Clinical characteristics and predictors of outcome of schizophrenia-spectrum psychosis in children and adolescents: A systematic review

Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology

Volumn 26, Issue 5, 2016, Pages 410-427

  Stentebjerg Olesen, Marie ^a,b   Pagsberg, Anne K ^a,b   Fink Jensen, Anders ^c,d   Correll, Christoph U ^e,f,g,h   Jeppesen, Pia ^a,b  

^a Child and Adolescent Mental Health Center   (Denmark)

^b UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN   (Denmark)

^c Mental Health Center Glostrup   (Denmark)

^d UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN   (Denmark)

^e ZUCKER HILLSIDE HOSPITAL   (United States)

^f DONALD AND BARBARA ZUCKER SCHOOL OF MEDICINE AT HOFSTRA NORTHWELL   (United States)

^g FEINSTEIN INSTITUTE FOR MEDICAL RESEARCH   (United States)

^h ALBERT EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; MOOD STABILIZER; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT;

ADOLESCENT; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; AUDITORY HALLUCINATION; BLUNTED AFFECT; CHILD; CHILDREN GLOBAL ASSESSMENT SCALE; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT TOOL; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL GLOBAL IMPRESSION SCALE; COMORBIDITY; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY; DELUSION; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE SEVERITY; DISORIENTATION; EXPLORATORY RESEARCH; FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT; GLOBAL ASSESSMENT OF FUNCTIONING; GRANDIOSE DELUSION; HUMAN; MENTAL HEALTH SERVICE; NEGATIVE SYNDROME; ONSET AGE; PERSECUTORY DELUSION; POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SYNDROME SCALE; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PREDICTION; PROGNOSIS; PROSPECTIVE STUDY; PSYCHIATRIC TREATMENT; PSYCHOSIS; REFERENTIAL DELUSION; REVIEW; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SCHIZOPHRENIA ASSESSMENT; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; THOUGHT DISORDER; MENTAL DISEASE; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PSYCHOLOGICAL RATING SCALE; PSYCHOLOGY;

ADOLESCENT; CHILD; COMORBIDITY; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES; HUMANS; MENTAL DISORDERS; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT (HEALTH CARE); PROGNOSIS; PROSPECTIVE STUDIES; PSYCHIATRIC STATUS RATING SCALES; SCHIZOPHRENIA, CHILDHOOD;

EID: 84975261071     PISSN: 10445463     EISSN: 15578992     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1089/cap.2015.0097     Document Type: Review

References (101)

