Thyroid autoimmunity: Role of anti-thyroid antibodies in thyroid and extra-thyroidal diseases

Frontiers in Immunology

Volumn 8, Issue MAY, 2017, Pages

  Fröhlich, Eleonore ^a,b   Wahl, Richard ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TÜBINGEN   (Germany)

^b MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF GRAZ   (Austria)

Author keywords

Autoimmune thyroiditis; Thyroglobulin; Thyroid autoantibodies; Thyroid peroxidase; Thyroid stimulating hormone receptor Graves' orbitopathy

Indexed keywords

AUTOANTIGEN; INTERCELLULAR ADHESION MOLECULE 1; LACTOPEROXIDASE; LONG ACTING THYROID STIMULATOR; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY; THYROGLOBULIN ANTIBODY; THYROID ANTIBODY; THYROID HORMONE; THYROID PEROXIDASE; THYROTROPIN RECEPTOR;

ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ANTIBODY DETECTION; ANTIGENICITY; AUTOIMMUNE THYROIDITIS; AUTOIMMUNITY; BREAST CANCER; CANCER INCIDENCE; CANCER SURVIVAL; CHRONIC INFLAMMATION; CROSS REACTION; ENDOGENOUS VARIABLE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; EXOGENOUS VARIABLE; GRAVES DISEASE; HASHIMOTO DISEASE; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOLOGICAL TOLERANCE; MORBIDITY; PREGNANCY; PREVALENCE; REVIEW; SMOKING; THYROID DISEASE; THYROIDITIS;

EID: 85019973423     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16643224     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00521     Document Type: Review

References (178)

1. Cooper GS, Bynum ML, Somers EC. Recent insights in the epidemiology of autoimmune diseases: improved prevalence estimates and understanding of clustering of diseases. J Autoimmun (2009) 33:197-207. doi: 10.1016/j.jaut.2009.09.008
2. Cooper GS, Stroehla BC. The epidemiology of autoimmune diseases. Autoimmun Rev (2003) 2:119-25. doi:10.1016/S1568-9972(03)00006-5
3. McLeod DS, Cooper DS. The incidence and prevalence of thyroid autoimmunity. Endocrine (2012) 42:252-65. doi:10.1007/s12020-012-9703-2
4. Marcocci C, Marino M. Thyroid-directed antibodies. In: Braverman LE, Utiger R, editors. Part II Laboratory Assessment of Thyroid Function. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins (2005). p. 360-72
5. Rapoport B, McLachlan SM. TSH receptor cleavage into subunits and shedding of the A-subunit; a molecular and clinical perspective. Endocr Rev (2016) 37:114-34. doi:10.1210/er.2015-1098
6. Furmaniak J, Sanders J, Rees Smith B. Blocking type TSH receptor antibodies. Auto Immun Highlights (2013) 4:11-26. doi:10.1007/s13317-012-0028-1
7. Morshed SA, Ando T, Latif R, Davies TF. Neutral antibodies to the TSH receptor are present in Graves' disease and regulate selective signaling cascades. Endocrinology (2010) 151:5537-49. doi:10.1210/en.2010-0424
8. Adams D, Purves H. Abnormal responses in the assay of thyrotrophin. Proc Univ Otago Med Sch (1956) 34:11-2
9. de Carvalho G, Perez C, Ward L. The clinical use of thyroid function tests. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol (2013) 57:193-204. doi:10.1590/S0004-27302013000300005
10. Kamijo K. TSH-receptor antibody measurement in patients with various thyrotoxicosis and Hashimoto's thyroiditis: a comparison of two two-step assays, coated plate ELISA using porcine TSH-receptor and coated tube radioassay using human recombinant TSH-receptor. Endocr J (2003) 50:113-6. doi:10.1507/endocrj.50.113
11. Macchia E, Concetti R, Borgoni F, Cetani F, Fenzi GF, Pinchera A. Assays of TSH-receptor antibodies in 576 patients with various thyroid disorders: their incidence, significance and clinical usefulness. Autoimmunity (1989) 3:103-12. doi:10.3109/08916938909019959
12. Weetman AP, Yateman ME, Ealey PA, Black CM, Reimer CB, Williams RC Jr, et al. Thyroid-stimulating antibody activity between different immunoglobulin G subclasses. J Clin Invest (1990) 86:723-7. doi:10.1172/jci114768
13. Kraiem Z, Cho BY, Sadeh O, Shong MH, Pickerill P, Weetman AP. The IgG subclass distribution of TSH receptor blocking antibodies in primary hypothyroidism. Clin Endocrinol (1992) 37:135-40. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2265.1992.tb02297.x
14. Tada H, Izumi Y, Watanabe Y, Takano T, Fukata S, Kuma K, et al. Blocking type anti-TSH receptor antibodies detected by radioreceptor assay in Graves' disease. Endocr J (2001) 48:703-10. doi:10.1507/endocrj.48.703
15. Kim WB, Chung HK, Park YJ, Park DJ, Tahara K, Kohn LD, et al. The prevalence and clinical significance of blocking thyrotropin receptor antibodies in untreated hyperthyroid Graves' disease. Thyroid (2000) 10:579-86. doi:10.1089/thy.2000.10.579
16. Roti E, Braverman L, DeGroot L. TSH receptor antibody measurement in the diagnosis and management of Graves' disease is rarely necessary. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (1988) 83:3781-4. doi:10.1210/jcem.83.11.5056-2
17. Kahaly G, Diana T. TSH receptor antibody functionality and nomenclature. Front Endocrinol (2017) 8:28. doi:10.3389/fendo.2017.00028
