Using Genetic Variation to Explore the Causal Effect of Maternal Pregnancy Adiposity on Future Offspring Adiposity: A Mendelian Randomisation Study

PLoS Medicine

Volumn 14, Issue 1, 2017, Pages

  Richmond, Rebecca C ^a   Timpson, Nicholas J ^a   Felix, Janine F ^b   Palmer, Tom ^c   Gaillard, Romy ^b   McMahon, George ^a   Davey Smith, George ^a   Jaddoe, Vincent W ^b   Lawlor, Debbie A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL   (United Kingdom)

^b ERASMUS MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

^c LANCASTER UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ARTICLE; BODY MASS; CHILD; CHILDHOOD OBESITY; CHROMOSOME REPLICATION; DUAL ENERGY X RAY ABSORPTIOMETRY; FAT MASS; FEMALE; GENE FREQUENCY; GENETIC RISK; GENETIC VARIATION; GENOTYPING TECHNIQUE; HUMAN; LEAN BODY WEIGHT; MALE; MATERNAL OBESITY; MATERNAL SMOKING; MENDELIAN RANDOMIZATION ANALYSIS; PRESCHOOL CHILD; QUESTIONNAIRE; SCHOOL CHILD; SCORING SYSTEM; SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS; SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM; ENGLAND; GENETICS; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS; OBESITY; PHOTON ABSORPTIOMETRY; PREGNANCY; REGRESSION ANALYSIS;

ABSORPTIOMETRY, PHOTON; ADIPOSITY; ADOLESCENT; BODY MASS INDEX; CHILD; ENGLAND; FEMALE; GENETIC VARIATION; HUMANS; LONGITUDINAL STUDIES; MALE; MENDELIAN RANDOMIZATION ANALYSIS; MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS; PREGNANCY; REGRESSION ANALYSIS;

EID: 85010987051     PISSN: 15491277     EISSN: 15491676     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002221     Document Type: Article

References (83)

1. Lawlor DA, The Society for Social Medicine John Pemberton Lecture 2011. Developmental overnutrition—an old hypothesis with new importance?International journal of epidemiology. 2013;42(1):7–29. Epub 2013/03/20. doi: 10.1093/ije/dys20923508404
2. Shin D, Song WO, Prepregnancy body mass index is an independent risk factor for gestational hypertension, gestational diabetes, preterm labor, and small- and large-for-gestational-age infants. Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine2014:1–8. Epub 2014/09/12.
3. Harmon KA, Gerard L, Jensen DR, Kealey EH, Hernandez TL, Reece MS, et al. Continuous glucose profiles in obese and normal-weight pregnant women on a controlled diet: metabolic determinants of fetal growth. Diabetes care. 2011;34(10):2198–204. Epub 2011/07/22. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3177740. doi: 10.2337/dc11-072321775754
4. Pederson J, Weight and length at birth of infants of diabetic mothers. Acta Endocrinologica. 1954;16:330–42. 13206643
5. Jackson WP, The prediabetic syndrome; large babies and the (pre) diabetic father. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 1954;14(2):177–83. Epub 1954/02/01. doi: 10.1210/jcem-14-2-17713130664
6. Freinkel N, Banting Lecture 1980. Of pregnancy and progeny. Diabetes. 1980;29(12):1023–35. Epub 1980/12/01. 7002669
7. Tyrrell J, Richmond RC, Palmer TM, Feenstra B, Rangarajan J, Metrustry S, et al. Genetic evidence for causal relationships between maternal obesity-related traits and birth weight. JAMA. 2015;(In Press)
8. Gillman MW, Kuh D, Ben-Shlomo Y, A life course approach to obesity. In: A Lifecourse Approach to Chronic Disease Epidemiology. 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2004. p. 189–217.
