Enzyme biosensors for biomedical applications: Strategies for safeguarding analytical performances in biological fluids

Sensors (Switzerland)

Volumn 16, Issue 6, 2016, Pages

  Rocchitta, Gaia ^a   Spanu, Angela ^a   Babudieri, Sergio ^a   Latte, Gavinella ^a   Madeddu, Giordano ^a   Galleri, Grazia ^a   Nuvoli, Susanna ^a   Bagella, Paola ^a   Demartis, Maria Ilaria ^a   Fiore, Vito ^a   Manetti, Roberto ^a   Serra, Pier Andrea ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SASSARI   (Italy)

Author keywords

Amperometry; Biological fluids; Biomedical applications; Biosensor; Interferents

Indexed keywords

BODY FLUIDS; CHEMICAL DETECTION; ENZYMES; MEDICAL APPLICATIONS;

AMPEROMETRIC BIOSENSORS; AMPEROMETRY; BIOLOGICAL FLUIDS; BIOLOGICAL RECOGNITION; BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS; ENZYME-BASED BIOSENSORS; INTERFERENTS; NORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS;

BIOSENSORS;

ENZYME;

BODY FLUID; CHEMISTRY; GENETIC PROCEDURES; PROCEDURES;

BIOSENSING TECHNIQUES; BODY FLUIDS; ENZYMES;

EID: 84971607481     PISSN: 14248220     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/s16060780     Document Type: Review

References (160)

