Tardive dyskinesia in patients treated with atypical antipsychotics: Case series and brief review of etiologic and treatment considerations

Drugs in Context

Volumn , Issue , 2014, Pages

  Kim, Jungjin ^a   MacMaster, Eric ^a   Schwartz, Thomas L ^a  

^a State University of New York Upstate Medical University: College of Medicine   (United States)

Author keywords

Antipsychotic agents; Dopamine receptor antagonists; Tardive dyskinesia (TD)

Indexed keywords

ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; AMFEBUTAMONE; ARIPIPRAZOLE; BUSPIRONE; CARBAMAZEPINE; CLONAZEPAM; DESVENLAFAXINE; DULOXETINE; FLUOXETINE; GINKGO BILOBA EXTRACT; ISOLEUCINE; LAMOTRIGINE; LEUCINE; LORAZEPAM; MIRTAZAPINE; OLANZAPINE; PAROXETINE; QUETIAPINE; RISPERIDONE; TIAGABINE; TRAZODONE; VALINE; VENLAFAXINE; ZIPRASIDONE;

ADULT; ADVERSE DRUG REACTION; AGED; AKATHISIA; BIPOLAR II DISORDER; BIPOLAR MANIA; CLINICAL ARTICLE; CLINICAL FEATURE; COGNITIVE THERAPY; CYCLOTHYMIA; DRUG DOSE REDUCTION; DRUG RESPONSE; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG SUBSTITUTION; DRUG TREATMENT FAILURE; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY; FEMALE; GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER; HUMAN; MAJOR DEPRESSION; MALE; MENTAL PATIENT; MONOTHERAPY; OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOPHARMACOTHERAPY; REMISSION; REVIEW; SEDATION; TARDIVE DYSKINESIA; WEIGHT GAIN;

EID: 84899746976     PISSN: 17451981     EISSN: 17404398     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.7573/dic.212259     Document Type: Review

References (97)