18. Laurberg P, Nygaard B, Andersen S, Carle A, Karmisholt J, Krejbjerg A, et al. Association between TSH-receptor autoimmunity, hyperthyroidism, goitre, and orbitopathy in 208 Patients included in the remission induction and sustenance in Graves' disease study. J Thyroid Res (2014) 2014:165487. doi:10.1155/2014/165487
19. Konishi J, Iida Y, Kasagi K, Misaki T, Nakashima T, Endo K, et al. Primary myxedema with thyrotrophin-binding inhibitor immunoglobulins. Clinical and laboratory findings in 15 patients. Ann Intern Med (1985) 103:26-31. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-103-1-26
20. Tun N, Beckett G, Zammitt N, Strachan M, Seckl J, Gibb F. Thyrotropin receptor antibody levels at diagnosis and after thionamide course predict Graves' disease relapse. Thyroid (2016) 26:1004-9. doi:10.1089/thy.2016.0017
21. Balucan FS, Morshed SA, Davies TF. Thyroid autoantibodies in pregnancy: their role, regulation and clinical relevance. J Thyroid Res (2013) 2013:182472. doi:10.1155/2013/182472
22. McLachlan SM, Rapoport B. The molecular biology of thyroid peroxidase: cloning, expression and role as autoantigen in autoimmune thyroid disease. Endocr Rev (1992) 13:192-206. doi:10.1210/edrv-13-2-192
23. Le Fourn V, Ferrand M, Franc JL. Endoproteolytic cleavage of human thyroperoxidase: role of the propeptide in the protein folding process. J Biol Chem (2005) 280:4568-77. doi:10.1074/jbc. M408042200
24. Kohno Y, Yamaguchi F, Saito K, Niimi H, Nishikawa T, Hosoya T. Anti-thyroid peroxidase antibodies in sera from healthy subjects and from patients with chronic thyroiditis: differences in the ability to inhibit thyroid peroxidase activities. Clin Exp Immunol (1991) 85:459-63. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.1991.tb05749.x
25. Kaczur V, Vereb G, Molnar I, Krajczar G, Kiss E, Farid NR, et al. Effect of anti-thyroid peroxidase (TPO) antibodies on TPO activity measured by chemiluminescence assay. Clin Chem (1997) 43:1392-6
26. Xie LD, Gao Y, Li MR, Lu GZ, Guo XH. Distribution of immunoglobulin G subclasses of anti-thyroid peroxidase antibody in sera from patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis with different thyroid functional status. Clin Exp Immunol (2008) 154:172-6. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2008.03756.x
27. Ruggeri RM, Vicchio TM, Cristani M, Certo R, Caccamo D, Alibrandi A, et al. Oxidative stress and advanced glycation end products in Hashimoto's thyroiditis. Thyroid (2016) 26:504-11. doi:10.1089/thy.2015.0592
28. Zaletel K, Gaberscek S. Hashimoto's thyroiditis: from genes to the disease. Curr Genomics (2011) 12:576-88. doi:10.2174/138920211798120763
29. DeGroot LJ. Graves' disease and the manifestations of thyrotoxicosis. In: De Groot LJ, Chrousos G, Dungan K, Feingold KR, Grossman A, Hershman JM, et al., editors. Endotext. South Dartmouth, MA: MDText. Com, Inc (2000)
30. Latrofa F, Ricci D, Grasso L, Vitti P, Masserini L, Basolo F, et al. Characterization of thyroglobulin epitopes in patients with autoimmune and non-autoimmune thyroid diseases using recombinant human monoclonal thyroglobulin autoantibodies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2008) 93:591-6. doi:10.1210/jc.2007-1199
31. Volpe R. Immunology of human thyroid disease. In: Volpe R, editor. Autoimmune Diseases of the Endocrine System. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press (1990). p. 73-240
32. Prentice L, Kiso Y, Fukuma N, Horimoto M, Petersen V, Grennan F, et al. Monoclonal thyroglobulin autoantibodies: variable region analysis and epitope recognition. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (1995) 80:977-86. doi:10.1210/jcem.80.3.7533775
33. Lazarus J. Chapter 83: Chronic (Hashimoto's) thyroiditis. In: De Groot LJ, Jameson JL, editors. Endocrinology Adult and Pediatric: The Thyroid Gland E-Book. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders (2010). p. 1583-94
34. Janeway CJ, Travers P, Walport M, Shlomchik M. Chapter 13: Autoimmunity and transplantation. In: Janeway CJ, Travers P, Walport M, Shlomchik M, editors. The Immune System in Health and Disease. New York, NY: Garland Science (2001)
35. Cyriac T, Chellappa P, Sinnet P, Anish I. Prevalence of hypothyroidism and its association with anti-thyroid peroxidase antibody among adult sea food consuming population attending a tertiary health care centre in Kerala. Int J Biomed Adv Res (2015) 6:648-55. doi:10.7439/ijbar
36. Camargo RY, Tomimori EK, Neves SC, Rubio GS I, Galrão AL, Knobel M, et al. Thyroid and the environment: exposure to excessive nutritional iodine increases the prevalence of thyroid disorders in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Eur J Endocrinol (2008) 159:293-9. doi:10.1530/eje-08-0192
37. Caturegli P, Kuppers RC, Mariotti S, Burek CL, Pinchera A, Ladenson PW, et al. IgG subclass distribution of thyroglobulin antibodies in patients with thyroid disease. Clin Exp Immunol (1994) 98:464-9. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.1994.tb05514.x
