Applying pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic principles in critically Ill patients: Optimizing efficacy and reducing resistance development

Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine

Volumn 36, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 136-153

  Abdul Aziz, Mohd H ^a   Lipman, Jeffrey ^a,b   Mouton, Johan W ^c,d   Hope, William W ^e   Roberts, Jason A ^a,b,e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

^b ROYAL BRISBANE AND WOMEN'S HOSPITAL   (Australia)

^c RADBOUD UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

^d ERASMUS MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

^e UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

antibiotic; antibiotic dosing; pharmacodynamics; pharmacokinetics; resistance

Indexed keywords

AMINOGLYCOSIDE; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTIC; CARBAPENEM DERIVATIVE; COLISTIN; DAPTOMYCIN; FOSFOMYCIN; LINEZOLID; QUINOLONE DERIVATIVE; VANCOMYCIN;

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY; AREA UNDER THE CURVE; ARTICLE; BACTERIAL STRAIN; BACTERICIDAL ACTIVITY; BACTERIUM MUTANT; CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY; CRITICALLY ILL PATIENT; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG EXPOSURE; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG SENSITIVITY; HUMAN; LONG TERM EXPOSURE; MAXIMUM PLASMA CONCENTRATION; MINIMUM INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION; MONOTHERAPY; PATHOGENESIS; PHARMACODYNAMICS; PHARMACOKINETICS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; TREATMENT DURATION; VOLUME OF DISTRIBUTION;

EID: 84964296722     PISSN: 10693424     EISSN: 10989048     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1055/s-0034-1398490     Document Type: Article

References (219)