1. Hasan, A.; Nurunnabi, M.; Morshed, M.; Paul, A.; Polini, A.; Kuila, T.; Al Hariri, M.; Lee, Y.K.; Jaffa, A.A. Recent advances in application of biosensors in tissue engineering. Biomed. Res. Int. 2014, 2014, 307519.
2. Grieshaber, D.; MacKenzie, R.; Vörös, J.; Reimhult, E. Electrochemical Biosensors—Sensor Principles and Architectures. Sensors 2008, 8, 1400–1458.
3. Lowe, R.S. Overview of Biosensor and Bioarray Technologies. In Handbook of Biosensors and Biochips; Wiley: Weinheim, Germany, 2007.
4. Clark, L.C.; Lyons, C. Electrode systems for continuous monitoring in cardiovascular surgery. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1962, 102, 29–45.
5. Pohanka, M.; Skládal, P. Electrochemical biosensors-principles and applications. J. Appl. Biomed. 2008, 6, 57–64.
6. D’Orazio, P. Biosensors in clinical chemistry. Clin. Chim. Acta 2003, 334, 41–69.
7. Wilson, M.S. Electrochemical immunosensors for the simultaneous detection of two tumor markers. Anal. Chem. 2005, 77, 1496–1502.
8. Wang, J. Real-time electrochemical monitoring: toward green analytical chemistry. Acc. Chem. Res. 2002, 35, 811–816.
9. Švorc, J.; Miertuš, S.; Katrlík, J.; Stred’anský, M. Composite Transducers for Amperometric Biosensors. The Glucose Sensor. Anal. Chem. 1997, 69, 2086–2090.
10. Zhu, Z.; Garcia-Gancedo, L.; Flewitt, A.J.; Xie, H.; Moussy, F.; Milne, W.I. A Critical Review of Glucose Biosensors Based on Carbon Nanomaterials: Carbon Nanotubes and Graphene. Sensors 2012, 12, 5996–6022.
11. Pingarròn, J.M.; Yáñez-Sedeño, P.; González-Cortés, A. Gold nanoparticle-based electrochemical biosensors. Electrochim. Acta 2008, 53, 5848–5866.
12. O’Neill, R.D.; Chang, S.C.; Lowry, J.P.; McNeil, C.J. Comparisons of platinum, gold, palladium and glassy carbon as electrode materials in the design of biosensors for glutamate. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2004, 19, 1521–1528.
13. Zhou, W.; Huang, P.J.; Ding, J.; Liu, J. Aptamer-based biosensors for biomedical diagnostics. Analyst 2014, 139, 2627–2640.
14. Castillo, J.; Gáspár, S.; Leth, S.; Niculescu, M.; Mortari, A.; Bontidean, I.; Soukharev, V.; Dorneanu, S.A.; Ryabov, A.D.; Csöregi, E. Biosensors for life quality: Design, development and applications. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 2004, 102, 179–194.
15. Belluzo, M.S.; Ribone, M.E.; Lagier, C.M. Assembling Amperometric Biosensors for Clinical Diagnostics. Sensors 2008, 8, 1366–1399.
16. Corrie, S.R.; Coffey, J.W.; Islam, J.; Markey, K.A.; Kendall, M.A. Blood, sweat, and tears: Developing clinically relevant protein biosensors for integrated body fluid analysis. Analyst 2015, 140, 4350–4364.
17. Wang, Y.C.; Stevens, A.L.; Han, J. Million-fold preconcentration of proteins and peptides by nanofluidic filter. Anal. Chem. 2005, 77, 4293–4299.
18. Murugaiyan, S.B.; Ramasamy, R.; Gopal, N.; Kuzhandaivelu, V. Biosensors in clinical chemistry: An overview. Adv. Biomed. Res. 2014, 3, 67.
19. Lee, Y.H.; Mutharasan, R. Biosensors. In Sensors Technology Handbook; Elsevier: Amsterdam, Netherlands, 2005; pp. 161–180.
20. Dzyadevych, S.V.; Arkhypova, V.N.; Soldatkin, A.P.; El’skaya, A.V.; Martelet, C.; Jaffrezi-Renault, N. Amperometric enzyme biosensors: Past, present and future. IRBM 2008, 29, 171–180.
21. Harper, A.; Anderson, M.R. Electrochemical Glucose Sensors—Developments Using Electrostatic Assembly and Carbon Nanotubes for Biosensor Construction. Sensors 2010, 10, 8248–8274.
22. Palanisamy, S.; Unnikrishnan, B.; Chen, S. An Amperometric Biosensor Based on Direct Immobilization of Horseradish Peroxidase on Electrochemically Reduced Graphene Oxide Modified Screen Printed Carbon Electrode. Int. J. Electrochem. Sci. 2012, 7, 7935–7947.
23. Wang, J. Electrochemical Glucose Biosensors. Chem. Rev. 2008, 108, 814–825.
24. McMahon, C.P.; Rocchitta, G.; Serra, P.A.; Kirwan, S.M.; Lowry, J.P.; O’Neill, R.D. Control of the oxygen dependence of an implantable polymer/enzyme composite biosensor for glutamate. Anal. Chem. 2006, 78, 2352–2359.
25. Hossain, M.F.; Park, J.Y. Plain to point network reduced graphene oxide—Activated carbon composites decorated with platinum nanoparticles for urine glucose detection. Sci. Rep. 2016.
26. Sağlam, Ö.; Kızılkaya, B.; Uysal, H.; Dilgin, Y. Biosensing of glucose in flow injection analysis system based on glucose oxidase-quantum dot modified pencil graphite electrode. Talanta 2016.