9. Taylor PD, Poston L, Developmental programming of obesity in mammals. Experimental Physiology. 2007;92(2):287–98. Epub 2006/12/16. doi: 10.1113/expphysiol.2005.03285417170060
10. Remmers F, Delemarre-van de Waal HA, Developmental programming of energy balance and its hypothalamic regulation. Endocrine Reviews. 2011;32(2):272–311. Epub 2010/11/06. doi: 10.1210/er.2009-002821051592
11. Pettitt DJ, Knowler WC, Diabetes and obesity in the Pima Indians: a cross-generational vicious cycleJournal of Obesity and Weight Regulation. 1988;(7):61–75.
12. Ebbeling CB, Pawlak DB, Ludwig DS, Childhood obesity: public-health crisis, common sense cure. Lancet. 2002;360(9331):473–82. Epub 2002/09/21. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)09678-212241736
13. Lawlor DA, Chaturvedi N, Treatment and prevention of obesity—are there critical periods for intervention?International journal of epidemiology. 2006;35(1):3–9. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyi30916396899
14. Poston L, Harthoorn LF, Van Der Beek EM, Workshop CttIEObesity in pregnancy: implications for the mother and lifelong health of the child. A consensus statement. Pediatric Research. 2011;69(2):175–80. Epub 2010/11/16. doi: 10.1203/PDR.0b013e3182055ede21076366
15. Nelson SM, Matthews P, Poston L, Maternal metabolism and obesity: modifiable determinants of pregnancy outcome. Human Reproduction Update. 2010;16(3):255–75. Epub 2009/12/08. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2849703. doi: 10.1093/humupd/dmp05019966268
16. Drake AJ, Reynolds RM, Impact of maternal obesity on offspring obesity and cardiometabolic disease risk. Reproduction. 2010;140(3):387–98. Epub 2010/06/22. doi: 10.1530/REP-10-007720562299
17. Lawlor DA, Relton C, Sattar N, Nelson SM, Maternal adiposity-a determinant of perinatal and offspring outcomes?Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2012;8(11):679–88. doi: 10.1038/nrendo.2012.17623007319
18. Yu Z, Han S, Zhu J, Sun X, Ji C, Guo X, Pre-pregnancy body mass index in relation to infant birth weight and offspring overweight/obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE. 2013;8(4):e61627. Epub 2013/04/25. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3628788. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.006162723613888
19. Davey Smith G, Assessing intrauterine influences on offspring health outcomes: can epidemiological studies yield robust findings?Basic and Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology. 2008;102(2):245–56. Epub 2008/01/30.
20. Gaillard R, Felix JF, Duijts L, Jaddoe VW, Childhood consequences of maternal obesity and excessive weight gain during pregnancy. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. 2014;93(11):1085–9. Epub 2014/09/19. doi: 10.1111/aogs.1250625231923
21. Davey Smith G, Ebrahim S, "Mendelian randomisation": can genetic epidemiology contribute to understanding environmental determinants of disease?International journal of epidemiology. 2003;32:1–22. 12689998
22. Lawlor DA, Timpson NJ, Harbord RM, Leary S, Ness A, McCarthy MI, et al. Exploring the developmental overnutrition hypothesis using parental-offspring associations and FTO as an IV. PLoS Med. 2008;5(3):484–93.
23. Burgess S, Thompson SG, Use of allele scores as instrumental variables for Mendelian randomization. International journal of epidemiology. 2013;42(4):1134–44. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyt09324062299
24. Evans DM, Brion MJA, Paternoster L, Kemp JP, McMahon G, Munafo M, et al. Mining the Human Phenome Using Allelic Scores That Index Biological Intermediates. PLoS Genet. 2013;9(10).