1. Sigwald J, Bouttier D, Raymondeaud C, Piot C. [4 Cases of facio-bucco-linguo-masticatory dyskinesis of prolonged development following treatment with neuroleptics.] Rev Neurol (Paris) 1959;100:751-5.
2. Tarsy D. History and definition of tardive dyskinesia. Clin Neuropharmacol 1983;6:91-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00002826-198306000-00003 (Pubitemid 13056248)
3. Correll CU, Leucht S, Kane JM. Lower risk for tardive dyskinesia associated with second-generation antipsychotics: a systematic review of 1-year studies. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:414-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp. 161.3.414 (Pubitemid 38326094)
4. Correll CU, Schenk EM. Tardive dyskinesia and new antipsychotics. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2008;21:151-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e3282f53132 (Pubitemid 351339869)
5. Schwartz T, Raza S. Aripiprazole (abilify) and tardive dyskinesia. P T 2008;33:32-4.
6. Seeman P. An update of fast-off dopamine D2 atypical antipsychotics. Am J Psychiatry 2005;162:1984-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.10.1984-a (Pubitemid 41428639)
7. Seeman P, Tallerico T. Antipsychotic drugs which elicit little or no Parkinsonism bind more loosely than dopamine to brain D2 receptors, yet occupy high levels of these receptors. Mol Psychiatry 1998;3:123-34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.mp.4000336 (Pubitemid 28149553)
8. Lubin H, Eberhard J, Levander S. Current therapy issues and unmet clinical needs in the treatment of schizophrenia: a review of the new generation antipsychotics. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2005;20:183-98. (Pubitemid 40896373)
9. Grunder G, Carlsson A, Wong DF. Mechanism of new antipsychotic medications: occupancy is not just antagonism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003;60:974-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.60.10.974 (Pubitemid 37222078)
10. Maytal G, Ostacher M, Stern TA. Aripiprazole-related tardive dyskinesia. CNS Spectr 2006;11:435-9. (Pubitemid 43938812)
11. Evcimen YA, Evcimen H, Holland J. Aripiprazole-induced tardive dyskinesia: the role of tamoxifen. Am J Psychiatry 2007;164:1436-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07030469 (Pubitemid 47461148)
12. Waln O, Jankovic J. An update on tardive dyskinesia: from phenomenology to treatment. Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y) 2013;3.
13. Kane JM, Woerner M, Borenstein M, Wegner J, Lieberman J. Integrating incidence and prevalence of tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacol Bull 1986;22:254-8. (Pubitemid 16101366)
14. Gerlach J, Casey DE. Tardive dyskinesia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1988;77:369-78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1988.tb05138.x
15. Ascher-Svanum H, Zhu B, Faries D, Peng X, Kinon BJ, Tohen M. Tardive dyskinesia and the 3-year course of schizophrenia: results from a large, prospective, naturalistic study. J Clin Psychiatry 2008;69:1580-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v69n1008
16. Chong SA, Tay JA, Subramaniam M, Pek E, Machin D. Mortality rates among patients with schizophrenia and tardive dyskinesia. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2009;29:5-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/JCP.0b013e3181929f94
17. Kane JM, Smith JM. Tardive dyskinesia: prevalence and risk factors, 1959 to 1979. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;39:473-81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc. 1982.04290040069010 (Pubitemid 12152816)
18. Corrigan PW, Liberman RP, Engel JD. From noncompliance to collaboration in the treatment of schizophrenia. Hosp Community Psychiatry 1990;41:1203-11. (Pubitemid 20368357)
19. Smith JM, Baldessarini RJ. Changes in prevalence, severity, and recovery in tardive dyskinesia with age. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1980;37:1368-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1980.01780250054006 (Pubitemid 11204075)
20. Yassa R, Jeste DV. Gender differences in tardive dyskinesia: a critical review of the literature. Schizo Bull 1992;18:701-15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ schbul/18.4.701
21. Woods SW, Morgenstern H, Saksa JR et al. Incidence of tardive dyskinesia with atypical versus conventional antipsychotic medications: a prospective cohort study. J Clin Psychiatry 2010;71:463-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP. 07m03890yel
22. Rosenbaum AH, Niven RG, Hanson NP, Swanson DW. Tardive dyskinesia: relationship with a primary affective disorder. Dis Nerv Syst 1977;38:423-7. (Pubitemid 8117526)