1. Aas M, Etain B, Bellivier F, Henry C, Lagerberg T, Ringen A, Agartz I, Gard S, Kahn JP, Leboyer M, Andreassen OA, Melle I. Additive effects of childhood abuse and cannabis abuse on clinical expressions of bipolar disorders. Psychol Med 44: 1653-1662, 2014.
2. Alaghband-Rad J, McKenna K, Gordon CT, Albus KE, Hamburger SD, Rumsey JM, Frazier JA, Lenane MC, Rapoport JL. Childhoodonset schizophrenia: The severity of premorbid course. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 34: 1273-1283, 1995.
3. American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1980.
4. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.
5. Amminger GP, Harris MG, Conus P, Lambert M, Elkins KS, Yuen HP, McGorry PD. Treated incidence of first-episode psychosis in the catchment area of EPPIC between 1997 and 2000. Acta Psychiatr Scand 114: 337-345, 2006.
6. Amminger GP, Henry LP, Harrigan SM, Harris MG, Alvarez-Jimenez M, Herrman H, Jackson HJ, McGorry PD. Outcome in early-onset schizophrenia revisited: Findings from the Early Psychosis Prevention and Intervention Centre long-Term follow-up study. Schizophr Res 131: 112-119, 2011.
7. Arango C, Robles O, Parellada M, Fraguas D, Ruiz-Sancho A, Medina O, Zabala A, Bombin I, Moreno D. Olanzapine compared to quetiapine in adolescents with a first psychotic episode. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 18: 418-428, 2009.
8. Arango C, Fraguas D, Parellada M. Differential neurodevelopmental trajectories in patients with early-onset bipolar and schizophrenia disorders. Schizophr Bull 40 Suppl 2: S138-S146, 2014.
9. Asarnow JR, Tompson MC, Goldstein MJ. Childhood-onset schizophrenia: a followup study. Schizophr Bull 20: 599-617, 1994.
10. Baeza I, Graell M, Moreno D, Castro-Fornieles J, Parellada M, Gonzalez-Pinto A, Paya B, Soutullo C, de la Serna E, Arango C. Cannabis use in children and adolescents with first episode psychosis: Influence on psychopathology and short-Term outcome (CAFEPS study). Schizophr Res 113: 129-137, 2009.
11. Ballageer T, Malla A, Manchanda R, Takhar J, Haricharan R. Is adolescent-onset first-episode psychosis different from adult onset? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 44: 782-789, 2005.
12. Bertelsen M, Jeppesen P, Petersen L, Thorup A, Ohlenschlaeger J, le QP, Ostergaard CT, Krarup G, Jorgensen P, NordentoftM. Course of illness in a sample of 265 patients with first-episode psychosis-five-year follow-up of theDanishOPUS trial. Schizophr Res 107: 173-178, 2009.
13. Biederman J, Petty C, Faraone SV, Seidman L. Phenomenology of childhood psychosis. Findings from a large sample of psychiatrically referred youth. J Nerv Ment Dis 192: 607-614, 2004.
14. Boonstra N, Klaassen R, Sytema S, Marshall M, De HL, Wunderink L, Wiersma D. Duration of untreated psychosis and negative symptoms-A systematic review and meta-Analysis of individual patient data. Schizophr Res 142: 12-19, 2012.
15. Bottas A, Cooke RG, Richter MA. Comorbidity and pathophysiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in schizophrenia: Is there evidence for a schizo-obsessive subtype of schizophrenia? J Psychiatry Neurosci 30: 187-193, 2005.
16. Calvo A, Moreno M, Ruiz-Sancho A, Rapado-Castro M, Moreno C, Sanchez-Gutierrez T, Arango C, Mayoral M. Intervention for adolescents with early-onset psychosis and their families: a randomized controlled trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 53: 688-696, 2014.
17. Carbon M, Correll CU. Clinical predictors of therapeutic response to antipsychotics in schizophrenia. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 16: 505-524, 2014.
18. Castro-Fornieles J, Baeza I, de la Serna E, Gonzalez-Pinto A, Parellada M, Graell M, Moreno D, Otero S, Arango C. Two-year diagnostic stability in early-onset first-episode psychosis. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 52: 1089-1098, 2011.
19. Castro-Fornieles J, Parellada M, Gonzalez-Pinto A, Moreno D, Graell M, Baeza I, Otero S, Soutullo CA, Crespo-Facorro B, Ruiz-Sancho A, Desco M, Rojas-Corrales O, Patino A, Carrasco-Marin E, Arango C. The child and adolescent first-episode psychosis study (CAFEPS): design and baseline results. Schizophr Res 91: 226-237, 2007.
20. Cervellione KL, Burdick KE, Cottone JG, Rhinewine JP, Kumra S. Neurocognitive deficits in adolescents with schizophrenia. longitudinal stability and predictive utility for short-Term functional outcome. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 46: 867-878, 2007.