38. Chin HS, Chin DK, Morgenthaler NG, Vassart G, Costagliola S. Rarity of anti-Na+/I-symporter (NIS) antibody with iodide uptake inhibiting activity in autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITD). J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2000) 85:3937-40. doi:10.1210/jcem.85.10.6884
39. Hattori N, Ishihara T, Matsuoka N, Saito T, Shimatsu A. Anti-thyrotropin autoantibodies in patients with macro-thyrotropin and long-term changes in macro-thyrotropin and serum thyrotropin levels. Thyroid (2017) 27:138-46. doi:10.1089/thy.2016.0442
40. Ginsberg J. Diagnosis and management of Graves' disease. CMAJ (2003) 168:575-85
41. Laurberg P, Wallin G, Tallstedt L, Abraham-Nordling M, Lundell G, Torring O.TSH-receptor autoimmunity in Graves' disease after therapy with anti-thyroid drugs, surgery, or radioiodine: a 5-year prospective randomized study. Eur J Endocrinol (2008) 158:69-75. doi:10.1530/eje-07-0450
42. Smith J, Brown RS. Persistence of thyrotropin (TSH) receptor antibodies in children and adolescents with Graves' disease treated using antithyroid medication. Thyroid (2007) 17:1103-7. doi:10.1089/thy.2007.0072
43. Mariotti S, Caturegli P, Piccolo P, Barbesino G, Pinchera A. Antithyroid peroxidase autoantibodies in thyroid diseases. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (1990) 71:661-9. doi:10.1210/jcem-71-3-661
44. Schmidt M, Voell M, RahlffI, Dietlein M, Kobe C, Faust M, et al. Long-term follow-up of antithyroid peroxidase antibodies in patients with chronic autoimmune thyroiditis (Hashimoto's thyroiditis) treated with levothyroxine. Thyroid (2008) 18:755-60. doi:10.1089/thy.2008.0008
45. Elhomsy G. In: Staros E, editor. Antithyroid Antibody. Laboratory Medicine (2014)
46. Ueno A, Jijon H, Traves S, Chan R, Ford K, Beck PL, et al. Opposing effects of smoking in ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease may be explained by differential effects on dendritic cells. Inflamm Bowel Dis (2014) 20:800-10. doi:10.1097/mib.0000000000000018
47. Swain M, Swain T, Mohanty BK. Autoimmune thyroid disorders-an update. Indian J Clin Biochem (2005) 20:9-17. doi:10.1007/BF02893034
48. Carle A, Bulow Pedersen I, Knudsen N, Perrild H, Ovesen L, Rasmussen LB, et al. Graves' hyperthyroidism and moderate alcohol consumption: evidence for disease prevention. Clin Endocrinol (2013) 79:111-9. doi:10.1111/cen.12106
49. Carle A, Pedersen IB, Knudsen N, Perrild H, Ovesen L, Rasmussen LB, et al. Moderate alcohol consumption may protect against overt autoimmune hypothyroidism: a population-based case-control study. Eur J Endocrinol (2012) 167:483-90. doi:10.1530/eje-12-0356
50. Romeo J, Warnberg J, Nova E, Diaz LE, Gomez-Martinez S, Marcos A. Moderate alcohol consumption and the immune system: a review. Br J Nutr (2007) 98(Suppl 1):S111-5. doi:10.1017/s0007114507838049
51. Wichman J, Winther KH, Bonnema SJ, Hegedus L. Selenium supplementation significantly reduces thyroid autoantibody levels in patients with chronic autoimmune thyroiditis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Thyroid (2016) 26:1681-92. doi:10.1089/thy.2016.0256
52. Weetman A, DeGroot LJ. Autoimmunity to the thyroid gland. Thyroid Disease Manager. (2016). Available from: http://www.thyroidmanager.org/chapter/autoimmunity-to-the-thyroid-gland/
53. Carroll R, Matfin G. Endocrine and metabolic emergencies: thyroid storm. Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab (2010) 1:139-45. doi:10.1177/2042018810382481
54. Kaczor T. Iodine and Cancer: A Summary of the Evidence to Date. (2014). Available from: http://www.naturalmedicinejournal.com/journal/2014-06/iodine-and-cancer
55. Winkler R. Iodine - a potential antioxidant and the role of iodine/iodide in health and disease. Nat Sci (2015) 7:548-57. doi:10.4236/ns.2015.712055
56. Zarkovic M. The role of oxidative stress on the pathogenesis of Graves' disease. J Thyroid Res (2012) 2012:302537. doi:10.1155/2012/302537
57. Effraimidis G, Wiersinga WM. Mechanisms in endocrinology: autoimmune thyroid disease: old and new players. Eur J Endocrinol (2014) 170:R241-52. doi:10.1530/EJE-14-0047
58. Desailloud R, Hober D. Viruses and thyroiditis: an update. Virol J (2009) 6:5. doi:10.1186/1743-422x-6-5
59. Blackard JT, Kong L, Huber AK, Tomer Y. Hepatitis C virus infection of a thyroid cell line: implications for pathogenesis of hepatitis C virus and thyroiditis. Thyroid (2013) 23:863-70. doi:10.1089/thy.2012.0507
60. Wolf MW, Misaki T, Bech K, Tvede M, Silva JE, Ingbar SH. Immunoglobulins of patients recovering from Yersinia enterocolitica infections exhibit Graves' disease-like activity in human thyroid membranes. Thyroid (1991) 1:315-20. doi:10.1089/thy.1991.1.315
61. Mori K, Nakagawa Y, Ozaki H. Does the gut microbiota trigger Hashimoto's thyroiditis? Discov Med (2012) 14:321-6
62. de Luis DA, Varela C, de La Calle H, Canton R, de Argila CM, San Roman AL, et al. Helicobacter pylori infection is markedly increased in patients with autoimmune atrophic thyroiditis. J Clin Gastroenterol (1998) 26:259-63. doi:10.1097/00004836-199806000-00008
