Eye tracking in Educational Science: Theoretical frameworks and research agendas

Journal of Eye Movement Research

Volumn 10, Issue 1, 2017, Pages

  Jarodzka, Halszka ^a,b   Holmqvist, Kenneth ^b,c   Gruber, Hans ^d,e  

^a OPEN UNIVERSITY OF THE NETHERLANDS   (Netherlands)

^b LUND UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

^c NORTH WEST UNIVERSITY   (South Africa)

^d UNIVERSITY OF REGENSBURG   (Germany)

^e UNIVERSITY OF TURKU   (Finland)

Author keywords

Applied eye tracking; Education; Expertise; Learning

Indexed keywords

EID: 85014788971     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19958692     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.16910/jemr.10.1.3     Document Type: Article

References (93)

1. Arthur, P., Blom, D., & Khuu, S. (2016). Music sight-reading expertise, visually disrupted score and eye movements. Journal of Eye Movement Re-search, 9(7), 1-12. doi: 10.16910/jemr.9.7.1.
2. Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In K. W. Spence & J. T. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 2, pp. 89-192). New York: Academic Press.
3. Baddeley, A. D. (2012). Working memory: Theories, models, and controversies. Annual Review of Psychology, 63(1), 1-29. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100422.
4. Balslev, T., Jarodzka, H., Holmqvist, K., De Grave, W. S., Muijtjens, A., Eika, B.,. Scherpbier, A. (2012). Visual expertise in paediatric neurology. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology, 16(2), 161-166. doi: 10.1016/j.ejpn.2011.07.004.
5. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
6. Bandura, A., Ross, S. A., & Ross, D. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(3), 575-582. doi: 10.1037/h0045925.
7. Beck, M. R., Trenchard, M., van Lamsweerde, A., Goldstein, R. R., & Lohrenz, M. (2012, September). Searching in clutter: Visual atten-tion strategies of expert pilots. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society an-nual meeting (Vol. 56, No. 1, pp. 1411-1415). Santa Monica, USA: Sage.
8. Bertram, R., Kaakinen, J., Bensch, F., Helle, L., Lantto, E., Niemi, P., & Lundbom, N. (2016). Eye movements of radiologists reflect expertise in CT study interpretation: A potential tool to measure resident development. Radiology, 281(3), 805-815. doi: 10.1148/radiol.2016151255.
9. Bond, C. F., & Titus, L. J. (1983). Social facilitation: A meta-analysis of 241 studies. Psychological Bulletin, 94(2), 265-292. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.94.2.265.
10. Boshuizen, H. P. A., & Schmidt, H. G. (1992). On the role of biomedical knowledge in clinical reasoning by experts, intermediates, and novices. Cognitive Science, 16(2), 153-184. doi: 10.1207/s15516709cog1602_1.
11. Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1991). Cognitive load theory and the format of instruction. Cognition and Instruction, 8(4), 293-332. doi: 10.1207/s1532690xci0804_2.
12. Chase, W. G., & Simon, H. A. (1973). The mind's eye in chess. In W. G. Chase (Ed.), Visual information processing (pp. 215-281). New York: Academic Press.
13. Cherubini, M., Nüssli, M. A., & Dillenbourg, P. (2010). This is it! Indicating and looking in collabora-tive work at distance. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 3(5), 1-20. doi: 10.16910/jemr.3.5.3.
14. Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the craft of reading, writing, and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Cognition and instruction: Issues and gendas (pp. 453-494). Mahwah: Erlbaum.
15. De Groot, A. D. (1946/2008). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague: Mouton.
16. Denzin, N. K. (2012). Triangulation 2.0. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 6(2), 80-88. doi: 10.1177/1558689812437186.
17. Dorr, M., Vig, E., Gegenfurtner, K. R., Martinetz, T., & Barth, E. (2008, October). Eye movement modelling and gaze guidance. Paper presented at the Fourth International Workshop on Human-Computer Conversation, Oxford, UK.
18. Dwyer, F. M. (1976). Adapting media attributes for effective learning. Educational Technology, 16(8), 7-13.