21. Chang WC, Pang SL, Chung DW, Chan SS. Five-year stability of ICD-10 diagnoses among Chinese patients presented with first-episode psychosis in Hong Kong. Schizophr Res 115: 351-357, 2009.
22. Chang WC, Tang JY, Hui CL, Lam MM, Wong GH, Chan SK, Chiu CP, Chung DW, Law CW, Tso S, Chan K, Hung SF, Chen EY. Duration of untreated psychosis: Relationship with baseline characteristics and three-year outcome in first-episode psychosis. Psychiatry Res 198: 360-365, 2012.
23. Correll CU, Hauser M, Auther AM, Cornblatt BA. Research in people with psychosis risk syndrome: A review of the current evidence and future directions. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 51: 390-431, 2010.
24. Cunill R, Castells X, Simeon D. Relationships between obsessivecompulsive symptomatology and severity of psychosis in schizophrenia: A systematic review and meta-Analysis. J Clin Psychiatry 70: 70-82, 2009.
25. Daglas R, Conus P, Cotton SM, Macneil CA, Hasty MK, Kader L, Berk M, Hallam KT. The impact of past direct-personal traumatic events on 12-month outcome in first episode psychotic mania: Trauma and early psychotic mania. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 48: 1017-1024, 2014.
26. David CN, Greenstein D, Clasen L, Gochman P, Miller R, Tossell JW, Mattai AA, Gogtay N, Rapoport JL. Childhood onset schizophrenia. high rate of visual hallucinations. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 50: 681-686, 2011.
27. Diaz-Caneja, Pina-Camacho L, Rodriguez-Quiroga I, Fraguas D, Parellada M, Arango C. Predictors of outcome in early-onset psychosis: A systematic review. NPJ Schizophr 2015.
28. Díaz-Caneja CM, Pina-Camacho L, Rodríguez-Quiroga A, Fraguas D, Parellada M & Arango C. Predictors of outcome in early-onset psychosis: a systematic review. Npj Schizophrenia 1, Article number: 14005, 2015.
29. Driver DI, Gogtay N, Rapoport JL. Childhood onset schizophrenia and early onset schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 22: 539-555, 2013.
30. Dvir Y, Denietolis B, Frazier JA. Childhood trauma and psychosis. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 22: 629-641, 2013.
31. Eggers C, Bunk D. The long-Term course of childhood-onset schizophrenia: A 42-year followup. Schizophr Bull 23: 105-117, 1997.
32. Ellersgaard D, Mors O, Thorup A, Jorgensen P, Jeppesen P, Nordentoft M. Prospective study of the course of delusional themes in first-episode non-Affective psychosis. Early Interv Psychiatry 8: 340-347, 2014.
33. Endicott J, Spitzer RL, Fleiss JL, Cohen J. The global assessment scale A procedure for measuring overall severity of psychiatric disturbance. Arch Gen Psychiatry 33: 766-771, 1976.
34. Fenton WS, McGlashan TH. Natural history of schizophrenia subtypes II Positive and negative symptoms and long-Term course. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48: 978-986, 1991.
35. Foussias G, Remington G. Negative symptoms in schizophrenia: avolition and Occams razor. Schizophr Bull 36: 359-369, 2010.
36. Fraguas D, de Castro MJ, Medina O, Parellada M, Moreno D, Graell M, Merchan-Naranjo J, Arango C. Does diagnostic classification of early-onset psychosis change over follow-up? Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 39: 137-145, 2008.
37. Fulton K, Short M, Harvey-Smith D, Rushe T, Mulholland C. The Northern Ireland early onset psychosis study: Phenomenology and comorbidity in the first 25 cases. Child Care in Practice 14: 207-216, 2008.
38. Fusar-Poli P, Papanastasiou E, Stahl D, Rocchetti M, Carpenter W, Shergill S, McGuire P. Treatments of Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia: Meta-Analysis of 168 Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trials. Schizophr Bull 41: 892-899, 2015.
39. Green WH, Padron-Gayol M, Hardesty AS, Bassiri M. Schizophrenia with childhood onset: A phenomenological study of 38 cases. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 31: 968-976, 1992.
40. Greenstein D, Kataria R, Gochman P, Dasgupta A, Malley JD, Rapoport J, Gogtay N. Looking for childhood-onset schizophrenia. diagnostic algorithms for classifying children and adolescents with psychosis. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 24: 366-373, 2014.
41. Hafner H, Nowotny B. Epidemiology of early-onset schizophrenia. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 245: 80-92, 1995.