63. Akeno N, Smith EP, Stefan M, Huber AK, Zhang W, Keddache M, et al. IFN-alpha mediates the development of autoimmunity both by direct tissue toxicity and through immune cell recruitment mechanisms. J Immunol (2011) 186:4693-706. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1002631
64. Davies TF. Infection and autoimmune thyroid disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2008) 93:674-6. doi:10.1210/jc.2008-0095
65. Hoekman K, von Blomberg-van der Flier BM, WagstaffJ, Drexhage HA, Pinedo HM. Reversible thyroid dysfunction during treatment with GM-CSF. Lancet (1991) 338:541-2. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(91)91103-2
66. de Filette J, Jansen Y, Schreuer M, Everaert H, Velkeniers B, Neyns B, et al. Incidence of thyroid-related adverse events in melanoma patients treated with pembrolizumab. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2016) 101(11):4431-9. doi:10.1210/jc.2016-2300
67. Bahn AK, Mills JL, Snyder PJ, Gann PH, Houten L, Bialik O, et al. Hypothyroidism in workers exposed to polybrominated biphenyls. N Engl J Med (1980) 302:31-3. doi:10.1056/nejm198001033020105
68. Kibirige D, Luzinda K, Ssekitoleko R. Spectrum of lithium induced thyroid abnormalities: a current perspective. Thyroid Res (2013) 6:3. doi:10.1186/1756-6614-6-3
69. Hancock SL, Cox RS, McDougall IR. Thyroid diseases after treatment of Hodgkin's disease. N Engl J Med (1991) 325:599-605. doi:10.1056/NEJM199108293250902
70. Hansen PS, Brix TH, Iachine I, Kyvik KO, Hegedus L. The relative importance of genetic and environmental effects for the early stages of thyroid autoimmunity: a study of healthy Danish twins. Eur J Endocrinol (2006) 154:29-38. doi:10.1530/eje.1.02060
71. Luo L, Cai B, Liu F, Hu X, Wang L. Association of protein tyrosine phosphatase nonreceptor 22 (PTPN22) C1858T gene polymorphism with susceptibility to autoimmune thyroid diseases: a meta-analysis. Endocr J (2012) 59:439-45. doi:10.1507/endocrj. EJ11-0381
72. Tomer Y. Mechanisms of autoimmune thyroid diseases: from genetics to epigenetics. Annu Rev Pathol (2014) 9:147-56. doi:10.1146/annurev-pathol-012513-104713
73. Fairweather D, Frisancho-Kiss S, Rose NR. Sex differences in autoimmune disease from a pathological perspective. Am J Pathol (2008) 173:600-9. doi:10.2353/ajpath.2008.071008
74. Zandman-Goddard G, Peeva E, Shoenfeld Y. Gender and autoimmunity. Autoimmun Rev (2007) 6:366-72. doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2006.10.001
75. Ngo ST, Steyn FJ, McCombe PA. Gender differences in autoimmune disease. Front Neuroendocrinol (2014) 35:347-69. doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2014.04.004
76. Persani L, Bonomi M, Lleo A, Pasini S, Civardi F, Bianchi I, et al. Increased loss of the Y chromosome in peripheral blood cells in male patients with autoimmune thyroiditis. J Autoimmun (2012) 38:J193-6. doi:10.1016/j.jaut.2011.11.011
77. Meikle AW. The interrelationships between thyroid dysfunction and hypogonadism in men and boys. Thyroid (2004) 14(Suppl 1):S17-25. doi:10.1089/105072504323024552
78. Janssen OE, Mehlmauer N, Hahn S, Offner AH, Gartner R. High prevalence of autoimmune thyroiditis in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. Eur J Endocrinol (2004) 150:363-9. doi:10.1530/eje.0.1500363
79. Groer M, Jevitt C. Symptoms and signs associated with postpartum thyroiditis. J Thyroid Res (2014) 2014:531969. doi:10.1155/2014/531969
80. Klintschar M, Schwaiger P, Mannweiler S, Regauer S, Kleiber M. Evidence of fetal microchimerism in Hashimoto's thyroiditis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2001) 86:2494-8. doi:10.1210/jcem.86.6.7540
81. Cogni G, Chiovato L. An overview of the pathogenesis of thyroid autoimmunity. Hormones (2013) 12:19-29
82. Mikos H, Mikos M, Obara-Moszynska M, Niedziela M. The role of the immune system and cytokines involved in the pathogenesis of autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD). Endokrynol Pol (2014) 65:150-5. doi:10.5603/ep.2014.0021
83. Ajjan RA, Weetman AP. The pathogenesis of Hashimoto's thyroiditis: further developments in our understanding. Horm Metab Res (2015) 47:702-10. doi:10.1055/s-0035-1548832
84. Pyzik A, Grywalska E, Matyjaszek-Matuszek B, Rolinski J. Immune disorders in Hashimoto's thyroiditis: what do we know so far? J Immunol Res (2015) 2015:979167. doi:10.1155/2015/979167
85. Kawashima A, Tanigawa K, Akama T, Yoshihara A, Ishii N, Suzuki K. Innate immune activation and thyroid autoimmunity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2011) 96:3661-71. doi:10.1210/jc.2011-1568
86. Fountoulakis S, Tsatsoulis A. On the pathogenesis of autoimmune thyroid disease: a unifying hypothesis. Clin Endocrinol (2004) 60:397-409. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2265.2004.01978.x
87. De Luca F, Santucci S, Corica D, Pitrolo E, Romeo M, Aversa T. Hashimoto's thyroiditis in childhood: presentation modes and evolution over time. Ital J Pediatr (2013) 39:8. doi:10.1186/1824-7288-39-8