23. Klawans HL Jr, McKendall RR. Observations on the effect of levodopa on tardive lingual-facial-buccal dyskinesia. J Neurol Sci 1971;14:189-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-510X(71)90087-6
24. Klawans HL Jr, Rubovits R. An experimental model of tardive dyskinesia. J Neural Transm 1972;33:235-46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01245320
25. Marsden CD, Jenner P. The pathophysiology of extrapyramidal side-effects of neuroleptic drugs. Psychol Med 1980;10:55-72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/ S003329170003960X (Pubitemid 11141134)
26. Calabresi P, De Murtas M, Mercuri NB, Bernardi G. Chronic neuroleptic treatment: D2 dopamine receptor supersensitivity and striatal glutamatergic transmission. Ann Neurol 1992;31:366-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.410310404
27. Teo JT, Edwards MJ, Bhatia K. Tardive dyskinesia is caused by maladaptive synaptic plasticity: a hypothesis. Mov Disord 2012;27:1205-15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mds.25107
28. Seeman P. Dopamine D2 receptors as treatment targets in schizophrenia. Clin Schizophr Relat Psychoses 2010;4: 56-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.3371/CSRP.4. 1.5
29. Peralta V, Campos MS, De Jalon EG, Cuesta MJ. Motor behavior abnormalities in drug-naive patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Mov Disord 2010;25:1068-76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mds.23050
30. Peralta V, Cuesta MJ. The effect of antipsychotic medication on neuromotor abnormalities in neuroleptic-naive nonaffective psychotic patients: a naturalistic study with haloperidol, risperidone, or olanzapine. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry 2010;12. http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/PCC.09m00799gry
31. Rogue P, Hanauer A, Zwiller J, Malviya AN, Vincendon G. Up-regulation of dopamine D2 receptor mRNA in rat striatum by chronic neuroleptic treatment. Eur J Pharmacol 1991;207:165-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0922-4106(91)90092-V
32. Turrone P, Remington G, Kapur S, Nobrega JN. The relationship between dopamine D2 receptor occupancy and the vacuous chewing movement syndrome in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2003;165:166-71. (Pubitemid 36056993)
33. Rizos EN, Chatziioannou S, Siafakas et al. Increased striatal dopamine transporter levels, as indicated by a DAT scan, induced by ziprasidone in association to improvement of tardive dyskinesia - a case report. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2010;34:1135-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.pnpbp.2010.05.001
34. Rizos EN, Chatziioannou S, Douzenis A et al. Signs of striatal dopamine transporter density increase in association with improvement of tardive dyskinesia in a patient with schizophrenia, as demonstrated by a DAT scan. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2010;20:132-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2009. 08.002
35. Andreassen OA, Jorgensen HA. Neurotoxicity associated with neuroleptic-induced oral dyskinesias in rats. Implications for tardive dyskinesia? Prog Neurobiol 2000;61:525-41. (Pubitemid 30169057)
36. Burger M, Fachinetto R, Calegari L, Paixao MW, Braga AL, Rocha JB. Effects of age on reserpine-induced orofacial dyskinesia and possible protection of diphenyl diselenide. Brain Res Bull 2004;64:339-45. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.brainresbull.2004.09.006 (Pubitemid 39550770)
37. Lohr JB, Kuczenski R, Niculescu AB. Oxidative mechanisms and tardive dyskinesia. CNS Drugs 2003;17:47-62. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00023210- 200317010-00004 (Pubitemid 36044348)
38. Cadet JL, Lohr JB. Possible involvement of free radicals in neuroleptic-induced movement disorders. Evidence from treatment of tardive dyskinesia with vitamin E. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1989;570:176-85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1989.tb14918.x (Pubitemid 20103394)
39. Adler LA, Rotrosen J, Edson, R et al. Vitamin E treatment for tardive dyskinesia. Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study #394 Study Group. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999;56: 836-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.56.9.836
40. Lohr JB, Caligiuri MP. A double-blind placebo-controlled study of vitamin E treatment of tardive dyskinesia. J Clin Psychiatry 1996;57:167-73. (Pubitemid 26123363)
41. Soares KV, McGrath JJ. Vitamin E for neuroleptic-induced tardive dyskinesia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001;(4):CD000209.