42. Harley M, Kelleher I, Clarke M, Lynch F, Arseneault L, Connor D, Fitzpatrick C, Cannon M. Cannabis use and childhood trauma interact additively to increase the risk of psychotic symptoms in adolescence. Psychol Med 40: 1627-1634, 2010.
43. Hassan GA, Taha GR. Long term functioning in early onset psychosis. two years prospective follow-up study. Behav Brain Funct 7: 28, 2011.
44. Hill M, Crumlish N, Clarke M, Whitty P, Owens E, Renwick L, Browne S, Macklin EA, Kinsella A, Larkin C, Waddington JL, OCallaghan E. Prospective relationship of duration of untreated psychosis to psychopathology and functional outcome over 12 years. Schizophr Res 141: 215-221, 2012.
45. Hlastala SA, McClellan J. Phenomenology and diagnostic stability of youths with atypical psychotic symptoms. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 15: 497-509, 2005.
46. Jeppesen P, Clemmensen L, Munkholm A, Rimvall MK, Rask CU, Jorgensen T, Larsen JT, Petersen L, van OJ, Skovgaard AM. Psychotic experiences co-occur with sleep problems, negative affect and mental disorders in preadolescence. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 56: 558-565, 2015.
47. Joa I, Johannessen JO, Langeveld J, Friis S, Melle I, Opjordsmoen S, Simonsen E, Vaglum P, McGlashan T, Larsen TK. Baseline profiles of adolescent vs. adult-onset first-episode psychosis in an early detection program. Acta Psychiatr Scand 119: 494-500, 2009.
48. Kay SR, Fiszbein A, Opler LA. The positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS) for schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 13: 261-276, 1987.
49. Kelleher I, Connor D, Clarke MC, Devlin N, Harley M, Cannon M. Prevalence of psychotic symptoms in childhood and adolescence: a systematic review and meta-Analysis of population-based studies. Psychol Med 42: 1857-1863, 2012.
50. Kolvin I, Ounsted C, Humphrey M, McNay A. Studies in the childhood psychoses II The phenomenology of childhood psychoses. Br J Psychiatry 118: 385-395, 1971.
51. Langeveld J, Joa I, Friis S, ten Velden HW, Melle I, Johannessen JO, Opjordsmoen S, Simonsen E, Vaglum P, Auestad B, McGlashan T, Larsen TK A comparison of adolescent- And adult-onset firstepisode, non-Affective psychosis: 2-year follow-up. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 262: 599-605, 2012.
52. Large M, Sharma S, Compton MT, Slade T, Nielssen O. Cannabis use and earlier onset of psychosis: A systematic meta-Analysis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 68: 555-561, 2011.
53. Ledda MG, Fratta AL, Pintor M, Zuddas A, Cianchetti C. Early-onset psychoses. comparison of clinical features and adult outcome in 3 diagnostic groups. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 40: 421-437, 2009.
54. Leucht S, Kane JM, Kissling W, Hamann J, Etschel E, Engel RR. What does the PANSS mean? Schizophr Res 79: 231-238, 2005.
55. Li XB, Liu JT, Zhu XZ, Zhang L, Tang YL, Wang CY. Childhood trauma associates with clinical features of bipolar disorder in a sample of Chinese patients. J Affect Disord 168: 58-63, 2014.
56. Marshall M, Lewis S, Lockwood A, Drake R, Jones P, Croudace T. Association between duration of untreated psychosis and outcome in cohorts of first-episode patients: A systematic review. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62: 975-983, 2005.
57. Masi G, Mucci M, Pari C. Children with schizophrenia: Clinical picture and pharmacological treatment. CNS Drugs 20: 841-866, 2006.
58. Maziade M, Gingras N, Rodrigue C, Bouchard S, Cardinal A, Gauthier B, Tremblay G, Cote S, Fournier C, Boutin P, Hamel M, Roy MA, Martinez M, Merette C. Long-Term stability of diagnosis and symptom dimensions in a systematic sample of patients with onset of schizophrenia in childhood and early adolescence. I: Nosology, sex and age of onset. Br J Psychiatry 169: 361-370, 1996.
59. McClellan J, Stock S. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with schizophrenia. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 52: 976-990, 2013.
60. McClellan JM, Werry JS, Ham M A follow-up study of early onset psychosis: comparison between outcome diagnoses of schizophrenia, mood disorders, and personality disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 23: 243-262, 1993.
61. McClellan J, McCurry C. Early onset psychotic disorders. diagnostic stability and clinical characteristics. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 8 Suppl 1: I13-I19, 1999.
62. McClellan J, McCurry C, Snell J, DuBose A. Early-onset psychotic disorders. course and outcome over a 2-year period. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 38: 1380-1388, 1999.