27. Devasenathipathy, R.; Mani, V.; Chen, S.M.; Huang, S.T.; Huang, T.T.; Lin, C.M.; Hwa, K.Y.; Chen, T.Y.; Chen, B.J. Glucose biosensor based on glucose oxidase immobilized at gold nanoparticles decorated graphene-carbon nanotubes. Enzyme Microb. Technol. 2015.
28. Rocchitta, G.; Secchi, O.; Alvau, M.D.; Farina, D.; Bazzu, G.; Calia, G.; Migheli, R.; Desole, M.S.; O’Neill, R.D.; Serra, P.A. Simultaneous telemetric monitoring of brain glucose and lactate and motion in freely moving rats. Anal. Chem. 2013, 85, 10282–10288.
29. Şimşek, Ş.; Aynacļ E.; Arslaņ F. An amperometric biosensor for L-glutamate determination prepared from L-glutamate oxidase immobilized in polypyrrole-polyvinylsulphonate film. Artif. Cells Nanomed. Biotechnol. 2016, 44, 356–361.
30. Soldatkin, O.; Nazarova, A.; Krisanova, N.; Borysov, A.; Kucherenko, D.; Kucherenko, I.; Pozdnyakova, N.; Soldatkin, A.; Borisova, T. Monitoring of the velocity of high-affinity glutamate uptake by isolated brain nerve terminals using amperometric glutamate biosensor. Talanta 2015, 135, 67–74.
31. McMahon, C.P.; Rocchitta, G.; Serra, P.A.; Kirwan, S.M.; Lowry, J.P.; O’Neill, R.D. The efficiency of immobilised glutamate oxidase decreases with surface enzyme loading: An electrostatic effect, and reversal by a polycation significantly enhances biosensor sensitivity. Analyst 2006, 131, 68–72.
32. Chinnadayyala, S.R.; Santhosh, M.; Singh, N.K.; Goswami, P. Alcohol oxidase protein mediated in-situ synthesized and stabilized gold nanoparticles for developing amperometric alcohol biosensor. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2015, 69, 155–161.
33. Gamella, M.; Campuzano, S.; Manso, J.; González de Rivera, G.; López-Colino, F.; Reviejo, A.J.; Pingarrón, J.M. A novel non-invasive electrochemical biosensing device for in situ determination of the alcohol content in blood by monitoring ethanol in sweat. Anal. Chim. Acta 2014, 806, 1–7.
34. Secchi, O.; Zinellu, M.; Spissu, Y.; Pirisinu, M.; Bazzu, G.; Migheli, R.; Desole, M.S.; O’Neill, R.D.; Serra, P.A.; Rocchitta, G. Further in vitro characterization of an implantable biosensor for ethanol monitoring in the brain. Sensors 2013, 13, 9522–9535.
35. Rocchitta, G.; Secchi, O.; Alvau, M.D.; Migheli, R.; Calia, G.; Bazzu, G.; Farina, D.; Desole, M.S.; O’Neill, R.D.; Serra, P.A. Development and characterization of an implantable biosensor for telemetric monitoring of ethanol in the brain of freely moving rats. Anal. Chem. 2012, 84, 7072–7079.
36. Giménez-Gómez, P.; Gutiérrez-Capitán, M.; Capdevila, F.; Puig-Pujol, A.; Fernández-Sánchez, C.; Jiménez-Jorquera, C. Monitoring of malolactic fermentation in wine using an electrochemical bienzymatic biosensor for l-lactate with long term stability. Anal. Chim. Acta 2016, 905, 126–133.
37. Hernández-Ibáñez, N.; García-Cruz, L.; Montiel, V.; Foster, C.W.; Banks, C.E.; Iniesta, J. Electrochemical lactate biosensor based upon chitosan/carbon nanotubes modified screen-printed graphite electrodes for the determination of lactate in embryonic cell cultures. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2016, 77, 1168–1174.
38. Andrus, L.P.; Unruh, R.; Wisniewski, N.A.; McShane, M.J. Characterization of Lactate Sensors Based on Lactate Oxidase and Palladium Benzoporphyrin Immobilized in Hydrogels. Biosensors 2015, 5, 398–416.
39. Wen, Y.; Xu, J.; Liu, M.; Li, D.; He, H. Amperometric vitamin C biosensor based on the immobilization of ascorbate oxidase into the biocompatible sandwich-type composite film. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2012, 167, 2023–2038.
40. Liu, M.; Wen, Y.; Xu, J.; He, H.; Li, D.; Yue, R.; Liu, G. An amperometric biosensor based on ascorbate oxidase immobilized in poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)/multi-walled carbon nanotubes composite films for the determination of L-ascorbic acid. Anal. Sci. 2011, 27, 477.
41. Lata, K.; Dhull, V.; Hooda, V. Fabrication and Optimization of ChE/ChO/HRP-AuNPs/c-MWCNTs Based Silver Electrode for Determining Total Cholesterol in Serum. Biochem. Res. Int. 2016.
42. Aggarwal, V.; Malik, J.; Prashant, A.; Jaiwal, P.K.; Pundir, C.S. Amperometric determination of serum total cholesterol with nanoparticles of cholesterol esterase and cholesterol oxidase. Anal. Biochem. 2016.
43. Shukla, S.K.; Turner, A.P.; Tiwari, A. Cholesterol Oxidase Functionalised Polyaniline/Carbon Nanotube Hybrids for an Amperometric Biosensor. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 2015, 15, 3373–3377.
44. Rahman, M.M.; Asiria, A.M. Selective choline biosensors based on choline oxidase co-immobilized into self-assembled monolayers on micro-chips at low potential. Anal. Methods 2015, 7, 9426–9434.