88. Hiromatsu Y, Satoh H, Amino N. Hashimoto's thyroiditis: history and future outlook. Hormones (2013) 12:12-8
89. Kottahachchi D, Topliss DJ. Immunoglobulin G4-related thyroid diseases. Eur Thyroid J (2016) 5:231-9. doi:10.1159/000452623
90. Li Y, Nishihara E, Hirokawa M, Taniguchi E, Miyauchi A, Kakudo K. Distinct clinical, serological, and sonographic characteristics of Hashimoto's thyroiditis based with and without IgG4-positive plasma cells. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2010) 95:1309-17. doi:10.1210/jc.2009-1794
91. Minamino H, Inaba H, Ariyasu H, Furuta H, Nishi M, Yoshimasu T, et al. A novel immunopathological association of IgG4-RD and vasculitis with Hashimoto's thyroiditis. Endocrinol Diabetes Metab Case Rep (2016) 2016:160004. doi:10.1530/edm-16-0004
92. Davies TF. Ord-Hashimoto's disease: renaming a common disorder - again. Thyroid (2003) 13:317. doi:10.1089/105072503321669776
93. Carle A, Pedersen IB, Knudsen N, Perrild H, Ovesen L, Jorgensen T, et al. Thyroid volume in hypothyroidism due to autoimmune disease follows a unimodal distribution: evidence against primary thyroid atrophy and autoimmune thyroiditis being distinct diseases. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2009) 94:833-9. doi:10.1210/jc.2008-1370
94. Jara L, Vera-Lastra O, Medina G. V. Endocrine and reproductive autoimmune diseases. Atrophic thyroiditis. In: Shoenfeld Y, Cervera R, Gershwin M, editors. Diagnostic Criteria in Autoimmune Diseases. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press (2008). p. 221-6
95. Cappa M, Bizzarri C, Crea F. Autoimmune thyroid diseases in children. J Thyroid Res (2010) 2011:675703. doi:10.4061/2011/675703
96. Garber JR, Cobin RH, Gharib H, Hennessey JV, Klein I, Mechanick JI, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for hypothyroidism in adults: cosponsored by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American Thyroid Association. Endocr Pract (2012) 18:988-1028. doi:10.4158/ep12280.gl
97. Weetman AP. Graves' disease. N Engl J Med (2000) 343:1236-48. doi:10.1056/NEJM200010263431707
98. Arntzenius AB, Smit LJ, Schipper J, van der Heide D, Meinders AE. Inverse relation between iodine intake and thyroid blood flow: color Doppler flow imaging in euthyroid humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (1991) 73:1051-5. doi:10.1210/jcem-73-5-1051
99. Cardenas Roldan J, Amaya-Amaya J, Castellanos-de la Hoz J, Giraldo-Villamil J, Montoya-Ortiz G, Cruz-Tapias P, et al. Autoimmune thyroid disease in rheumatoid arthritis: a global perspective. Arthritis (2012) 2012:864907. doi:10.1155/2012/864907
100. Yavasoglu I, Senturk T, Coskun A, Bolaman Z. Rheumatoid arthritis and anti-thyroid antibodies. Autoimmunity (2009) 42:168-9. doi:10.1080/08916930802428114
101. Przygodzka M, Filipowicz-Sosnowska A. Prevalence of thyroid diseases and antithyroid antibodies in women with rheumatoid arthritis. Pol Arch Med Wewn (2009) 119:39-43
102. Ali O. Part V diabetes syndromes. Type 1 diabetes mellitus: epidemiology, genetics, pathogenesis, and clinical manifestations. In: Poretsky L, editor. Principles of Diabetes Mellitus. New York, NY: Springer Science + Business Media (2010). p. 181-202
103. SharifiF, Ghasemi L, Mousavinasab N. Thyroid function and anti-thyroid antibodies in Iranian patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus: influences of age and sex. Iran J Allergy Asthma Immunol (2008) 7:31-6. doi:07.01/ijaai.3136
104. Hatzioannou A, Kanistras I, Mantzou E, Anastasiou E, Peppa M, Sarantopoulou V, et al. Effect of advanced glycation end products on human thyroglobulin's antigenicity as identified by the use of sera from patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis and gestational diabetes mellitus. Int J Endocrinol (2015) 2015:849615. doi:10.1155/2015/849615
105. Ch'ng CL, Jones MK, Kingham JG. Celiac disease and autoimmune thyroid disease. Clin Med Res (2007) 5:184-92. doi:10.3121/cmr.2007.738
106. Kalyoncu D, Urganci N. Antithyroid antibodies and thyroid function in pediatric patients with celiac disease. Int J Endocrinol (2015) 2015:276575. doi:10.1155/2015/276575
107. El-Aziz M, Rafaat M, Sabry I, Yousef M, Mandour A. Study of thyroid auto-antibodies in patients with bronchial asthma and allergic rhinitis. Thyroid Sci (2010) 5:CLS1-5
108. Fekri M, Shokoohi M, Gozashti M, Esmailian S, Jamshidian N, Shadkam-Farokhi M, et al. Association between anti-thyroid peroxidase antibody and asthma in women. Iran J Allergy Asthma Immunol (2012) 11:241-5. doi:10.1016/j.ejcdt.2015.08.018
109. Bansal AS, Hayman GR. Graves disease associated with chronic idiopathic urticaria: 2 case reports. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol (2009) 19:54-6
110. Nakamura H, Usa T, Motomura M, Ichikawa T, Nakao K, Kawasaki E, et al. Prevalence of interrelated autoantibodies in thyroid diseases and autoimmune disorders. J Endocrinol Invest (2008) 31:861-5. doi:10.1007/BF03346432