63. McGrath J, Saha S, Chant D, Welham J. Schizophrenia: A concise overview of incidence, prevalence, and mortality. Epidemiol Rev 30: 67-76, 2008.
64. Melle I, Larsen TK, Haahr U, Friis S, Johannesen JO, Opjordsmoen S, Rund BR, Simonsen E, Vaglum P, McGlashan T. Prevention of negative symptom psychopathologies in first-episode schizophrenia: Two-year effects of reducing the duration of untreated psychosis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 65: 634-640, 2008.
65. Meng H, Schimmelmann BG, Mohler B, Lambert M, Branik E, Koch E, Karle M, Strauss M, Preuss U, Amsler F, Riedesser P, Resch F, Burgin D. Pretreatment social functioning predicts 1-year outcome in early onset psychosis. Acta Psychiatr Scand 114: 249-256, 2006.
66. Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-Analyses: The PRISMA statement. Int J Surg 8: 336-341, 2010.
67. Moller HJ, Jager M, Riedel M, Obermeier M, Strauss A, Bottlender R. The Munich 15-year follow-up study (MUFUSSAD) on firsthospitalized patients with schizophrenic or affective disorders: Comparison of psychopathological and psychosocial course and outcome and prediction of chronicity. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 260: 367-384, 2010.
68. Muratori F, Salvadori F, DArcangelo G, Viglione V, Picchi L. Childhood psychopathological antecedents in early onset schizophrenia. Eur Psychiatry 20: 309-314, 2005.
69. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Psychosis and Schizophrenia in Children and Young People. Recognition and Management. NICE Clinical Guideline 155, 2013.
70. Nicolson R, Lenane M, Brookner F, Gochman P, Kumra S, Spechler L, Giedd JN, Thaker GK, Wudarsky M, Rapoport JL. Children and adolescents with psychotic disorder not otherwise specified A 2- To 8-year follow-up study. Compr Psychiatry 42: 319-325, 2001.
71. Okkels N, Vernal DL, Jensen SO, McGrath JJ, Nielsen RE. Changes in the diagnosed incidence of early onset schizophrenia over four decades. Acta Psychiatr Scand 127: 62-68, 2013.
72. Pagsberg AK, Baare WF, Raabjerg Christensen AM, Fagerlund B, Hansen MB, Labianca J, Krabbe K, Aarkrog T, Paulson OB, Hemmingsen RP. Structural brain abnormalities in early onset firstepisode psychosis. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 114: 489-498, 2007.
73. Parellada M, Boada L, Fraguas D, Reig S, Castro-Fornieles J, Moreno D, Gonzalez-Pinto A, Otero S, Rapado-Castro M, Graell M, Baeza I, Arango C. Trait and state attributes of insight in first episodes of early-onset schizophrenia and other psychoses A 2-year longitudinal study. Schizophr Bull 37: 38-51, 2011.
74. Parellada M, Fraguas D, Bombin I, Otero S, Castro-Fornieles J, Baeza I, Gonzalez-Pinto A, Graell M, Soutullo C, Paya B, Arango C. Insight correlates in child- And adolescent-onset first episodes of psychosis. results from the CAFEPS study. Psychol Med 39: 1433-1445, 2009.
75. Pedersen CB, Mors O, Bertelsen A, Waltoft BL, Agerbo E, McGrath JJ, Mortensen PB, Eaton WW A comprehensive nationwide study of the incidence rate and lifetime risk for treated mental disorders. JAMA Psychiatry 71: 573-581, 2014.
76. Pencer A, Addington J, Addington D. Outcome of a first episode of psychosis in adolescence: A 2-year follow-up. Psychiatry Res 133: 35-43, 2005.
77. Rabinowitz J, Berardo CG, Bugarski-Kirola D, Marder S. Association of prominent positive and prominent negative symptoms and functional health, well-being, healthcare-related quality of life and family burden: A CATIE analysis. Schizophr Res 150: 339-342, 2013.
78. Rapado-Castro M, Soutullo C, Fraguas D, Arango C, Paya B, Castro-Fornieles J, Gonzalez-Pinto A, Parellada M, Graell M, Baeza I, Bombin I. Predominance of symptoms over time in early-onset psychosis A principal component factor analysis of the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale. J Clin Psychiatry 71: 327-337, 2010.
79. Remschmidt H, Theisen F. Early-onset schizophrenia. Neuropsychobiology 66: 63-69, 2012.
80. Remschmidt HE, Schulz E, Martin M, Warnke A, Trott GE. Childhoodonset schizophrenia: History of the concept and recent studies. Schizophr Bull 20: 727-745, 1994.
81. Remberk B, Namyslowska I, Rybakowski F. Clinical and cognitive correlates of formal thought disorder in early onset schizophrenia. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 33: 347-355, 2012a.
82. Remberk B, Namyslowska I, Rybakowski F. Cognition and communication dysfunctions in early-onset schizophrenia. effect of risperidone. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 39: 348-354, 2012b.