1. Vincent J. L.; Rello J.; Marshall J.; et al. EPIC II Group of Investigators. International study of the prevalence and outcomes of infection in intensive care units. JAMA: 2009; 302 21 2323 2329
2. Vincent J. L.; Sakr Y.; Sprung C. L.; et al. Sepsis Occurrence in Acutely Ill Patients Investigators. Sepsis in European intensive care units: results of the SOAP study. Crit Care Med: 2006; 34 2 344 353
3. Kaukonen K. M.; Bailey M.; Suzuki S.; Pilcher D.; Bellomo R. Mortality related to severe sepsis and septic shock among critically ill patients in Australia and New Zealand, 2000-2012. JAMA: 2014; 311 13 1308 1316
4. Stevenson E. K.; Rubenstein A. R.; Radin G. T.; Wiener R. S.; Walkey A. J. Two decades of mortality trends among patients with severe sepsis: a comparative meta-analysis. Crit Care Med: 2014; 42 3 625 631
5. ARISE; ANZICS APD Management Committee The outcome of patients with sepsis and septic shock presenting to emergency departments in Australia and New Zealand. Crit Care Resusc: 2007; 9 1 8 18
6. Dellinger R. P.; Levy M. M.; Rhodes A.; et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign Guidelines Committee including the Pediatric Subgroup. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock: 2012. Crit Care Med: 2013; 41 2 580 637
7. Coopersmith C. M.; Wunsch H.; Fink M. P.; et al. A comparison of critical care research funding and the financial burden of critical illness in the United States. Crit Care Med: 2012; 40 4 1072 1079
8. Ranieri V. M.; Thompson B. T.; Barie P. S.; et al. PROWESS-SHOCK Study Group. Drotrecogin alfa (activated) in adults with septic shock. N Engl J Med: 2012; 366 22 2055 2064
9. Warren B. L.; Eid A.; Singer P.; et al. KyberSept Trial Study Group. Caring for the critically ill patient. High-dose antithrombin III in severe sepsis: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA: 2001; 286 15 1869 1878
10. Finfer S.; Chittock D. R.; Su S. Y.; et al. NICE-SUGAR Study Investigators. Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med: 2009; 360 13 1283 1297
11. Garnacho-Montero J.; Aldabo-Pallas T.; Garnacho-Montero C.; et al. Timing of adequate antibiotic therapy is a greater determinant of outcome than are TNF and IL-10 polymorphisms in patients with sepsis. Crit Care: 2006; 10 4 R111
12. Kumar A.; Roberts D.; Wood K. E.; et al. Duration of hypotension before initiation of effective antimicrobial therapy is the critical determinant of survival in human septic shock. Crit Care Med: 2006; 34 6 1589 1596
13. Garnacho-Montero J.; Garcia-Garmendia J. L.; Barrero-Almodovar A.; Jimenez-Jimenez F. J.; Perez-Paredes C.; Ortiz-Leyba C. Impact of adequate empirical antibiotic therapy on the outcome of patients admitted to the intensive care unit with sepsis. Crit Care Med: 2003; 31 12 2742 2751
14. Felton T. W.; Hope W. W.; Roberts J. A. How severe is antibiotic pharmacokinetic variability in critically ill patients and what can be done about it? Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis: 2014; 79 4 441 447
15. Zhanel G. G.; DeCorby M.; Laing N.; et al. Canadian Antimicrobial Resistance Alliance (CARA). Antimicrobial-resistant pathogens in intensive care units in Canada: results of the Canadian National Intensive Care Unit (CAN-ICU) study, 2005-2006. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2008; 52 4 1430 1437
16. Rhomberg P. R.; Fritsche T. R.; Sader H. S.; Jones R. N. Antimicrobial susceptibility pattern comparisons among intensive care unit and general ward Gram-negative isolates from the Meropenem Yearly Susceptibility Test Information Collection Program (USA). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis: 2006; 56 1 57 62
17. Mouton J. W.; Ambrose P. G.; Canton R.; et al. Conserving antibiotics for the future: new ways to use old and new drugs from a pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic perspective. Drug Resist Updat: 2011; 14 2 107 117
18. Dulhunty J. M.; Paterson D.; Webb S. A.; Lipman J. Antimicrobial utilisation in 37 Australian and New Zealand intensive care units. Anaesth Intensive Care: 2011; 39 2 231 237
19. Singh N.; Yu V. L. Rational empiric antibiotic prescription in the ICU. Chest: 2000; 117 5 1496 1499
20. Fridkin S. K.; Gaynes R. P. Antimicrobial resistance in intensive care units. Clin Chest Med: 1999; 20 2 303 316, viii
21. Livermore D. M. Fourteen years in resistance. Int J Antimicrob Agents: 2012; 39 4 283 294
22. Ben-David D.; Kordevani R.; Keller N.; et al. Outcome of carbapenem resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae bloodstream infections. Clin Microbiol Infect: 2012; 18 1 54 60
23. Lye D. C.; Earnest A.; Ling M. L.; et al. The impact of multidrug resistance in healthcare-associated and nosocomial Gram-negative bacteraemia on mortality and length of stay: cohort study. Clin Microbiol Infect: 2012; 18 5 502 508
24. Shorr A. F. Review of studies of the impact on Gram-negative bacterial resistance on outcomes in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med: 2009; 37 4 1463 1469
25. Roberts J. A.; Kruger P.; Paterson D. L.; Lipman J. Antibiotic resistance-what's dosing got to do with it? Crit Care Med: 2008; 36 8 2433 2440
26. Roberts J. A.; Abdul-Aziz M. H.; Lipman J.; et al. International Society of Anti-Infective Pharmacology and the Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics Study Group of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. Individualised antibiotic dosing for patients who are critically ill: challenges and potential solutions. Lancet Infect Dis: 2014; 14 6 498 509