19. Ericsson, K. A., Charness, N., Feltovich, P., & Hoffman, R. R. (Eds.). (2006). The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
20. Ericsson, K. A., & Kintsch, W. (1995). Long-term working memory. Psychological Review, 102(2), 211-245. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.211.
21. Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100(3), 363-406. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.100.3.363.
22. Ericsson, K. A., & Lehmann, A. C. (1996). Expert and exceptional performance: Evidence of maximal adaption to task constraints. Annual Reviews in Psychology, 47(1), 273-305. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.47.1.273.
23. Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1993). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data. Cambridge: MIT Press.
24. Ericsson, K. A., & Smith, J. (1991). Prospects and limits in the empirical study of expertise. In K. A. Ericsson & J. Smith (Eds.), Towards a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits (pp. 1-38). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
25. Freyhof, H., Gruber, H., & Ziegler, A. (1992). Expertise and hierarchical knowledge representation in chess. Psychological Research, 54(1), 32-37. doi: 10.1007/BF01359221.
26. Groner, R., & Siegenthaler, E. (2009). Improving the usability of eLearning tools: The IFeL Multifunctional Analysis and its application in distance teaching. Proceedings of the ICDE/EADTU Conference in Maastricht, June 2009. Retrieved from: http://www.ou.nl/Docs/Campagnes/ICDE2009/Papers/Final_Paper_100Groner.pdf.
27. Gruber, H. (1991). Wissensakquisition und Gedächtnisleistung in Abhängigkeit vom Expertisegrad. Munich: University of Munich, Chair of Education and Educational Psychology.
28. Hegarty, M. (1992). Mental animation: Inferring motion from static displays of mechanical systems. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18(5), 1084-1102. doi: 10.1037//0278-7393.18.5.1084.
29. Holmqvist, K., Nyström, M., Andersson, R., Dewhurst, R., Jarodzka, H., & Van de Weijer, J. (2011). Eye tracking: A comprehensive guide to methods and measures. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
30. Jaarsma, T., Boshuizen, H. P. A., Jarodzka, H., Nap, M., Verboon, P., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2016). Tracks to a medical diagnosis: expertise differences in visual problem solving. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 30(3), 314-322. doi: 10.1002/acp.3201.
31. Jaarsma, T., Jarodzka, H., Nap, M., Van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (2014). Expertise differences under the microscope: processing histopathological slides. Medical Education, 48(3), 292-300. doi: 10.1111/medu.12385.
32. Jaarsma, T., Jarodzka, H., Nap, M., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (2015). Expertise in clinical pathology: Bridging the gap. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 20(4), 1089-1106. doi: 10.1007/s10459-015-9589-x.
33. Jacob, R., & Karn, K. S. (2003). Eye tracking in human-computer interaction and usability research: Ready to deliver the promises. In J. Hyönä, R. Radach & H. Deubel (Eds.), The mind's eye: Cognitive and applied aspects of eye movement research (pp. 573-605). Oxford: Elsevier.
34. Jarodzka, H., Balslev, T., Holmqvist, K., Nyström, M., Scheiter, K., Gerjets, P., & Eika, B. (2012). Conveying clinical reasoning based on visual observation via eye-movement modelling examples. Instructional Science, 40(5), 813-827. doi: 10.1007/s11251-012-9218-5.
35. Jarodzka, H., Boshuizen, H. P. A., & Kirschner, P. A. (2012). Cognitive skills in medical diagnosis and intervention. In P. Lanzer (Ed.), Catheter-based cardiovascular interventions; Knowledge-based approach (pp. 69-86). Berlin, Germany: Springer.
36. Jarodzka, H., Gouw, P., Van Meeuwen, L., & Brand-Gruwel, S. (2015, August). Air traffic control: Visual expertise in a dynamic problem solving task. Paper presented at the 18th European Conference on Eye Movements, Vienna, Austria.
37. Jarodzka, H., Janssen, N., Kirschner, P. A., & Erkens, G. (2015). Avoiding split attention in computer-based testing: Is neglecting additional information facilitative? British Journal of Educational Technology, 46(4), 803-817. doi: 10.1111/bjet.12174.