25. Boyd A, Golding J, Macleod J, Lawlor DA, Fraser A, Henderson J, et al. Cohort Profile: The 'Children of the 90s'—the index offspring of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Int J Epidemiol. 2013;42(1):111–27. Epub 2012/04/18. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3600618. doi: 10.1093/ije/dys06422507743
26. Fraser A, Macdonald-Wallis C, Tilling K, Boyd A, Golding J, Davey Smith G, et al. Cohort Profile: The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children: ALSPAC mothers cohort. Int J Epidemiol. 2013;42(1):97–110. Epub 2012/04/18. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3600619. doi: 10.1093/ije/dys06622507742
27. Jaddoe VW, van Duijn CM, Franco OH, van der Heijden AJ, van Iizendoorn MH, de Jongste JC, et al. The Generation R Study: design and cohort update 2012. European journal of epidemiology. 2012;27(9):739–56. Epub 2012/10/23. doi: 10.1007/s10654-012-9735-123086283
28. Purcell S, Neale B, Todd-Brown K, Thomas L, Ferreira MA, Bender D, et al. PLINK: a tool set for whole-genome association and population-based linkage analyses. American journal of human genetics. 2007;81(3):559–75. Epub 2007/08/19. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC1950838. doi: 10.1086/51979517701901
29. International HapMap ConsortiumFrazer KA, Ballinger DG, Cox DR, Hinds DA, Stuve LL, et al. A second generation human haplotype map of over 3.1 million SNPs. Nature. 2007;449(7164):851–61. Epub 2007/10/19. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2689609. doi: 10.1038/nature0625817943122
30. Evans DM, Zhu G, Dy V, Heath AC, Madden PAF, Kemp JP, et al. Genome-wide association study identifies loci affecting blood copper, selenium and zinc. Hum Mol Genet. 2013;22(19):3998–4006. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddt23923720494
31. Li Y, Willer C, Sanna S, Abecasis G, Genotype Imputation. Annu Rev Genom Hum G. 2009;10:387–406.
32. Li Y, Willer CJ, Ding J, Scheet P, Abecasis GR, MaCH: Using Sequence and Genotype Data to Estimate Haplotypes and Unobserved Genotypes. Genet Epidemiol. 2010;34(8):816–34. doi: 10.1002/gepi.2053321058334
33. Paternoster L, Zhurov AI, Toma AM, Kemp JP, St Pourcain B, Timpson NJ, et al. Genome-wide association study of three-dimensional facial morphology identifies a variant in PAX3 associated with nasion position. American journal of human genetics. 2012;90(3):478–85. Epub 2012/02/22. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3309180. doi: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.12.02122341974
34. Kemp JP, Medina-Gomez C, Estrada K, St Pourcain B, Heppe DH, Warrington NM, et al. Phenotypic dissection of bone mineral density reveals skeletal site specificity and facilitates the identification of novel loci in the genetic regulation of bone mass attainment. PLoS Genet. 2014;10(6):e1004423. Epub 2014/06/20. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4063697. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.100442324945404
35. Speliotes EK, Willer CJ, Berndt SI, Monda KL, Thorleifsson G, Jackson AU, et al. Association analyses of 249,796 individuals reveal 18 new loci associated with body mass index. Nature genetics. 2010;42(11):937–48. Epub 2010/10/12. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3014648. doi: 10.1038/ng.68620935630
36. Locke AE, Kahali B, Berndt SI, Justice AE, Pers TH, Day FR, et al. Genetic studies of body mass index yield new insights for obesity biology. Nature. 2015;518(7538):197–206. Epub 2015/02/13. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4382211. doi: 10.1038/nature1417725673413
37. Kruithof CJ, Kooijman MN, van Duijn CM, Franco OH, de Jongste JC, Klaver CC, et al. The Generation R Study: Biobank update 2015. European journal of epidemiology. 2014;29(12):911–27. Epub 2014/12/21. doi: 10.1007/s10654-014-9980-625527369