111. Koszarny A, Majdan M, Suszek D, Wielosz E, Dryglewska M. Relationship between rheumatoid arthritis activity and antithyroid antibodies. Pol Arch Med Wewn (2013) 123:394-400
112. Unnikrishnan AG, Kumaravel V, Nair V, Rao A, Jayakumar RV, Kumar H, et al. TSH receptor antibodies in subjects with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Ann N Y Acad Sci (2006) 1079:220-5. doi:10.1196/annals.1375.034
113. Bartalena L, Fatourechi V. Extrathyroidal manifestations of Graves' disease: a 2014 update. J Endocrinol Invest (2014) 37:691-700. doi:10.1007/s40618-014-0097-2
114. Shan SJ, Douglas RS. The pathophysiology of thyroid eye disease. J Neuroophthalmol (2014) 34:177-85. doi:10.1097/wno.0000000000000132
115. Hiromatsu Y, Yang D, Bednarczuk T, Miyake I, Nonaka K, Inoue Y. Cytokine profiles in eye muscle tissue and orbital fat tissue from patients with thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2000) 85:1194-9. doi:10.1210/jcem.85.3.6433
116. Lytton SD, Ponto KA, Kanitz M, Matheis N, Kohn LD, Kahaly GJ. A novel thyroid stimulating immunoglobulin bioassay is a functional indicator of activity and severity of Graves' orbitopathy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2010) 95:2123-31. doi:10.1210/jc.2009-2470
117. Woo YJ, Jang SY, Lim TH, Yoon JS. Clinical association of thyroid stimulating hormone receptor antibody levels with disease severity in the chronic inactive stage of Graves' orbitopathy. Korean J Ophthalmol (2015) 29:213-9. doi:10.3341/kjo.2015.29.4.213
118. Reddy SV, Gupta SK, Jain M. Dermopathy of Graves' disease: clinico-pathological correlation. Indian J Endocrinol Metab (2012) 16:460-2. doi:10.4103/2230-8210.95714
119. Dhali TK, Chahar M. Thyroid dermopathy - a diagnostic clue of hidden hyperthyroidism. Dermatoendocrinol (2014) 6:e981078. doi:10.4161/19381980.2014.981078
120. Promberger R, Hermann M, Ott J. Hashimoto's thyroiditis in patients with normal thyroid-stimulating hormone levels. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab (2012) 7:175-9. doi:10.1586/eem.12.3
121. Kothbauer-Margreiter I, Sturzenegger M, Komor J, Baumgartner R, Hess CW. Encephalopathy associated with Hashimoto thyroiditis: diagnosis and treatment. J Neurol (1996) 243:585-93. doi:10.1007/BF00900946
122. Sekisui Virotech GmbH. CSF-Standards. Rüsselsheim (2014)
123. Leyhe T, Mussig K. Cognitive and affective dysfunctions in autoimmune thyroiditis. Brain Behav Immun (2014) 41:261-6. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2014.03.008
124. Chiarella G, Tognini S, Nacci A, Sieli R, Costante G, Petrolo C, et al. Vestibular disorders in euthyroid patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis: role of thyroid autoimmunity. Clin Endocrinol (2014) 81:600-5. doi:10.1111/cen.12471
125. Plowden TC, Schisterman EF, Sjaarda LA, Zarek SM, Perkins NJ, Silver R, et al. Subclinical hypothyroidism and thyroid autoimmunity are not associated with fecundity, pregnancy loss or live birth. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2016) 101(6):2358-65. doi:10.1210/jc.2016-1049
126. Busnelli A, Paffoni A, Fedele L, Somigliana E. The impact of thyroid autoimmunity on IVF/ICSI outcome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum Reprod (2016) 22(6):775-90. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmw034
127. Seror J, Amand G, Guibourdenche J, Ceccaldi PF, Luton D. Anti-TPO antibodies diffusion through the placental barrier during pregnancy. PLoS One (2014) 9:e84647. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0084647
128. Korevaar TI, Steegers EA, Pop VJ, Broeren MA, Chaker L, de Rijke YB, et al. Thyroid autoimmunity impairs the thyroidal response to hCG: two population-based prospective cohort studies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2016) 102(1):69-77. doi:10.1210/jc.2016-2942
129. Wang GC, Talor MV, Rose NR, Cappola AR, Chiou RB, Weiss C, et al. Thyroid autoantibodies are associated with a reduced prevalence of frailty in community-dwelling older women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2010) 95:1161-8. doi:10.1210/jc.2009-1991
130. Jankovic B, Le KT, Hershman JM. Clinical review: Hashimoto's thyroiditis and papillary thyroid carcinoma: is there a correlation? J Clin Endocrinol Metab (2013) 98:474-82. doi:10.1210/jc.2012-2978
131. Amiri-Kordestani L, Luchenko VL, Peer CJ, Ghafourian K, Reynolds J, Draper D, et al. Phase I trial of a new schedule of romidepsin in patients with advanced cancers. Clin Cancer Res (2013) 19(16):4499-507. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-13-0095
132. Nio Y, Iguchi C, Itakura M, Toga T, Hashimoto K, Koike M, et al. High incidence of synchronous or metachronous breast cancer in patients with malignant and benign thyroid tumor or tumor-like disorders. Anticancer Res (2009) 29:1607-10
133. Prinzi N, Sorrenti S, Baldini E, De Vito C, Tuccilli C, Catania A, et al. Association of thyroid diseases with primary extra-thyroidal malignancies in women: results of a cross-sectional study of 6, 386 patients. PLoS One (2015) 10:e0122958. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0122958
