biochemische Aspekte zur Entwicklung extrapyramidaler Störungen durch Antipsychotika. In: Bräuning P (ed) Motorische störungen bei schizophrenen psychosen. Schattauer, Stuttgart, New York, pp. 131-142
86. Remschmidt H (2002) Early-onset schizophrenia as a progressive- deteriorating develomental disorder: evidence from child psychiatry. J Neural Transm 109:101-117
87. Remschmidt H, Fleischhaker C, Henninghausen K, Schulz E (2000) Management of schizophrenia in children and adolescents. The role of clozapine. Paediatr drugs 2:253-262
88. Remschmidt H, Henninghausen K, Clement HW, Heiser P, Schulz E (2000) Atypical neuroleptics in child- and adolescent psychiatry. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 9(Suppl 1):9-19
89. Remschmidt H, Schulz E, Martin M (1994) An open trial of clozapine in thirty-six adolescents with schizophrenia. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 4:31-41
90. Richardson MA, Haugland G, Craig TJ (1991) Neuroleptic use, parkinsonian symptoms, tardive dyskinesia, and associated factos in child and adolecent psychiatry patients. Am J Psychiatry 148:1322-1328
91. Sachdev P (1995) Akathisia and restless legs. Cambridge University Press
92. Sachdev P, Hume F, Toohey P, Doutney C (1996) Negative symptoms, cognitive dysfunction, tardive akathasia and tardive dyskinesia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 93:451-459
93. Sallee FR, Kurlan R, Goetz CG, Singer H, Scahill L, Law G, Dittman VM, Chappell PB (2000) Ziprasidone treatment of children and adolescents with Tourette's syndrome: a pilot study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 39:292-299
94. Schmidt MH, Trott GE, Blanz B, Nissen G (1989) Clozapine medication in adolescents. In: Stefanis CN, Rabavilas AD, Soldatos CR (eds, 1990) Psychiatry: A World Perspective, Vol I. Proceedings of the VIII World Congress of Psychiatry, Athens, 12-19 October 1989. Excerpta Medica, Amsterdam, New York, Oxford, pp. 1100-1104
95. Schooler NR, Kane JM (1982) Research diagnoses for tardive dyskinesia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 39:486-487
96. Schreier HA (1998) Risperidone for young children with mood disorders and aggressive behavior. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 8:49-59
97. Schulz E, Fleischhaker C, Remschmidt H (1999) Der Stellenwert typischer und atypischer Neuroleptika im Rahmen der Behandlung von schizophrenen Psychosen im Jugendalter. In: Fegert JM, Häßler F, Rothärmel S (eds) Atypische Neuroleptika in der Jugendpsychiatrie. Schattauer, Stuttgart, New York, pp. 141-167
98. Schwartz TL, Saba M, Hardoby W, Virk S, Masand PS (2002) Use of atypical antipsychotics in a Veterans Affairs hospital. Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 26:1207-1210
99. Shaw JA, Lewis JE, Pascal S, Sharma RK, Rodriguez RA, Guillen R, Pupo-Guillen M (2001) A study of quetiapine: efficacy and tolerability in psychotic adolescents. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 11:415-424
100. Siefen G, Remschmidt H (1986) Behandlungsergebnisse mit Clozapin bei schizophrenen Jugendlichen. Z Kinder Jugendpsychiatr 14:245-257
101. Simpson GM (2000) The treatment of tardive dyskinesia and tardive dystonia. J Clin Psychiatr 61(Suppl 4):39-44
102. Simpson GM, Angus JWS (1970) A rating scale for extrapyramidal side-effects. Acta Psychiatr Scand 212:11-19
103. Simpson GM, Lee JH, Zoubok B, Gardos G (1979) A rating scale for tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacology 64:171-179
104. Sweet RA, DeSensi EG, Zubenko GS (1993) Reliability and applicability of movement disorder rating scales in the elderly. J Neuropsychiatr Clin Neurosc 5:56-60
105. Tarsy D, Baldessarini RJ, Tarazi FI (2002) Effects of newer antipsychotics on extrapyramidal function. CNS Drugs 16:23-45
106. Theisen FM, Gebhardt S, Haberhausen M, Heinzel-Gutenbrunner M, Wehmeier PM, Krieg J-C, Kühnau W, Schmidtke J, Remschmidt H, Hebebrand J (2005) Clozapine-induced weight gain: a study in monozygotic twins and same-sexed sib pairs. Psychiatr Genet 15:285-289
107. Torrey EF (2002) Studies of individuals with schizophrenia never treated with antipsychotic medications: a review. Schizophr Res 58:101-115
108. Turetz M, Mozes T, Toren P, Chernauzan N, Yoran-Hegesh R, Mester R, Wittenberg N, Tyano S, Weizman A (1997) An open trial of clozapine in neuroleptic-resistant childhood-onset schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 170:507-510
109. Turner T (1989) Rich and mad in Victorian England. Psychol Med 19:29-44
110. Tuunainen A, Wahlbeck K, Gilbody S (2002) Newer atypical antipsychotic medication in comparison to clozapine: a systemic review of randomized trials. Schizophr Res 56:1-10
111. Van Harten PN, Matroos GE, Hoek HW, Kahn RS (1996) The prevalence of tardive dystonia, tardive dyskinesia, parkinsonismus and akathisia. The Curacao Extrapryramidal Syndromes Study: I. Schizophr Res 19:195-203
112. Vitello B, Jensen MD (1997) Medication development and testing in children and adolescents. Arch Gen Psychiatry 54:871-876
113. Werry JS, McClellan JM, Chard L (1991) Childhood and adolescent schizophrenia, bipolar, and schizoaffektive disorder: A clinical and outcome study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 30:457-465
114. Winsberg BG, Hurwic MJ, Sverd J, Klutch A (1978) Neurochemistry of withdrawal emergent symptoms in children. Psychopharmacology 56:157-161
115. Wolf DV, Wagner KD (1993) Tardive dyskinesia, tardive dystonia, and tardive Tourette's syndrome in children and adolescents. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 3:175-198
116. Woods SW, Martin A, Spector SG, McGlashan TH (2002) Effects of development on olanzapine-associated adverse events. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 41:1439-1446
117. Yassa R, Jeste DV (1997) Gender as a factor in the development of tardive dyskinesia. In: Yassa R, Nair V, Jeste DV (eds) Neuroleptic-induced movement disorders, 1st edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 26-40
118. Yassa R, Jeste DV (1992) Gender differences in tardive dyskinesia: a critical review of literature. Schizophr Bull 18:701-715
119. Yuen O, Caligiuri MP, Williams R, Dickson RA (1996) Tardive dyskinesia and positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. A study using instrumental measures. Br J Psychiatry 168: 702-708
120. Zhang ZJ, Zhang XB, Sha WW, Zhang XB, Reynolds GP (2002) Association of a polymorphism in the promoter region of the serotonin 5-HT2C receptor gene with tardive dyskinesia in patients with schizophrenia. Mol Psychiatry 7:670-671