27. Zeitlinger M. A.; Derendorf H.; Mouton J. W.; et al. Protein binding: do we ever learn? Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2011; 55 7 3067 3074
28. Drusano G. L. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of antimicrobials. Clin Infect Dis: 2007; 45 1 01 S89 S95
29. Mouton J. W.; Jacobs N.; Tiddens H.; Horrevorts A. M. Pharmacodynamics of tobramycin in patients with cystic fibrosis. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis: 2005; 52 2 123 127
30. Craig W. A. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic parameters: rationale for antibacterial dosing of mice and men. Clin Infect Dis: 1998; 26 1 1 10, quiz 11-12
31. Craig W. A.; Redington J.; Ebert S. C. Pharmacodynamics of amikacin in vitro and in mouse thigh and lung infections. J Antimicrob Chemother: 1991; 27 (Suppl C): 29 40
32. Moore R. D.; Lietman P. S.; Smith C. R. Clinical response to aminoglycoside therapy: importance of the ratio of peak concentration to minimal inhibitory concentration. J Infect Dis: 1987; 155 1 93 99
33. McKinnon P. S.; Paladino J. A.; Schentag J. J. Evaluation of area under the inhibitory curve (AUIC) and time above the minimum inhibitory concentration (T>MIC) as predictors of outcome for cefepime and ceftazidime in serious bacterial infections. Int J Antimicrob Agents: 2008; 31 4 345 351
34. Craig W. A. Basic pharmacodynamics of antibacterials with clinical applications to the use of beta-lactams, glycopeptides, and linezolid. Infect Dis Clin North Am: 2003; 17 3 479 501
35. Moise-Broder P. A.; Forrest A.; Birmingham M. C.; Schentag J. J. Pharmacodynamics of vancomycin and other antimicrobials in patients with Staphylococcus aureus lower respiratory tract infections. Clin Pharmacokinet: 2004; 43 13 925 942
36. Firsov A. A.; Strukova E. N.; Shlykova D. S.; et al. Bacterial resistance studies using in vitro dynamic models: the predictive power of the mutant prevention and minimum inhibitory antibiotic concentrations. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2013; 57 10 4956 4962
37. Tam V. H.; Louie A.; Deziel M. R.; Liu W.; Drusano G. L. The relationship between quinolone exposures and resistance amplification is characterized by an inverted U: a new paradigm for optimizing pharmacodynamics to counterselect resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2007; 51 2 744 747
38. Tam V. H.; Louie A.; Deziel M. R.; Liu W.; Leary R.; Drusano G. L. Bacterial-population responses to drug-selective pressure: examination of garenoxacin's effect on Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Infect Dis: 2005; 192 3 420 428
39. Firsov A. A.; Vostrov S. N.; Lubenko I. Y.; Drlica K.; Portnoy Y. A.; Zinner S. H. In vitro pharmacodynamic evaluation of the mutant selection window hypothesis using four fluoroquinolones against Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2003; 47 5 1604 1613
40. Stearne L. E.; Goessens W. H.; Mouton J. W.; Gyssens I. C. Effect of dosing and dosing frequency on the efficacy of ceftizoxime and the emergence of ceftizoxime resistance during the early development of murine abscesses caused by Bacteroides fragilis and Enterobacter cloacae mixed infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2007; 51 10 3605 3611
41. Jumbe N.; Louie A.; Leary R.; et al. Application of a mathematical model to prevent in vivo amplification of antibiotic-resistant bacterial populations during therapy. J Clin Invest: 2003; 112 2 275 285
42. Tam V. H.; Louie A.; Fritsche T. R.; et al. Impact of drug-exposure intensity and duration of therapy on the emergence of Staphylococcus aureus resistance to a quinolone antimicrobial. J Infect Dis: 2007; 195 12 1818 1827
43. LaPlante K. L.; Rybak M. J.; Tsuji B.; Lodise T. P.; Kaatz G. W. Fluoroquinolone resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae: area under the concentration-time curve/MIC ratio and resistance development with gatifloxacin, gemifloxacin, levofloxacin, and moxifloxacin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2007; 51 4 1315 1320
44. Tam V. H.; Schilling A. N.; Neshat S.; Poole K.; Melnick D. A.; Coyle E. A. Optimization of meropenem minimum concentration/MIC ratio to suppress in vitro resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2005; 49 12 4920 4927
45. Drusano G. L.; Bonomo R. A.; Bahniuk N.; et al. Resistance emergence mechanism and mechanism of resistance suppression by tobramycin for cefepime for Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2012; 56 1 231 242
46. Gumbo T.; Louie A.; Deziel M. R.; Parsons L. M.; Salfinger M.; Drusano G. L. Selection of a moxifloxacin dose that suppresses drug resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis, by use of an in vitro pharmacodynamic infection model and mathematical modeling. J Infect Dis: 2004; 190 9 1642 1651
47. Baquero F.; Negri M. C. Strategies to minimize the development of antibiotic resistance. J Chemother: 1997; 9 03 29 37
48. Baquero F. Resistance to quinolones in gram-negative microorganisms: mechanisms and prevention. Eur Urol: 1990; 17 01 3 12
49. Zhao X.; Drlica K. Restricting the selection of antibiotic-resistant mutants: a general strategy derived from fluoroquinolone studies. Clin Infect Dis: 2001; 33 3 03 S147 S156
50. Dong Y.; Zhao X.; Kreiswirth B. N.; Drlica K. Mutant prevention concentration as a measure of antibiotic potency: studies with clinical isolates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2000; 44 9 2581 2584