134. Chen YK, Lin CL, Chang YJ, Cheng FT, Peng CL, Sung FC, et al. Cancer risk in patients with Graves' disease: a nationwide cohort study. Thyroid (2013) 23:879-84. doi:10.1089/thy.2012.0568
135. Shu X, Ji J, Li X, Sundquist J, Sundquist K, Hemminki K. Cancer risk in patients hospitalised for Graves' disease: a population-based cohort study in Sweden. Br J Cancer (2010) 102:1397-9. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6605624
136. Muller I, Pinchera A, Fiore E, Belardi V, Rosellini V, Giustarini E, et al. High prevalence of breast cancer in patients with benign thyroid diseases. J Endocrinol Invest (2011) 34:349-52. doi:10.3275/7141
137. Rasmusson B, Feldt-Rasmussen U, Hegedus L, Perrild H, Bech K, Hoier-Madsen M. Thyroid function in patients with breast cancer. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol (1987) 23:553-6. doi:10.1016/0277-5379(87)90319-1
138. Giani C, Fierabracci P, Bonacci R, Gigliotti A, Campani D, De Negri F, et al. Relationship between breast cancer and thyroid disease: relevance of autoimmune thyroid disorders in breast malignancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (1996) 81:990-4. doi:10.1210/jcem.81.3.8772562
139. Turken O, NarIn Y, DemIrbas S, Onde ME, Sayan O, KandemIr EG, et al. Breast cancer in association with thyroid disorders. Breast Cancer Res (2003) 5:R110-3. doi:10.1186/bcr609
140. Sarlis NJ, Gourgiotis L, Pucino F, Tolis GJ. Lack of association between Hashimoto thyroiditis and breast cancer: a quantitative research synthesis. Hormones (2002) 1:35-41. doi:10.14310/horm.2002.1152
141. Freitas PA, Vissoci GM, Pinto RM, Lajolo PP, Jorge PT. Study of the prevalence of autoimmune thyroid disease in women with breast cancer. Endocr Pract (2016) 22:16-21. doi:10.4158/ep14445.or
142. Hajtmanova E, Murin P, Kinclova I, Hajtman A, Pec M, Kostkova L, et al. Thyroid disorders in women with breast cancer. Klin Onkol (2012) 25:124-9
143. Sisti G, Di Tommaso M. Commentary on 'study of the prevalence of autoimmune thyroid disease in women with breast cancer'. Endocr Pract (2016) 22:114-6. doi:10.4158/ep151035.co
144. Brandt J, Borgquist S, Manjer J. Prospectively measured thyroid hormones and thyroid peroxidase antibodies in relation to risk of different breast cancer subgroups: a Malmo Diet and Cancer Study. Cancer Causes Control (2015) 26:1093-104. doi:10.1007/s10552-015-0602-8
145. Tosovic A, Becker C, Bondeson AG, Bondeson L, Ericsson UB, Malm J, et al. Prospectively measured thyroid hormones and thyroid peroxidase antibodies in relation to breast cancer risk. Int J Cancer (2012) 131:2126-33. doi:10.1002/ijc.27470
146. Tosovic A, Bondeson AG, Bondeson L, Ericsson UB, Malm J, Manjer J. Prospectively measured triiodothyronine levels are positively associated with breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women. Breast Cancer Res (2010) 12:R33. doi:10.1186/bcr2587
147. Tosovic A, Bondeson AG, Bondeson L, Ericsson UB, Manjer J. Triiodothyronine levels in relation to mortality from breast cancer and all causes: a population-based prospective cohort study. Eur J Endocrinol (2013) 168:483-90. doi:10.1530/eje-12-0564
148. Qin J, Yu Z, Guan H, Shi L, Liu Y, Zhao N, et al. High thyroglobulin antibody levels increase the risk of differentiated thyroid carcinoma. Dis Markers (2015) 2015:648670. doi:10.1155/2015/648670
149. Prinzi N, Baldini E, Sorrenti S, De Vito C, Tuccilli C, Catania A, et al. Prevalence of breast cancer in thyroid diseases: results of a cross-sectional study of 3, 921 patients. Breast Cancer Res Treat (2014) 144:683-8. doi:10.1007/s10549-014-2893-y
150. Smyth PP, Shering SG, Kilbane MT, Murray MJ, McDermott EW, Smith DF, et al. Serum thyroid peroxidase autoantibodies, thyroid volume, and outcome in breast carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (1998) 83:2711-6. doi:10.1210/jcem.83.8.5049
151. Hegedus L, Perrild H, Poulsen LR, Andersen JR, Holm B, Schnohr P, et al. The determination of thyroid volume by ultrasound and its relationship to body weight, age, and sex in normal subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab (1983) 56:260-3. doi:10.1210/jcem-56-2-260
152. Ivanac G, Rozman B, Skreb F, Brkljacic B, Pavic L. Ultrasonographic measurement of the thyroid volume. Coll Antropol (2004) 28:287-91
153. Seker S, Tas I. Determination of thyroid volume and its relation with isthmus thickness. Eur J Gen Med (2010) 7:125-9
154. Hardefeldt PJ, Eslick GD, Edirimanne S. Benign thyroid disease is associated with breast cancer: a meta-analysis. Breast Cancer Res Treat (2012) 133:1169-77. doi:10.1007/s10549-012-2019-3
155. Ditsch N, Liebhardt S, Von Koch F, Lenhard M, Vogeser M, Spitzweg C, et al. Thyroid function in breast cancer patients. Anticancer Res (2010) 30:1713-7
156. Davies TF, Ando T, Lin RY, Tomer Y, Latif R. Thyrotropin receptor-associated diseases: from adenomata to Graves disease. J Clin Invest (2005) 115:1972-83. doi:10.1172/JCI26031