83. Ross RG, Heinlein S, Tregellas H. High rates of comorbidity are found in childhood-onset schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 88: 90-95, 2006.
84. Russell AT, Bott L, Sammons C. The phenomenology of schizophrenia occurring in childhood. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 28: 399-407, 1989.
85. Salvatore P, Baldessarini RJ, Tohen M, Khalsa HM, Sanchez-Toledo JP, Zarate CA, Jr., Vieta E, Maggini C. McLean-Harvard InterNational First-Episode Project: Two-year stability of DSM-IV diagnoses in 500 first-episode psychotic disorder patients. J Clin Psychiatry 70: 458-466, 2009.
86. Sanchez-Gistau V, Baeza I, Arango C, Gonzalez-Pinto A, de la Serna E, Parellada M, Graell M, Paya B, Llorente C, Castro-Fornieles J. Predictors of suicide attempt in early-onset, first-episode psychoses A longitudinal 24-month follow-up study. J Clin Psychiatry 74: 59-66, 2013.
87. Sara GE, Burgess PM, Malhi GS, Whiteford HA, Hall WC. Cannabis and stimulant disorders and readmission 2 years after first-episode psychosis. Br J Psychiatry 204: 448-453, 2014.
88. Schimmelmann BG, Conus P, Cotton S, McGorry PD, Lambert M. Pre-Treatment, baseline, and outcome differences between earlyonset and adult-onset psychosis in an epidemiological cohort of 636 first-episode patients. Schizophr Res 95: 1-8, 2007.
89. Schimmelmann BG, Conus P, Cotton SM, Kupferschmid S, Karow A, Schultze-Lutter F, McGorry PD, Lambert M. Cannabis use disorder and age at onset of psychosis-A study in first-episode patients. Schizophr Res 129: 52-56, 2011.
90. Schimmelmann BG, Walger P, Schultze-Lutter F. The significance of at-risk symptoms for psychosis in children and adolescents. Can J Psychiatry 58: 32-40, 2013.
91. Shaffer D, Gould MS, Brasic J, Ambrosini P, Fisher P, Bird H, Aluwahlia S A childrens global assessment scale (CGAS). Arch Gen Psychiatry 40: 1228-1231, 1983.
92. Sporn AL, Addington AM, Gogtay N, Ordonez AE, Gornick M, Clasen L, Greenstein D, Tossell JW, Gochman P, Lenane M, Sharp WS, Straub RE, Rapoport JL. Pervasive developmental disorder and childhood-onset schizophrenia. comorbid disorder or a phenotypic variant of a very early onset illness? Biol Psychiatry 55: 989-994, 2004.
93. Stefanis NC, Dragovic M, Power BD, Jablensky A, Castle D, Morgan VA. Age at initiation of cannabis use predicts age at onset of psychosis: The 7- To 8-year trend. Schizophr Bull 39: 251-254, 2013.
94. Stentebjerg-Olesen M, Jeppesen P, Pagsberg AK, Fink-Jensen A, Kapoor S, Chekuri R, Carbon M, Al-Jadiri A, Kishimoto T, Kane JM, Correll CU. Early nonresponse determined by the clinical global impressions scale predicts poorer outcomes in youth with schizophrenia spectrum disorders naturalistically treated with second-generation antipsychotics. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 23: 665-675, 2013.
95. van den Berg DP, de Bont PA, van der Vleugel BM, de RC, de JA, van MA, van der Gaag M. Prolonged exposure vs eye movement desensitization and reprocessing vs waiting list for posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with a psychotic disorder: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry 72: 259-267, 2015.
96. Varese F, Smeets F, Drukker M, Lieverse R, Lataster T, Viechtbauer W, Read J, van OJ, Bentall RP. Childhood adversities increase the risk of psychosis: A meta-Analysis of patient-control, prospective- And crosssectional cohort studies. Schizophr Bull 38: 661-671, 2012.
97. Vyas NS, Hadjulis M, Vourdas A, Byrne P, Frangou S. The Maudsley early onset schizophrenia study. Predictors of psychosocial outcome at 4-year follow-up. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 16: 465-470, 2007.
98. Vyas NS, Patel NH, Puri BK. Neurobiology and phenotypic expression in early onset schizophrenia. Early Interv Psychiatry 5: 3-14, 2011.
99. Werry JS. Child and adolescent (early onset) schizophrenia: A review in light of DSM-III-R. J Autism Dev Disord 22: 601-624, 1992.
100. Werry JS, McClellan JM, Andrews LK, Ham M. Clinical features and outcome of child and adolescent schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 20: 619-630, 1994.
101. Wozniak JR, Block EE, White T, Jensen JB, Schulz SC. Clinical and neurocognitive course in early-onset psychosis A longitudinal study of adolescents with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. Early Interv Psychiatry 2: 169-177, 2008.