38. Medina-Gomez C, Felix JF, Estrada K, Peters MJ, Herrera L, Kruithof CJ, et al. Challenges in conducting genome-wide association studies in highly admixed multi-ethnic populations: the Generation R Study. European journal of epidemiology. 2015;30(4):317–30. Epub 2015/03/13. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4385148. doi: 10.1007/s10654-015-9998-425762173
39. Jaddoe VW, van Duijn CM, van der Heijden AJ, Mackenbach JP, Moll HA, Steegers EA, et al. The Generation R Study: design and cohort update 2010. European journal of epidemiology. 2010;25(11):823–41. Epub 2010/10/23. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2991548. doi: 10.1007/s10654-010-9516-720967563
40. 1000 Genomes Project ConsortiumAbecasis GR, Auton A, Brooks LD, DePristo MA, Durbin RM, et al. An integrated map of genetic variation from 1,092 human genomes. Nature. 2012;491(7422):56–65. Epub 2012/11/07. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3498066. doi: 10.1038/nature1163223128226
41. Speliotes EK, Willer CJ, Berndt SI, Monda KL, Thorleifsson G, Jackson AU, et al. Association analyses of 249,796 individuals reveal 18 new loci associated with body mass index. Nature Genetics. 2010;42(11):937–48. Epub 2010/10/12. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3014648. doi: 10.1038/ng.68620935630
42. Lin X, Song K, Lim N, Yuan X, Johnson T, Abderrahmani A, et al. Risk prediction of prevalent diabetes in a Swiss population using a weighted genetic score-the CoLaus Study. Diabetologia. 2009;52(4):600–8. doi: 10.1007/s00125-008-1254-y19139842
43. Staiger D, Stock JH, Instrumental variables regression with weak instruments. Econometrica. 1997;65(3):557–86.
44. Davey Smith G, Lawlor DA, Harbord R, Timpson N, Day I, Ebrahim S, Clustered environments and randomized genes: a fundamental distinction between conventional and genetic epidemiology. PLoS Med. 2007;4(12):e352. Epub 2007/12/14. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2121108. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.004035218076282
45. Didelez V, Meng S, Sheehan NA, Assumptions of IV Methods for Observational Epidemiology. Stat Sci. 2010;25(1):22–40.
46. Higgins JPT, Thompson SG, Deeks JJ, Altman DG, Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. Brit Med J. 2003;327(7414):557–60. doi: 10.1136/bmj.327.7414.55712958120
47. Palmer TM, Lawlor DA, Harbord RM, Sheehan NA, Tobias JH, Timpson NJ, et al. Using multiple genetic variants as instrumental variables for modifiable risk factors. Statistics in medicine. 2012;21(3):223–242. doi: 10.1177/096228021039445921216802
48. Thomas DC, Lawlor DA, Thompson JR, Re: Estimation of bias in nongenetic observational studies using "Mendelian triangulation" by Bautista et al.Annals of epidemiology. 2007;17(7):511–3. doi: 10.1016/j.annepidem.2006.12.00517466535
49. Ding EL, Hu FB, Determining origins and causes of childhood obesity via Mendelian randomization analysis. PLoS Med. 2008;5(3):e65. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2265761. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.005006518336066
50. Zhang G, Bacelis J, Lengyel C, Teramo K, Hallman M, Helgeland O, et al. Assessing the Causal Relationship of Maternal Height on Birth Size and Gestational Age at Birth: A Mendelian Randomization Analysis. PLoS Med. 2015;12(8).
51. Del Greco MF, Minelli C, Sheehan NA, Thompson JR, Detecting pleiotropy in Mendelian randomisation studies with summary data and a continuous outcome. Stat Med. 2015;34(21):2926–40. doi: 10.1002/sim.652225950993
52. Bowden J, Davey Smith G, Burgess S, Mendelian randomization with invalid instruments: effect estimation and bias detection through Egger regression. International journal of epidemiology. 2015;44(2):512–25. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyv08026050253
53. Palmer T. mrrobust package: Stata commands for MR-Egger, IVW, and weighted median estimators. https://github.com/remlapmot/mrrobust2016.