45. Tunç, A.T.; AynacļKoyuncu, E.; Arslan, F. Development of an acetylcholinesterase-choline oxidase based biosensor for acetylcholine determination. Artif. Cells Nanomed. Biotechnol. 2015, 1–6.
46. Gonzalez-Rivera, J.C.; Osma, J.F. Fabrication of an Amperometric Flow-Injection Microfluidic Biosensor Based on Laccase for In Situ Determination of Phenolic Compounds. Biomed. Res. Int. 2015, 2015, 845261.
47. 4/polyaniline/ laccase/chitosan biocomposite-modified carbon paste electrode for determination of catechol in tea leaves. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2015, 175, 1603–1616.
48. Casero, E.; Petit-Domínguez, M.D.; Vázquez, L.; Ramírez-Asperilla, I.; Parra-Alfambra, A.M.; Pariente, F.; Lorenzo, E. Laccase biosensors based on different enzyme immobilization strategies for phenolic compounds determination. Talanta 2013, 115, 401–408.
49. Campanhã Vicentini, F.; Garcia, L.L.; Figueiredo-Filho, L.C.; Janegitz, B.C.; Fatibello-Filho, O. A biosensor based on gold nanoparticles, dihexadecylphosphate, and tyrosinase for the determination of catechol in natural water. Enzyme Microb. Technol. 2016, 84, 17–23.
50. Kochana, J.; Wapiennik, K.; Kozak, J.; Knihnicki, P.; Pollap, A.; Wózniakiewicz, M.; Nowak, J.; Kóscielniak, P. Tyrosinase-based biosensor for determination of bisphenol A in a flow-batch system. Talanta 2015, 144, 163–170.
51. Njagi, J.; Chernov, M.M.; Leiter, J.C.; Andreescu, S. Amperometric detection of dopamine in vivo with an enzyme based carbon fiber microbiosensor. Anal. Chem. 2010, 82, 989–996.
52. Dzyadevych, S.V. Amperometric biosensors key work principles and features of transducers of different generations. Biopol. Cell. 2002, 18, 13–25.
53. Lee, C.A.; Tsai, Y.C. Preparation of multiwalled carbon nanotube-chitosan-alcohol dehydrogenase nanobiocomposite for amperometric detection of ethanol. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 2009, 138, 518–523.
54. Gómez-Anquela, C.; García-Mendiola, T.; Abad, J.M.; Pita, M.; Pariente, F.; Lorenzo, E. Scaffold electrodes based on thioctic acid-capped gold nanoparticles coordinated Alcohol Dehydrogenase and Azure A films for high performance biosensor. Bioelectrochemistry 2015, 106, 335–342.
55. Wu, G.; Zaman, M.H. Amperometric measurements of ethanol on paper with a glucometer. Talanta 2015, 134, 194–199.
56. Li, L.; Lu, H.; Deng, L. A sensitive NADH and ethanol biosensor based on Graphene-Au nanorods nanocomposites. Talanta 2013, 113, 1–6.
57. Gao, W.; Chen, Y.; Xi, J.; Lin, S.; Chen, Y.; Lin, Y.; Chen, Z. Anovel electrochemiluminescence ethanol biosensor based on tris(2,21-bipyridine) ruthenium (II) and alcohol dehydrogenase immobilized in graphene/bovine serum albumin composite film. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2013, 41, 776–782.
58. Liang, B.; Zhang, S.; Lang, Q.; Song, J.; Han, L.; Liu, A. Amperometric L-glutamate biosensor based on bacterial cell-surface displayed glutamate dehydrogenase. Anal. Chim. Acta 2015, 884, 83–89.
59. Keskin, S.Y.; Keskin, C.S. Quantitative determination of glycine in aqueous solution using glutamate dehydrogenase-immobilized glyoxal agarose beads. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2014, 172, 289–297.
60. Gholizadeh, A.; Shahrokhian, S.; zad, A.I.; Mohajerzadeh, S.; Vosoughi, M.; Darbari, S.; Sanaee, Z. Mediator-less highly sensitive voltammetric detection of glutamate using glutamate dehydrogenase/ vertically aligned CNTs grown on silicon substrate. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2012, 31, 110–115.
61. 2+ sensor. Chem. Commun. 2016, 52, 485–458.
62. Lin, Y.; Yu, P.; Hao, J.; Wang, Y.; Ohsaka, T.; Mao, L. Continuous and simultaneous electrochemical measurements of glucose, lactate, and ascorbate in rat brain following brain ischemia. Anal. Chem. 2014, 86, 3895–3901.
63. Kim, D.M.; Kim, M.Y.; Reddy, S.S.; Cho, J.; Cho, C.H.; Jung, S.; Shim, Y.B. Electron-transfer mediator for a NAD-glucose dehydrogenase-based glucose sensor. Anal. Chem. 2013, 85, 11643–11649.
64. Liang, B.; Li, L.; Tang, X.; Lang, Q.; Wang, H.; Li, F.; Shi, J.; Shen, W.; Palchetti, I.; Mascini, M.; Liu, A. Microbial surface display of glucose dehydrogenase for amperometric glucose biosensor. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2013, 45, 19–24.
65. Jenie, S.N.; Prieto-Simon, B.; Voelcker, N.H. Development of L-lactate dehydrogenase biosensor based on porous silicon resonant microcavities as fluorescence enhancers. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2015, 74, 637–643.