38. Jarodzka, H., Scheiter, K., Gerjets, P., & Van Gog, T. (2010). In the eyes of the beholder: How experts and novices interpret dynamic stimuli. Learning and Instruction, 20(2), 146-154. doi: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.02.019.
39. Jarodzka, H., Van Gog, T., Dorr, M., Scheiter, K., & Gerjets, P. (2013). Learning to see: Guiding students' attention via a model's eye movements fosters learning. Learning and Instruction, 25, 62-70. doi: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.11.004.
40. Jucks, R., Schulte-Löbbert, P., & Bromme, R. (2007). Supporting experts' written knowledge communication through reflective prompts on the use of specialist concepts. Journal of Psychology, 215(4), 237-247. doi: 10.1027/0044-3409.215.4.237.
41. Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75-86. doi: 10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1.
42. Kok, E., & Jarodzka, H. (2016). Before your very eyes: The value and limitations of eye tracking in medical education. Medical Education, 51, 114-122. doi: 10.1111/medu.13066.
43. Kok, E., Jarodzka, H., De Bruin, A. B. H., BinAmir, H., Robben, S. G. F., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2015). Systematic viewing in radiology: Seeing more, missing less? Advances in Health Science Education, 21(1), 189-205. doi: 10.1007/s10459-015-9624-y.
44. Krejtz, K., Duchowski, A. T., Krejtz, I., Kopacz, A., & Chrzastowski-Wachtel, P. (2016). Gaze transi-tions when learning with multimedia. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 9(1), 1-17. doi: 10.16910/jemr.7.1.2.
45. Lachner, A., Jarodzka, H., & Nückles, M. (2016). What makes an expert teacher? Investigating teachers' professional vision and discourse abilities. Instructional Science, 44(3), 197-203. doi: 10.1007/s11251-016-9376-y.
46. Leff, D. R., James, D. R., Orihuela-Espina, F., Kwok, K.-W., Sun, L. W., Mylonas, G.,. Yang, G.-Z. (2015). The impact of expert visual guidance on trainee visual search strategy, visual attention and motor skills. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00526.
47. Lehmann, A. C., & Gruber, H. (2006). Music. In K. A. Ericsson, N. Charness, P. Feltovich, & R. R. Hoffman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance (pp. 457-470). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
48. Lilienthal, O. (1889). Der Vogelflug als Grundlage der Fliegekunst, Berlin, Germany.Retrieved from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:LilienthalFliegekunst.png.
49. Lin, J. J., & Lin, S. S. (2014). Tracking eye movements when solving geometry problems with handwrit-ing devices. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 7(1), 1-15. doi: 10.16910/jemr.7.1.2.
50. Lindow, S., Fuchs, H. M., Fürstenberg, A., Kleber, J., Schweppe, J., & Rummer, R. (2011). On the robustness of the modality effect: Attempting to replicate a basic finding. Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie, 25(4), 231-243. doi: 10.1024/1010-0652/a000049.
51. Litchfield, D., & Ball, L. J. (2011). Using another's gaze as an explicit aid to insight problem solving. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 64(3), 649-656. doi: 10.1037/a0020082.
52. Lowe, R. K. (2003). Animation and learning: Selective processing of information in dynamic graphics. Learning and Instruction, 13(2), 157-176. doi: 10.1016/S0959-4752(02)00018-X.
53. Mason, L., Tornatora, M. C., & Pluchino, P. (2013). Do fourth graders integrate text and picture in processing and learning from an illustrated science text? Evidence from eye-movement patterns. Computers & Education, 60(1), 95-109. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2012.07.011.
54. Mayer, R. E. (2009). Multimedia learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
55. Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 43-52. doi: 10.1207/S15326985EP3801_6.
56. McCabe, D., & Castel, A. (2008). Seeing is believing: The effect of brain images on judgments of scientific reasoning. Cognition, 107(1), 343-352. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2007.07.017.