54. Davey Smith G, Steer C, Leary S, Ness A, Is there an intrauterine influence on obesity? Evidence from parent-child associations in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Arch Dis Child. 2007;92(10):876–80. doi: 10.1136/adc.2006.10486917595200
55. Patel R, Martin RM, Kramer MS, Oken E, Bogdanovich N, Matush L, et al. Familial associations of adiposity: findings from a cross-sectional study of 12,181 parental-offspring trios from Belarus. PLoS ONE. 2011;6(1):e14607. Epub 2011/02/08. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3029263. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.001460721298034
56. Subramanian SV, Ackerson LK, Davey Smith G, Parental BMI and childhood undernutrition in India: an assessment of intrauterine influence. Pediatrics. 2010;126(3):e663–71. Epub 2010/08/18. doi: 10.1542/peds.2010-022220713473
57. Fleten C, Nystad W, Stigum H, Skjaerven R, Lawlor DA, Davey Smith G, et al. Parent-offspring body mass index associations in the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study: a family-based approach to studying the role of the intrauterine environment in childhood adiposity. Am J Epidemiol. 2012;176(2):83–92. Epub 2012/07/10. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3493198. doi: 10.1093/aje/kws13422771730
58. Vik KL, Romundstad P, Carslake D, Davey Smith G, Nilsen TI, Comparison of father-offspring and mother-offspring associations of cardiovascular risk factors: family linkage within the population-based HUNT Study, Norway. International journal of epidemiology. 2014;43(3):760–71. Epub 2013/12/25. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyt25024366488
59. Corsi DJ, Subramanian SV, Ackerson LK, Davey Smith G, Is there a greater maternal than paternal influence on offspring adiposity in India?Arch Dis Child. 2015.
60. Lawlor DA, Lichtenstein P, Langstrom N, Association of maternal diabetes mellitus in pregnancy with offspring adiposity into early adulthood: sibling study in a prospective cohort of 280,866 men from 248,293 families. Circulation. 2011;123(3):258–65. Epub 2011/01/12. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.98016921220735
61. Freathy RM, Timpson NJ, Lawlor DA, Pouta A, Ben-Shlomo Y, Ruokonen A, et al. Common variation in the FTO gene alters diabetes-related metabolic traits to the extent expected given its effect on BMI. Diabetes. 2008;57(5):1419–26. doi: 10.2337/db07-146618346983
62. Wurtz P, Wang Q, Kangas AJ, Richmond RC, Skarp J, Tiainen M, et al. Metabolic Signatures of Adiposity in Young Adults: Mendelian Randomization Analysis and Effects of Weight Change. PLoS Med. 2014;11(12).
63. Davey Smith G, Hemani G, Mendelian randomization: genetic anchors for causal inference in epidemiological studies. Hum Mol Genet. 2014;23(R1):R89–R98. Epub 2014/07/30. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddu32825064373
64. Baker JL, Michaelsen KF, Rasmussen KM, Sorensen TIA, Maternal prepregnant body mass index, duration of breastfeeding, and timing of complementary food introduction are associated with infant weight gain. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;80(6):1579–88. 15585772
65. Patro B, Liber A, Zalewski B, Poston L, Szajewska H, Koletzko B, Maternal and paternal body mass index and offspring obesity: a systematic review. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism. 2013;63(1–2):32–41. Epub 2013/07/28.
66. Lawlor DA, Harbord RM, Sterne JAC, Timpson NJ, Davey Smith G, Mendelian randomization: using genes as instruments for making causal inferences in epidemiology. Statistic in Medicine. 2008;27:1133–63.