66. Azzouzi, S.; Rotariu, L.; Benito, A.M.; Maser, W.K.; Ben Ali, M.; Bala, C. A novel amperometric biosensor based on gold nanoparticles anchored on reduced graphene oxide for sensitive detection of L-lactate tumor biomarker. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2015, 69, 280–286.
67. Prodromidis, M.I.; Karayannis, M.I. Enzyme Based Amperometric Biosensors for Food Analysis. Electroanalysis 2002, 14, 241–261.
68. Bartlett, P.N.; Bradford, V.Q.; Whitaker, R.G. Enzyme electrode studies of glucose oxidase modified with a redox mediator. Talanta 1991, 38, 57–63.
69. Chaubey, A.; Malhotra, B.D. Mediated biosensors. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2002, 17, 441–456.
70. Xu, F. Effects of redox potential and hydroxide inhibition on the pH activity profile of fungal laccases. J. Biol. Chem. 1997, 272, 924–928.
71. Madhavi, V.; Lele, S.S. Laccase: Proprieties and applications. Bioresources 2009, 4, 1694–1717.
72. Rangelova, V.; Tsankova, D.; Dimcheva, N. Soft Computing Techniques in Modelling the Influence of pH and Temperature on Dopamine Biosensor. In Intelligent and Biosensors; INTECH: Rijeka, Croatia, 2010; pp. 100–122.
73. Purvis, D.; Leonardova, O.; Farmakovsky, D.; Cherkasov, V. An ultrasensitive and stable potentiometric immunosensor. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2003, 18, 1385–1390.
74. Li, J.; Xiao, L.T.; Zeng, G.M.; Huang, G.H.; Shen, G.L.; Yu, R.Q. Amperometric immunosensor based on polypyrrole/poly(m-pheylenediamine) multilayer on glassy carbon electrode for cytokinin N6-(Delta2-isopentenyl) adenosine assay. Anal. Biochem. 2003, 321, 89–95.
75. Ikebukuro, K.; Kiyohara, C.; Sode, K. Electrochemical Detection of Protein Using a Double Aptamer Sandwich. Anal. Lett. 2004, 37, 2901–2909.
76. Centi, S.; Tombelli, S.; Minunni, M.; Mascini, M. Aptamer-based detection of plasma proteins by an electrochemical assay coupled to magnetic beads. Anal. Chem. 2007, 79, 1466–1473.
77. Wisniewski, N.; Reichert, M. Methods for reducing biosensor membrane biofouling. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces 2000, 18, 197–219.
78. Ferreira, M.; Varela, H.; Torresi, R.M.; Tremiliosi-Filho, G. Electrode passivation caused by polymerization of different phenolic compounds. Electrochim. Acta 2006, 52, 434–442.
79. Yang, X.; Kirsch, J.; Fergus, J.; Simonian, A. Modeling analysis of electrode fouling during electrolysis of phenolic compounds. Electrochim. Acta 2013, 94, 259–268.
80. Yamauchi, S. Chemical Sensor Technology. In Handbook of Biosensors and Electronic Noses: Medicine, Food, and the Environment; AEG: Frankfurt, Germany, 1997.
81. O’Hare, D. Biosensors and Sensor Systems. In Body Sensor Networks; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2014.
82. Bard, A.J.; Faulkner, L.R. Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2001.
83. Cardosi, M.; Liu, Z. Amperometric Glucose Sensors for Whole Blood Measurement Based on Dehydrogenase Enzymes. In Dehydrogenases; Canuto, R.A., Ed.; InTech: Rijeka, Croatia, 2012.
84. Kimmel, D.W.; LeBlanc, G.; Meschievitz, M.E.; Cliffel, D.E. Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors. Anal. Chem. 2012, 84, 685–707.
85. Curulli, A.; Palleschi, G. Construction and application of highly selectively sensors and biosensors using non-conducting electropolymerized films. In Proceedings of the 2ndWorkshop on Chemical Sensors and Biosensors, Rome, Italy, 18–19 March 2000.
86. Gouda, M.D.; Kumar, M.A.; Thakur, M.S.; Karantha, N.G. Enhancement of operational stability of an enzyme biosensor for glucose and sucrose using protein based stabilizing agent. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2002, 17, 503–507.
87. Gibson, T.D. Biosensors: The stabilité problem. Analusis 1999, 27, 630–638.
88. Chaniotakis, N.A. Enzyme stabilization strategies based on electrolytes and polyelectrolytes for biosensor applications. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2004, 378, 89–95.
89. Sassolas, A.; Blum, L.J.; Leca-Bouvier, B.D. Immobilization strategies to develop enzymatic biosensors. Biotechnol. Adv. 2012, 30, 489–511.
90. Chen, C.; Xie, Q.; Yang, D.; Xiao, H.; Fu, Y.; Tan, Y.; Yao, S. Recent advances in electrochemical glucose biosensors: A review. RSC Adv. 2013, 3, 4473.
91. Guzik, U.; Hupert-Kocurek, K.; Wojcieszy ´ nska, D. Immobilization as a Strategy for Improving Enzyme Properties-Application to Oxidoreductases. Molecules 2014, 19, 8995–9018.