157. Kandi S, Pinnelli V, Rao P, Ramana K. Effect of anti-thyroperoxidase on thyroid gland and breast tissue: a comprehensive review. Am J Med Stud (2014) 2:34-7. doi:10.12691/ajms-2-2-2
158. Giustarini E, Pinchera A, Fierabracci P, Roncella M, Fustaino L, Mammoli C, et al. Thyroid autoimmunity in patients with malignant and benign breast diseases before surgery. Eur J Endocrinol (2006) 154:645-9. doi:10.1530/eje.1.02108
159. Michalaki V, Kondi-Pafiti A, Gennatas S, Antoniou A, Primetis H, Gennatas C. Breast cancer in association with thyroid disorders. J BUON (2009) 14:425-8
160. Shi XZ, Jin X, Xu P, Shen HM. Relationship between breast cancer and levels of serum thyroid hormones and antibodies: a meta-analysis. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev (2014) 15:6643-7. doi:10.7314/APJCP.2014.15.16.6643
161. Mattar MC, Lough D, Pishvaian MJ, Charabaty A. Current management of inflammatory bowel disease and colorectal cancer. Gastrointest Cancer Res (2011) 4:53-61
162. Rapoport B, McLachlan S. Thyroid peroxidase as an autoantigen in autoimmune thyroid disease: update 1994. In: Negro-Vilar A, Braverman L, RefetoffS, editors. Endocrine Review Monographs 3. Clinical and Molecular Aspects of Diseases of the Thyroid. Bethesda, MD: The Endocrine Society (1994). p. 96-102
163. Haapala AM, Hyoty H, Parkkonen P, Mustonen J, Soppi E. Antibody reactivity against thyroid peroxidase and myeloperoxidase in autoimmune thyroiditis and systemic vasculitis. Scand J Immunol (1997) 46:78-85. doi:10.1046/j.1365-3083.1997.d01-90.x
164. Freire BA, Paula ID, Paula F, Kallenberg CG, Limburg PC, Queluz TT. Absence of cross-reactivity to myeloperoxidase of anti-thyroid microsomal antibodies in patients with autoimmune thyroid diseases. Am J Med Sci (2001) 321:109-12. doi:10.1097/00000441-200102000-00001
165. Aceves C, Anguiano B, Delgado G. Is iodine a gatekeeper of the integrity of the mammary gland? J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia (2005) 10:189-96. doi:10.1007/s10911-005-5401-5
166. Anguiano B, Garcia-Solis P, Delgado G, Aceves Velasco C. Uptake and gene expression with antitumoral doses of iodine in thyroid and mammary gland: evidence that chronic administration has no harmful effects. Thyroid (2007) 17:851-9. doi:10.1089/thy.2007.0122
167. Shrivastava A, Tiwari M, Sinha RA, Kumar A, Balapure AK, Bajpai VK, et al. Molecular iodine induces caspase-independent apoptosis in human breast carcinoma cells involving the mitochondria-mediated pathway. J Biol Chem (2006) 281:19762-71. doi:10.1074/jbc. M600746200
168. Szychta P, Szychta W, Gesing A, Lewinski A, Karbownik-Lewinska M. TSH receptor antibodies have predictive value for breast cancer - retrospective analysis. Thyroid Res (2013) 6:8. doi:10.1186/1756-6614-6-8
169. Kuijpens JL, Nyklictek I, Louwman MW, Weetman TA, Pop VJ, Coebergh JW. Hypothyroidism might be related to breast cancer in post-menopausal women. Thyroid (2005) 15:1253-9. doi:10.1089/thy.2005.15.1253
170. Mittra I, Perrin J, Kumaoka S. Thyroid and other autoantibodies in British and Japanese women: an epidemiological study of breast cancer. Br Med J (1976) 1:257-9. doi:10.1136/bmj
171. Fiore E, Giustarini E, Mammoli C, Fragomeni F, Campani D, Muller I, et al. Favorable predictive value of thyroid autoimmunity in high aggressive breast cancer. J Endocrinol Invest (2007) 30:734-8. doi:10.1007/bf03350810
172. Jiskra J, Barkmanova J, Limanova Z, Lanska V, Smutek D, Potlukova E, et al. Thyroid autoimmunity occurs more frequently in women with breast cancer compared to women with colorectal cancer and controls but it has no impact on relapse-free and overall survival. Oncol Rep (2007) 18:1603-11
173. Hall LC, Salazar EP, Kane SR, Liu N. Effects of thyroid hormones on human breast cancer cell proliferation. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol (2008) 109:57-66. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2007.12.008
174. Kemal Y, Demirag G, Ekiz K, Yucel I. Antithyroid peroxidase antibody positivity is associated with lower incidence of metastasis in breast cancer. Mol Clin Oncol (2015) 3:629-32. doi:10.3892/mco.2015.521
175. Farahati J, Roggenbuck D, Gilman E, Schutte M, Jagminaite E, Seyed Zakavi R, et al. Anti-thyroid peroxidase antibodies are associated with the absence of distant metastases in patients with newly diagnosed breast cancer. Clin Chem Lab Med (2012) 50:709-14. doi:10.1515/cclm.2011.819
176. özmen T, Güllüoglu B, Yegen C, Soran A. Autoimmune thyroid disease and breast cancer prognosis. J Breast Health (2015) 11:67-71. doi:10.5152/tjbh.2015.2462
177. Berardi DE, Campodonico PB, Diaz Bessone MI, Urtreger AJ, Todaro LB. Autophagy: friend or foe in breast cancer development, progression, and treatment. Int J Breast Cancer (2011) 2011:595092. doi:10.4061/2011/595092
178. Fröhlich E, Wahl R. Chapter 12: Differentiation therapy in thyroid carcinoma. In: Fahey T, editor. Updates in the Understanding and Management of Thyroid Cancer. Rijeka: InTech (2015). p. 251-82