42. Zhang ZJ, Zhang XB, Hou G, Yao H, Reynolds GP. Interaction between polymorphisms of the dopamine D3 receptor and manganese superoxide dismutase genes in susceptibility to tardive dyskinesia. Psychiatr Genet 2003;13:187-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00041444-200309000-00010 (Pubitemid 37082981)
43. Buckley P, O'Callaghan E, Mulvany F et al. Basal ganglia T2 relaxation times in schizophrenia: a quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study in relation to tardive dyskinesia. Psychiatry Res 1995;61:95-102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0925-4927(95)02591-K
44. Gunne LM, Haggstrom JE, Sjoquist B. Association with persistent neuroleptic-induced dyskinesia of regional changes in brain GABA synthesis. Nature 1984;309:347-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/309347a0 (Pubitemid 14145835)
45. Mallet N, Le Moine C, Charpier S, Gonon F. Feedforward inhibition of projection neurons by fast-spiking GABA interneurons in the rat striatum in vivo. J Neurosci 2005;25:3857-69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5027-04. 2005 (Pubitemid 40570419)
46. Gage GJ, Stoetzner CR, Wiltschko AB, Berke JD. Selective activation of striatal fast-spiking interneurons during choice execution. Neuron 2010;67:466-79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2010.06.034
47. Gittis AH, Leventhal DK, Fensterheim BA, Pettibone JR, Berke JD, Kreitzer AC. Selective inhibition of striatal fast-spiking interneurons causes dyskinesias. J Neurosci 2011;31:15727-31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI. 3875-11.2011
48. De Keyser J. Excitotoxic mechanisms may be involved in the pathophysiology of tardive dyskinesia. Clin Neuropharmacol 1991;14:562-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00002826-199112000-00009
49. Delfs JM, Ellison GD, Mercugliano M, Chesselet MF. Expression of glutamic acid decarboxylase mRNA in striatum and pallidum in an animal model of tardive dyskinesia. Exp Neurol 1995;133:175-88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/exnr.1995.1020
50. Waeber C, Palacios JM. Binding sites for 5-hydroxytryptamine-2 receptor agonists are predominantly located in striosomes in the human basal ganglia. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1994;24:199-209. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-328X(94) 90133-3 (Pubitemid 24202857)
51. Bishop C, Tessmer JL, Ullrich T, Rice KC, Walker PD. Serotonin 5-HT2A receptors underlie increased motor behaviors induced in dopamine-depleted rats by intrastriatal 5-HT2A/2C agonism. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2004;310:687-94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1124/jpet.104.066365 (Pubitemid 38988914)
52. Lerer B, Segman RH, Tan EC et al. Combined analysis of 635 patients confirms an age-related association of the serotonin 2A receptor gene with tardive dyskinesia and specificity for the non-orofacial subtype. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2005;8:411-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1461145705005389 (Pubitemid 41002495)
53. Chen CH, Wei FC, Koong FJ, Hsiao KJ. Association of Taq1 A polymorphism of dopamine D2 receptor gene and tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 1997;41:827-9. (Pubitemid 27146221)
54. Lerer B, Segman RH, Fangerau H et al. Pharmacogenetics of tardive dyskinesia: combined analysis of 780 patients supports association with dopamine D3 receptor gene Ser9Gly polymorphism. Neuropsychopharmacology 2002;27:105-19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0893-133X(02)00293-2 (Pubitemid 34626747)
55. Bakker PR, van Harten PN, van Os J. Antipsychotic-induced tardive dyskinesia and polymorphic variations in COMT, DRD2, CYP1A2 and MnSOD genes: a meta-analysis of pharmacogenetic interactions. Mol Psychiatry 2008;13:544-56. (Pubitemid 351556033)
56. Andreassen OA, MacEwan T, Gulbrandsen AK, McCreadie RG, Steen VM. Non-functional CYP2D6 alleles and risk for neuroleptic-induced movement disorders in schizophrenic patients. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1997;131:174-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s002130050281 (Pubitemid 27261606)
57. Basile VS, Ozdemir V, Masellis M et al. A functional polymorphism of the cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) gene: association with tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenia. Mol Psychiatry 2000;5:410-417. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.mp. 4000736 (Pubitemid 30455955)
58. Patsopoulos NA, Ntzani EE, Zintzaras E, Ioannidis JP. CYP2D6 polymorphisms and the risk of tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2005;15:151-8. (Pubitemid 40569901)