92. Kim, J.H.; Choi, D.C.; Yeon, K.M.; Kim, S.R.; Lee, C.H. Enzyme-immobilized nanofiltration membrane to mitigate biofouling based on quorum quenching. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45, 1601–1607.
93. Arya, S.K.; Datta, M.; Malhotra, B.D. Recent advances in cholesterol biosensor. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2008, 23, 1083–1100.
94. Andreescu, S.; Marty, J.L. Twenty years research in cholinesterase biosensors: from basic research to practical applications. Biomol. Eng. 2006, 23, 1–15.
95. Choi, M.F.M. Progress in enzyme-based biosensors using optical transducers. Microchim. Acta 2004, 148, 107–132.
96. Ambrozy, A.; Hlavata, L.; Labuda, J. Protective membranes at electrochemical biosensors. Acta Chim. Slovaca 2013, 6, 35–41.
97. Dixon, B.M.; Lowry, J.P.; O’Neill, R.D. Characterization in vitro and in vivo of the oxygen dependence of an enzyme/polymer biosensor for monitoring brain glucose. J. Neurosci. Methods 2002, 119, 135–142.
98. Rothwell, S.A.; Killoran, S.J.; O’Neill, R.D. Enzyme immobilization strategies and electropolymerization conditions to control sensitivity and selectivity parameters of a polymer-enzyme composite glucose biosensor. Sensors 2010, 10, 6439–6462.
99. Livage, J.; Coradin, T.; Roux, C. Encapsulation of biomolecules in silica gels. J. Phys. Condens. Matter. 2001, 13, 673–691.
100. Reetz, M.T.; Wenkel, R.; Avnir, D. Entrapment of lipases in hydrophobic sol-gel materials: Efficient heterogenous biocatalysts in aqueous medium. Synthesis 2000, 6, 781–783.
101. Gill, I.; Ballesteros, A. Bioencapsulation within synthetic polymers (Part 1): Sol-gel encapsulated biologicals. Trends Biotechnol. 2000, 18, 282–296.
102. Avnir, D.; Braun, S.; Lev, O.; Ottolenghi, M. Enzymes and other proteins entrapped in sol-gel materials. Chem. Mater. 1994, 6, 1605–1614.
103. Briones, M.; Casero, E.; Vázquez, L.; Pariente, F.; Lorenzo, E.; Petit-Domínguez, M.D. Diamond nanoparticles as a way to improve electron transfer in sol-gel L-lactate biosensing platforms. Anal. Chim. Acta 2016, 908, 141–149.
104. Eggins, B.R. Chemical Sensors and Biosensors; John Wiley & Sons: West Sussex, UK, 2002.
105. Abian, O.; Wilson, L.; Mateo, C.; Fernández-Lorente, G.; Palomo, J.M.; Fernández-Lafuente, R.; Guisán, J.M.; Re, D.; Tam, A.; Daminatti, M. Preparation of artificial hyper-hydrophilic micro-environments (polymeric salts) surrounding enzyme molecules: New enzyme derivatives to be used in any reaction medium. J. Mol. Catal. B Enzym. 2002, 19–20, 295–303.
106. Davis, F.; Higson, S. Polymers in Biosensors. In Biomedical Polymers; Woodhead Publishing: Cambridge, UK, 2007.
107. Yuan, C.J.; Hsu, C.L.; Wang, S.C.; Changb, K.S. Eliminating the Interference of Ascorbic Acid and Uric Acid to the Amperometric Glucose Biosensor by Cation Exchangers Membrane and Size Exclusion Membrane. Electroanalysis 2005, 17, 2239–2245.
108. Kanyong, P.; Pemberton, R.M.; Jackson, S.K.; Hart, J.P. Development of an amperometric screen-printed galactose biosensor for serum analysis. Anal. Biochem. 2013, 435, 114–119.
109. Quero, G.; Consales, M.; Severino, R.; Vaiano, P.; Boniello, A.; Sandomenico, A.; Ruvo, M.; Borriello, A.; Diodato, L.; Zuppolini, S., et al. Long period fiber grating nano-optrode for cancer biomarker detection. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2016, 80, 590–600.
110. Walter, A.; Gutknecht, J. Permeability of small nonelectrolytes through lipid bilayer membranes. J. Membr. Biol. 1986, 90, 207–217.
111. Rothwell, S.A.; Kinsella, M.E.; Zain, Z.M.; Serra, P.A.; Rocchitta, G.; Lowry, J.P.; O’Neill, R.D. Contributions by a novel edge effect to the permselectivity of an electrosynthesized polymer for microbiosensor applications. Anal. Chem. 2009, 81, 3911–3918.
112. 2 outer diffusion on the performance of implantable glucose sensors. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2009, 24, 1557–1562.
113. Croce, R.A.; Vaddiraju, S.; Papadimitrakopoulos, F.; Jain, F.C. Theoretical Analysis of the Performance of Glucose Sensors with Layer-by-Layer Assembled Outer Membranes. Sensors 2012, 12, 13402–13416.
114. Rothwell, S.A.; O’Neill, R.D. Effects of applied potential on the mass of non-conducting poly(ortho-phenylenediamine) electro-deposited on EQCM electrodes: comparison with biosensor selectivity parameters. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2011, 13, 5413–5421.