57. McNamara, A., Booth, T., Sridharan, S., Caffey, S., Grimm, C., & Bailey, R. (2012, August). Directing gaze in narrative art. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the ACM Symposium on Applied Perception, Los Angeles, USA.
58. Meltzoff, A. N., & Moore, M. K. (1977). Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates. Science, 198(4312), 75-78. doi: 10.1126/science.198.4312.75.
59. Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81-97. doi: 10.1037/h0043158.
60. Nyström, M., & Holmqvist, K. (2008). Semantic override of low-level features in image viewing-both initially and overall. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 2, 1-11. doi: 10.1007/s11251-016-9397-6.
61. ögren, M., Nyström, M., & Jarodzka, H. (2016). There's more to the multimedia effect than meets the eye: Is seeing pictures believing? Instructional Science, 1-25. doi: 10.1007/s11251-016-9397-6.
62. Oliva, M., Niehorster, D., Jarodzka, H., & Holmqvist, K. (in press). Influence of coactors on saccadic and manual responses. i-Percetion.
63. Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory: Retrospect and current status. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 45(3), 255-287. doi: 10.1037/h0084295.
64. Penttinen, M., & Huovinen, E. (2011). The early development of sight-reading skills in adulthood: A study of eye movements. Journal of Research in Music Education, 59(2), 196-220. doi: 10.1177/0022429411405339.
65. Penttinen, M., Huovinen, E., & Ylitalo, A.-K. (2013). Silent music reading: Amateur musicians' visual processing and descriptive skill. Musicae Scientiae, 17(2), 198-216. doi: 10.1177/1029864912474288.
66. Penttinen, M., Huovinen, E., & Ylitalo, A.-K. (2015). Reading ahead: Adult music students' eye movements in temporally controlled performances of a children's song. International Journal of Music Education, 33(1), 36-50. doi: 10.1177/0255761413515813.
67. Rayner, K. (1998). Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research. Psychological Bulletin, 124(3), 372-422. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.124.3.372.
68. Rayner, K. (2009). Eye movements and attention in reading, scene perception, and visual search. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62(8), 1457-1506. doi: 10.1080/17470210902816461.
69. Reingold, E. M., Charness, N., Pomplun, M., & Stampe, D. M. (2001). Visual span in expert chess players: Evidence from eye movements. Psychological Science, 12(1), 48-55. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.00309.
70. Reingold, E. M., & Sheridan, H. (2011). Eye movements and visual expertise in chess and medicine. In S. P. Liversedge, I. D. Gilchrist, & S. Everling (Eds.), Oxford handbook of eye movements (pp. 523-550). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
71. Richardson, D. C., & Dale, R. (2005). Looking to understand: The coupling between speakers' and listeners' eye movements and its relationship to discourse comprehension. Cognitive Science, 29(6), 1045-1060. doi: 10.1207/s15516709cog0000_29.
72. Richardson, D. C., Street, C. N. H., Tan, J. Y. M., Kirkham, N. Z., Hoover, M., & Ghane-Cavanaugh, A. (2012). Joint perception: Gaze and social context. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 194. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00194.
73. Rummer, R., Schweppe, J., Fürstenberg, A., Scheiter, K., & Zindler, A. (2011). The perceptual basis of the modality effect in multimedia learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 17(2), 159-173. doi: 10.1037/a0023588.
74. Schank, R. C., & Abelson, R. P. (2013). Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding: An inquiry into human knowledge structures. Hillsdale: Law-rence Erlbaum Associates.
75. Schmidt, H. G., & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (1992). Encapsulation of biomedical knowledge. In D. A. Evans & V. L. Patel (Eds.), Advanced models of cognition for medical training and practice (pp. 265-282). New York: Springer Verlag.