59. Schulze TG, Schumacher J, Muller DJ et al. Lack of association between a functional polymorphism of the cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) gene and tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenia. Am J Med Genet 2001;105:498-501. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.1472 (Pubitemid 32729815)
60. Bhidayasiri R, Fahn S, Weiner WJ et al. Evidence-based guideline: treatment of tardive syndromes: report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2013;81:463-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e31829d86b6
61. Zhang WF, Tan YL, Zhang XY, Chan RC, Wu HR, Zhou DF. Extract of Ginkgo biloba treatment for tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry 2011;72:615-21.
62. Pappa S, Tsouli S, Apostolou G, Mavreas V, Konitsiotis S. Effects of amantadine on tardive dyskinesia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Clin Neuropharmacol 2010;33:271-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/WNF. 0b013e3181ffde32
63. Angus S, Sugars J, Boltezar R, Koskewich S, Schneider NM. A controlled trial of amantadine hydrochloride and neuroleptics in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1997;17:88-91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/ 00004714-199704000-00004 (Pubitemid 27148302)
64. Decker BL, Davis JM, Jonowsky DS, el-Yousef MK, Sekerke HJ. Amantadine hydrochloride treatment of tardive dyskinesia. N Engl J Med 1971;285:860.
65. Allen RM. Palliative treatment of tardive dyskinesia with combination of amantadine-neuroleptic administration. Biol Psychiatry 1982;17:719-27. (Pubitemid 12090215)
66. Freudenreich O, McEvoy JP. Added amantadine may diminish tardive dyskinesia in patients requiring continued neuroleptics. J Clin Psychiatry 1995;56:173.
67. Soares K, Rathbone J, Deeks J. Gamma-aminobutyric acid agonists for neuroleptic-induced tardive dyskinesia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004;(4):CD000203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD000203
68. Thaker GK, Tamminga CA, Alphs LD, Lafferman J, Ferraro TN, Hare TA. Brain gamma-aminobutyric acid abnormality in tardive dyskinesia. Reduction in cerebrospinal fluid GABA levels and therapeutic response to GABA agonist treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987;44:522-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/ archpsyc.1987.01800180032006 (Pubitemid 17082093)
69. Bhoopathi PS, Soares-Weiser K. Benzodiazepines for neuroleptic-induced tardive dyskinesia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006;(3):CD000205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD000205.pub2
70. Thaker GK, Nguyen JA, Strauss ME, Jacobson R, Kaup BA, Tamminga CA. Clonazepam treatment of tardive dyskinesia: a practical GABAmimetic strategy. Am J Psychiatry 1990;147:445-51. (Pubitemid 20107108)
71. Waln O, Jankovic J. Zolpidem improves tardive dyskinesia and akathisia. Mov Disord 2013;28:1748-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mds.25480
72. Tammenmaa IA, Sailas E, McGrath JJ, Soares-Weiser K, Wahlbeck K. Systematic review of cholinergic drugs for neuroleptic-induced tardive dyskinesia: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2004;28:1099-107. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.pnpbp.2004.05.045 (Pubitemid 40021767)
73. Gilbert PL, Harris MJ, McAdams LA, Jeste DV. Neuroleptic withdrawal in schizophrenic patients: a review of the literature. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995;52:173-88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950150005001
74. Bergman J, Dwolatzky T, Brettholz I, Lerner V. Beneficial effect of donepezil in the treatment of elderly patients with tardive movement disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 2005;66:107-10. http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v66n0115
75. Caroff SN, Campbell EC, Havey JC, Sullivan KA, Katz IR, Mann SC. Treatment of tardive dyskinesia with donepezil. J Clin Psychiatry 2001;62:128-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v62n0210e
76. Desmarais JE, Beauclair L, Margolese HC. Anticholinergics in the era of atypical antipsychotics: short-term or long-term treatment? J Psychopharmacol 2012;26:1167-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881112447988
77. Lieberman JA, Alvir J, Mukherjee S, Kane JM. Treatment of tardive dyskinesia with bromocriptine. A test of the receptor modification strategy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989;46:908-13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1989. 01810100050009 (Pubitemid 19259538)
78. Goff DC, Renshaw PF, Sarid-Segal O, Dreyfuss DA, Amico ET, Ciraulo DA. A placebo-controlled trial of selegiline (L-deprenyl) in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. Biol Psychiatry 1993;33:700-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0006- 3223(93)90119-X (Pubitemid 23205326)