115. Kirwan, S.M.; Rocchitta, G.; McMahon, C.P.; Craig, J.D.; Killoran, S.J.; O’Brien, K.B.; Serra, P.A.; Lowry, J.P.; O’Neill, R.D. Modifications of Poly(o-phenylenediamine) Permselective Layer on Pt-Ir for Biosensor Application in Neurochemical Monitoring. Sensors 2007, 7, 420–437.
116. McMahon, C.P.; Killoran, S.J.; Kirwan, S.M.; O’Neill, R.D. The selectivity of electrosynthesised polymer membranes depends on the electrode dimensions: Implications for biosensor applications. Chem. Commun. 2004, 18, 2128–2130.
117. Calia, G.; Monti, P.; Marceddu, S.; Dettori, M.A.; Fabbri, D.; Jaoua, S.; O’Neill, R.D.; Serra, P.A.; Delogu, G.; Migheli, Q. Electropolymerized phenol derivatives as permselective polymers for biosensor applications. Analyst 2015, 140, 3607–3615.
118. Li, Q.; Yu, C.; Gao, R.; Xia, C.; Yuan, G.; Li, Y.; Zhao, Y.; Chen, Q.; He, J. A novel DNA biosensor integrated with Polypyrrole/streptavidin and Au-PAMAM-CP bionanocomposite probes to detect the rs4839469 locus of the vangl1 gene for dysontogenesis prediction. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2016, 80, 674–681.
119. Ayenimo, J.G.; Adeloju, S.B. Rapid amperometric detection of trace metals by inhibition of an ultrathin polypyrrole-based glucose biosensor. Talanta 2016, 148, 502–510.
120. Palod, P.A.; Singh, V. Improvement in glucose biosensing response of electrochemically grown polypyrrole nanotubes by incorporating crosslinked glucose oxidase. Mater. Sci. Eng. C Mater. Biol. Appl. 2015, 55, 420–430.
121. Liu, X.; Zhu, J.; Huo, X.; Yan, R.; Wong, D.K. An intimately bonded titanate nanotube-polyaniline-gold nanoparticle ternary composite as a scaffold for electrochemical enzyme biosensors. Anal. Chim. Acta 2016, 911, 59–68.
122. Das, G.; Yoon, H.H. Amperometric urea biosensors based on sulfonated graphene/polyaniline nanocomposite. Int. J. Nanomed. 2015, 10, 55–66.
123. Cui, M.; Song, Z.; Wu, Y.; Guo, B.; Fan, X.; Luo, X. A highly sensitive biosensor for tumor maker alpha fetoprotein based on poly(ethylene glycol) doped conducting polymer PEDOT. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2016, 79, 736–741.
124. Galán, T.; Prieto-Simón, B.; Alvira, M.; Eritja, R.; Götz, G.; Bäuerle, P.; Samitier, J. Label-free electrochemical DNA sensor using “click”-functionalized PEDOT electrodes. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2015, 74, 751–756.
125. Gerard, M.; Chaubey, A.; Malhotra, B.D. Application of conducting polymers to biosensors. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2002, 17, 345–359.
126. Wang, X.; Uchiyama, S. Polymers for Biosensors Construction. In State of the Art in Biosensors—General Aspects; InTech: Rijeka, Croatia, 2013.
127. Yano, K.; Karube, I. Molecularly imprinted polymers for biosensor applications. TrAC Trends Anal. Chem. 1999, 18, 199–204.
128. Gavalas, V.G.; Chaniotakis, N.A.; Gibson, T.D. Improved operational stability of biosensors based on enzyme-polyelectrolyte complex adsorbed into a porous carbon electrode. Biosens. Bioelectron. 1998, 13, 1205–1211.
129. Gibson, T.D.; Higgins, I.J.; Woodward, J.R. Stabilization of analytical enzymes using a novel polymer-carbonate system and the production of a stabilized, single reagent for alcohol analysis. Analyst 1992, 117, 1293–1297.
130. Rochefort, D.; Kouisni, L.; Gendron, K. Physical immobilization of laccase on an electrode by means of poly(ethyleneimine) microcapsules. J. Electroanal. Chem. 2008, 217, 53–63.
131. Belay, A.; Collins, A.; Ruzgas, T.; Kissinger, P.T.; Gorton, L.; Csöregi, E. Redox hydrogel based bienzyme electrode for L-glutamate monitoring. J. Pharm Biomed. Anal. 1999, 19, 93–105.
132. McMahon, C.P.; Rocchitta, G.; Kirwan, S.M.; Killoran, S.J.; Serra, P.A.; Lowry, J.P.; O’Neill, R.D. Oxygen tolerance of an implantable polymer/enzyme composite glutamate biosensor displaying polycation-enhanced substrate sensitivity. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2007, 22, 1466–1473.
133. Cox, J.A.; Hensley, P.M.; Loch, C.L. Evaluation of Polycation-Stabilized Lactate Oxidase in a Silica Sol–Gel as a Biosensor Platform. Microchim. Acta 2003, 142, 1–5.
134. Bradbury, S.L.; Jakoby, W.B. Glycerol as an Enzyme-Stabilizing Agent: Effects on Aldehyde Dehydrogenase. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 1972, 69, 2373–2376.
135. Adkins, J.N.; Varnum, S.M.; Auberry, K.J.; Moore, R.J.; Angell, N.H.; Smith, R.D.; Springer, D.L.; Pounds, J.G. Toward a human blood serum proteome: Analysis by multidimensional separation coupled with mass spectrometry. Mol. Cell. Proteom. 2002, 1, 947–955.