76. Schnotz, W., & Lowe, R. K. (2008). A unified view of learning from animated and static graphics. In R. K. Lowe & W. Schnotz (Eds.), Learning with animation: Research and design implications (pp. 304-356). New York: Cambridge University Press.
77. Skuballa, I. T., Fortunski, C., & Renkl, A. (2015). An eye movement pre-training fosters the comprehension of processes and functions in technical systems. Frontiers in Psychology, 6. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00598.
78. Skuballa, I. T., Schwonke, R., & Renkl, A. (2012). Learning from narrated animations with different support procedures: Working memory capacity matters. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 26(6), 840-847. doi: 10.1002/acp.2884.
79. Sridharan, S., Bailey, R., McNamara, A., & Grimm, C. (2012, March). Subtle gaze manipulation for improved mammography training. Proceedings of the Symposium on Eye Tracking Research and Applications, Santa Barbara, USA.
80. Stofer, K., & Che, X. (2014). Comparing experts and novices on scaffolded data visualizations using eye-tracking. Journal of Eye Movement Re-search, 7(5), 1-15. doi: 10.16910/jemr.7.5.2.
81. Sweller, J., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychological Review, 10(3), 251-296. doi: 10.1023/A:1022193728205.
82. Thurmond, V. A. (2001). The point of triangulation. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 33(3), 253-258. doi: 10.1111/j.1547-5069.2001.00253.x.
83. Van der Gijp, A., Ravesloot, C., Jarodzka, H., Van der Schaaf, M., Van der Schaaf, I., Van Schaik, J., & Ten Cate, T. J. (2016). How visual search relates to visual diagnostic performance: a narrative systematic review of eye-tracking research in radiology. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 1-23. doi: 10.1007/s10459-016-9698-1.
84. Van Gog, T., & Jarodzka, H. (2013). Eye tracking as a tool to study and enhance (meta-)cognitive processes in computer-based learning environments. In R. Azevedo & V. Aleven (Eds.), International handbook of metacognition and learning technologies (pp. 143-156). New York: Springer Science+Business Media.
85. Van Gog, T., Jarodzka, H., Scheiter, K., Gerjets, P., & Paas, F. (2009). Attention guidance during example study via the model's eye movements. Computers in Human Behavior, 25(3), 785-791. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2009.02.007.
86. Van Gog, T., Paas, F., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2004). Process-oriented worked examples: Improving transfer performance through enhanced understanding. Instructional Science, 32(1/2), 83-98. doi: 10.1023/B:TRUC.0000021810.70784.b0.
87. Van Gog, T., Paas, F., Van Merriënboer, J., & Witte, P. (2005). Uncovering the problem-solving process: Cued retrospective reporting versus concurrent and retrospective reporting. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 11(4), 237-244. doi: 10.1037/1076-898X.11.4.237.
88. Van Lehn, K. (1996). Cognitive skill acquisition. Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 513-539. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.47.1.513.
89. Van Marlen, T., Van Wermeskerken, M., Jarodzka, H., & Van Gog, T. (in press). Showing a model's eye movements in examples does not improve performance of problem-solving tasks. Computers in Human Behavior. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2016.08.041.
90. Van Meeuwen, L. W., Jarodzka, H., Brand-Gruwel, S., Kirschner, P. A., De Bock, J. J. P. R., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2014). Identification of effective visual problem solving strategies in a complex visual domain. Learning and Instruction, 32, 10-21. doi: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.01.004.
91. Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Kirschner, P. A. (2007). Ten steps to complex learning. Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
92. Wolff, C. E., Jarodzka, H., Van den Bogert, N., & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (2016). Teacher vision: Comparing expert and novice teachers' perception of problematic classroom management scenes. Instructional Science, 44(3), 243-265. doi: 10.1007/s11251-016-9367-z.
93. Yarbus, A. L. (1967). Eye movements and vision. New York: Plenum.