79. Kazamatsuri H, Chien CP, Cole JO. Long-term treatment of tardive dyskinesia with haloperidol and tetrabenazine. Am J Psychiatry 1973;130:479-83.
80. Ondo WG, Hanna PA, Jankovic J. Tetrabenazine treatment for tardive dyskinesia: assessment by randomized videotape protocol. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156:1279-81. (Pubitemid 29374894)
81. Jankovic J, Orman J. Tetrabenazine therapy of dystonia, chorea, tics, and other dyskinesias. Neurology 1988;38:391-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.38.3. 391 (Pubitemid 18083674)
82. Chen JJ, Ondo WG, Dashtipour K, Swope DM. Tetrabenazine for the treatment of hyperkinetic movement disorders: a review of the literature. Clin Ther 2012;34:1487-504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinthera.2012.06.010
83. Huang CC, Wang RI, Hasegawa A, Alverno L. Reserpine and alpha-methyldopa in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1981;73:359-62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00426466 (Pubitemid 11114122)
84. Moss LE, Neppe VM, Drevets WC. Buspirone in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1993;13:204-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/ 00004714-199306000-00009 (Pubitemid 23194743)
85. Meco G, Fabrizio E, Epifanio A et al. Levetiracetam in tardive dyskinesia. Clin Neuropharmacol 2006;29:265-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.WNF. 0000228807.49044.7D (Pubitemid 44439999)
86. Konitsiotis S, Pappa S, Mantas C, Mavreas V. Levetiracetam in tardive dyskinesia: an open label study. Mov Disord 2006;21:1219-21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mds.20835 (Pubitemid 44336612)
87. McGavin CL, John V, Musser WS. Levetiracetam as a treatment for tardive dyskinesia: a case report. Neurology 2003;61:419. http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/01. WNL.0000073538.60021.50
88. Woods SW, Saksa JR, Baker CB, Cohen SJ, Tek C. Effects of levetiracetam on tardive dyskinesia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychiatry 2008;69:546-54. http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v69n0405 (Pubitemid 351792328)
89. Richardson MA, Bevans ML, Read LL et al. Efficacy of the branched chain amino acids in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia in men. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:1117-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.6.1117 (Pubitemid 41070971)
90. Richardson MA, Small AM, Read LL, Chao HM, Clelland JD. Branched chain amino acid treatment of tardive dyskinesia in children and adolescents. J Clin Psychiatry 2004;65:92-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v65n0116
91. Richardson MA, Bevans ML, Weber JB et al. Branched chain amino acids decrease tardive dyskinesia symptoms. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1999;143:358-64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s002130050959 (Pubitemid 29222480)
92. Tarsy D. Tardive dyskinesia. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2000;2:205-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11940-000-0003-4
93. Eltahawy HA, Feinstein A, Khan F, Saint-Cyr J, Lang AE, Lozano AM. Bilateral globus pallidus internus deep brain stimulation in tardive dyskinesia: a case report. Mov Disord 2004;19:969-72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mds.20092 (Pubitemid 39199270)
94. Damier P, Thobois S, Witjas T et al; French Stimulation for Tardive Dyskinesia (STARDYS) Study Group. Bilateral deep brain stimulation of the globus pallidus to treat tardive dyskinesia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007;64:170-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.2.170 (Pubitemid 46220774)
95. Mentzel CL, Tenback DE, Tijssen MA, Visser-Vandewalle VE, van Harten PN. Efficacy and safety of deep brain stimulation in patients with medication-induced tardive dyskinesia and/or dystonia: a systemic review. J Clin Psychiatry 2012;73:1434-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.12r07643
96. Kefalopoulou Z, Paschali A, Markaki E, Vassilakos P, Ellul J, Constantoyannis C. A double-blind study on a patient with tardive dyskinesia treated with pallidal deep brain stimulation. Acta Neurol Scand 2009;119:269-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0404.2008.01115.x
97. Spindler MA, Galifianakis NB, Wilkinson JR, Duda JE. Globus pallidus interna deep brain stimulation for tardive dyskinesia: case report and review of the literature. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2013;19:141-7. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.parkreldis.2012.09.016