136. Papadimitrakopoulos, F.; Vaddiraju, S. Control of Biofouling in Implantable Biosensors. U.S. Patent 9101301 B2, 15 August 2015.
137. Padiglia, A.; Medda, R.; Lorrai, A.; Paci, M.; Pedersen, J.Z.; Boffi, A.; Bellelli, A.; Finazzi Agro, A.; Floris, G. Irreversible inhibition of pig kidney copper-containing amine oxidase by sodium and lithium ions. J. Eur. Biochem. 2001, 268, 4686–4697.
138. Atta, A.; Akhtar, M.S.; Bhakuni, V. Monovalent Cation-Induced Conformational Change in Glucose Oxidase Leading to Stabilization of the Enzyme. Biochemistry 2001, 40, 1945–1955.
139. Borgmann, S.; Schulte, A.; Neugebauer, S.; Schuhmann, W. Amperometric Biosensors. In Advances in Electrochemical Science and Engineering; WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA: Weinheim, Germany, 2011.
140. Sasso, S.V.; Pierce, R.J.; Walla, R.; Yacynych, A.M. Electropolymerized 1,2-diaminobenzene as a means to prevent interferences and fouling and to stabilize immobilized enzyme in electrochemical biosensors. Anal. Chem. 1990, 62, 1111–1117.
141. Geise, R.J.; Adams, J.M.; Barone, N.J.; Yacynych, A.M. Electropolymerized films to prevent interferences and electrode fouling in biosensors. Biosens. Bioelectron. 1991, 6, 151–160.
142. Humphrey, S.P.; Williamson, R.T.J. A review of saliva: Normal composition, flow, and function. Prosthet. Dent. 2001, 85, 162–169.
143. Yamaguchi, M.; Mitsumori, M.; Kano, Y. Noninvasively measuring blood glucose using saliva: A bloodless procedure based on an enzyme-sensor system. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. 1998, 17, 59–63.
144. Guilbault, G.G.; Palleschi, G.; Lubrano, G. Non-invasive biosensors in clinical analysis. Biosens. Bioelectron. 1995, 10, 379–392.
145. Butterworth, P.J.;Warren, F.J.; Ellis, P.R. Human a-amylase and starch digestion: An interesting marriage. Starch Starke 2011, 63, 395–405.
146. Baig, A. Biochemical Composition of Normal Urine. Nat. Precedings 2011.
147. Blood, Plasma, and Cellular Blood Components. Available online: http://www.usp.org/sites/default/files/ usp_pdf/EN/USPNF/chapter5.pdf (accessed on 29 February 2016).
148. Di Chiara, G. Brain Dialysis of Monoamines. In Microdialysis in the Neurosciences; Robinson, T.E., Justice, J.B., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1991.
149. O’Neill, R.D. Microvoltammetric techniques and sensors for monitoring neurochemical dynamics in vivo. A review. Analyst 1994, 119, 767–779.
150. Calia, G.; Rocchitta, G.; Migheli, R.; Puggioni, G.; Spissu, Y.; Bazzu, G.; Mazzarello, V.; Lowry, J.P.; O’Neill, R.D.; Desole, M.S., et al. Biotelemetric monitoring of brain neurochemistry in conscious rats using microsensors and biosensors. Sensors 2009, 9, 2511–2523.
151. Farina, D.; Alvau, M.D.; Puggioni, G.; Calia, G.; Bazzu, G.; Migheli, R.; Secchi, O.; Rocchitta, G.; Desole, M.S.; Serra, P.A. Implantable (Bio)sensors as new tools for wireless monitoring of brain neurochemistry in real time. World J. Pharmacol. 2014, 3, 1–17.
152. Bandodkar, A.J.; Wang, J. Non-invasive wearable electrochemical sensors: A review. Trends Biotechnol. 2014, 32, 363–371.
153. Robinson, S.; Robinson, A.H. Chemical Composition of Sweat. Physiol. Rev. 1954, 34, 202–220.
154. Ikawa, M.; Okazawa, H.; Kudo, T.; Kuriyama, M.; Fujibayashi, Y.; Yoneda, M. Evaluation of striatal oxidative stress in patients with Parkinson’s disease using [62Cu] ATSM PET. Nuclear Med. Biol. 2011, 38, 945–951.
155. Liou, G.Y.; Storz, P. Reactive oxygen species in cancer. Free Radic. Res. 2010.
156. Walsh, J.G.; Reinke, S.N.; Mamik, M.K.; McKenzie, B.A.; Maingat, F.; Branton, W.G.; Broadhurst, D.I.; Christopher, P. Rapid inflammasome activation in microglia contributes to brain disease in HIV/AIDS. Retrovirology 2014, 11, 2–18.
157. Martinelli, P.; Rugarli, E.I. Emerging roles of mitochondrial proteases in neurodegeneration. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2010, 1197, 1–10.
158. Pejler, G.; Ronnberg, E.; Waern, I.; Wernersson, S. Mast cell proteases: Multifaceted regulators of inflammatory disease. Blood 2010, 115, 4981–4990.
159. DeClerck, Y.A.; Mercurio, A.M.; Stack, M.S.; Chapman, H.A.; Zutter, M.M.; Muschel, R.J.; Raz, A.; Matrisian, L.M.; Sloane, B.F.; Noel, A., et al. Proteases, Extracellular Matrix, and Cancer. Am. J. Pathol. 2004, 164, 1131–1139.
160. Felix, K.; Gaida, M.M. Neutrophil-Derived Proteases in the Microenvironment of Pancreatic Cancer—Active Players in Tumor Progression. Int. J. Biol. Sci. 2016, 12, 302–313.