67. Davey Smith G, Mendelian Randomization for Strengthening Causal Inference in Observational Studies: Application to Gene x Environment Interactions. Perspect Psychol Sci. 2010;5(5):527–45. doi: 10.1177/174569161038350526162196
68. Brion MJ, Zeegers M, Jaddoe V, Verhulst F, Tiemeier H, Lawlor DA, et al. Intrauterine effects of maternal prepregnancy overweight on child cognition and behavior in 2 cohorts. Pediatrics. 2011;127(1):e202–11. Epub 2010/12/29. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3605781. doi: 10.1542/peds.2010-065121187310
69. Gaillard R, Durmus B, Hofman A, Mackenbach JP, Steegers EA, Jaddoe VW, Risk factors and outcomes of maternal obesity and excessive weight gain during pregnancy. Obesity. 2013;21(5):1046–55. Epub 2013/06/21. doi: 10.1002/oby.2008823784909
70. Nohr EA, Timpson NJ, Andersen CS, Davey Smith G, Olsen J, Sorensen TI, Severe obesity in young women and reproductive health: the Danish National Birth Cohort. PLoS ONE. 2009;4(12):e8444. Epub 2009/12/31. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2793537. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.000844420041193
71. Sharp GC, Lawlor DA, Richmond RC, Fraser A, Simpkin A, Suderman M, et al. Maternal pre-pregnancy BMI and gestational weight gain, offspring DNA methylation and later offspring adiposity: findings from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. International journal of epidemiology. 2015:10.1093/ije/dyv042. Epub 2015/04/10.
72. Bhatti P, Sigurdson AJ, Wang SS, Chen J, Rothman N, Hartge P, et al. Genetic variation and willingness to participate in epidemiologic research: data from three studies. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 2005;14(10):2449–53.
73. Warrington NM, Howe LD, Paternoster L, Kaakinen M, Herrala S, Huikari V, et al. A genome-wide association study of body mass index across early life and childhood. Int J Epidemiol. 2015;44(2):700–12. Epub 2015/05/09. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4469798. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyv07725953783
74. Silverwood RJ, Holmes MV, Dale CE, Lawlor DA, Whittaker JC, Davey Smith G, et al. Testing for non-linear causal effects using a binary genotype in a Mendelian randomization study: application to alcohol and cardiovascular traits. International journal of epidemiology. 2014;43(6):1781–90. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyu18725192829
75. Catalano PM, Farrell K, Thomas A, Huston-Presley L, Mencin P, de Mouzon SH, et al. Perinatal risk factors for childhood obesity and metabolic dysregulation. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;90(5):1303–13. Epub 2009/09/18. PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2762159. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2008.2741619759171
76. Lawlor DA, Davey Smith G, O'Callaghan M, Alati R, Mamun AA, Williams GM, et al. Epidemiologic evidence for the fetal overnutrition hypothesis: findings from the mater-university study of pregnancy and its outcomes. Am J Epidemiol. 2007;165(4):418–24. Epub 2006/12/13. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwk03017158475
77. Gaillard R, Steegers EA, Duijts L, Felix JF, Hofman A, Franco OH, et al. Childhood cardiometabolic outcomes of maternal obesity during pregnancy: the Generation R Study. Hypertension. 2014;63(4):683–91. Epub 2014/01/01. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.113.0267124379180
78. Kral JG, Biron S, Simard S, Hould FS, Lebel S, Marceau S, et al. Large maternal weight loss from obesity surgery prevents transmission of obesity to children who were followed for 2 to 18 years. Pediatrics. 2006;118(6):e1644–9. Epub 2006/12/05. doi: 10.1542/peds.2006-137917142494
79. Smith J, Cianflone K, Biron S, Hould FS, Lebel S, Marceau S, et al. Effects of maternal surgical weight loss in mothers on intergenerational transmission of obesity. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2009;94(11):4275–83. Epub 2009/10/13. doi: 10.1210/jc.2009-070919820018
80. Warrington NN, Evans DM, Lawlor DA, Consortium EGG, Does genetic variation contribute to the architecture of gestational weight gain?. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease. 2015;6(S2):S6.
81. Richardson SS, Daniels CR, Gillman MW, Golden J, Kukla R, Kuzawa C, et al. Don't blame the mothers. Nature. 2014;512(7513):131–2. doi: 10.1038/512131a25119222
82. Warin M, Zivkovic T, Moore V, Davies M, Mothers as smoking guns: Fetal overnutrition and the reproduction of obesity. Fem Psychol. 2012;22(3):360–75.
83. Tedstone A, Targett V, Allen R, England PH, Sugar Reduction: The evidence for actionLondon: Public Health England; 2015.