51. Dong Y.; Zhao X.; Domagala J.; Drlica K. Effect of fluoroquinolone concentration on selection of resistant mutants of Mycobacterium bovis BCG and Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 1999; 43 7 1756 1758
52. Zhou J.; Dong Y.; Zhao X.; et al. Selection of antibiotic-resistant bacterial mutants: allelic diversity among fluoroquinolone-resistant mutations. J Infect Dis: 2000; 182 2 517 525
53. Firsov A. A.; Smirnova M. V.; Lubenko I. Y.; Vostrov S. N.; Portnoy Y. A.; Zinner S. H. Testing the mutant selection window hypothesis with Staphylococcus aureus exposed to daptomycin and vancomycin in an in vitro dynamic model. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2006; 58 6 1185 1192
54. Campion J. J.; Chung P.; McNamara P. J.; Titlow W. B.; Evans M. E. Pharmacodynamic modeling of the evolution of levofloxacin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2005; 49 6 2189 2199
55. Zinner S. H.; Lubenko I. Y.; Gilbert D.; et al. Emergence of resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in an in vitro dynamic model that simulates moxifloxacin concentrations inside and outside the mutant selection window: related changes in susceptibility, resistance frequency and bacterial killing. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2003; 52 4 616 622
56. Cui J.; Liu Y.; Wang R.; Tong W.; Drlica K.; Zhao X. The mutant selection window in rabbits infected with Staphylococcus aureus. J Infect Dis: 2006; 194 11 1601 1608
57. Croisier D.; Etienne M.; Piroth L.; et al. In vivo pharmacodynamic efficacy of gatifloxacin against Streptococcus pneumoniae in an experimental model of pneumonia: impact of the low levels of fluoroquinolone resistance on the enrichment of resistant mutants. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2004; 54 3 640 647
58. Etienne M.; Croisier D.; Charles P. E.; et al. Effect of low-level resistance on subsequent enrichment of fluoroquinolone-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in rabbits. J Infect Dis: 2004; 190 8 1472 1475
59. Andes D.; Craig W. A. Pharmacodynamics of the new fluoroquinolone gatifloxacin in murine thigh and lung infection models. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2002; 46 6 1665 1670
60. Olofsson S. K.; Marcusson L. L.; Komp Lindgren P.; Hughes D.; Cars O. Selection of ciprofloxacin resistance in Escherichia coli in an in vitro kinetic model: relation between drug exposure and mutant prevention concentration. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2006; 57 6 1116 1121
61. Croisier D.; Etienne M.; Bergoin E.; et al. Mutant selection window in levofloxacin and moxifloxacin treatments of experimental pneumococcal pneumonia in a rabbit model of human therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2004; 48 5 1699 1707
62. Knudsen J. D.; Odenholt I.; Erlendsdottir H.; et al. Selection of resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae during penicillin treatment in vitro and in three animal models. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2003; 47 8 2499 2506
63. Liang B.; Bai N.; Cai Y.; Wang R.; Drlica K.; Zhao X. Mutant prevention concentration-based pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic indices as dosing targets for suppressing the enrichment of levofloxacin-resistant subpopulations of Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2011; 55 5 2409 2412
64. Firsov A. A.; Smirnova M. V.; Strukova E. N.; Vostrov S. N.; Portnoy Y. A.; Zinner S. H. Enrichment of resistant Staphylococcus aureus at ciprofloxacin concentrations simulated within the mutant selection window: bolus versus continuous infusion. Int J Antimicrob Agents: 2008; 32 6 488 493
65. Firsov A. A.; Vostrov S. N.; Lubenko I. Y.; Arzamastsev A. P.; Portnoy Y. A.; Zinner S. H. ABT492 and levofloxacin: comparison of their pharmacodynamics and their abilities to prevent the selection of resistant Staphylococcus aureus in an in vitro dynamic model. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2004; 54 1 178 186
66. Gugel J.; Dos Santos Pereira A.; Pignatari A. C.; Gales A. C. beta-Lactam MICs correlate poorly with mutant prevention concentrations for clinical isolates of Acinetobacter spp. and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2006; 50 6 2276 2277
67. Hansen G. T.; Metzler K.; Drlica K.; Blondeau J. M. Mutant prevention concentration of gemifloxacin for clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2003; 47 1 440 441
68. Drusano G. L.; Johnson D. E.; Rosen M.; Standiford H. C. Pharmacodynamics of a fluoroquinolone antimicrobial agent in a neutropenic rat model of Pseudomonas sepsis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 1993; 37 3 483 490
69. Blaser J.; Stone B. B.; Groner M. C.; Zinner S. H. Comparative study with enoxacin and netilmicin in a pharmacodynamic model to determine importance of ratio of antibiotic peak concentration to MIC for bactericidal activity and emergence of resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 1987; 31 7 1054 1060
70. Thorburn C. E.; Edwards D. I. The effect of pharmacokinetics on the bactericidal activity of ciprofloxacin and sparfloxacin against Streptococcus pneumoniae and the emergence of resistance. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2001; 48 1 15 22
71. Forrest A.; Nix D. E.; Ballow C. H.; Goss T. F.; Birmingham M. C.; Schentag J. J. Pharmacodynamics of intravenous ciprofloxacin in seriously ill patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 1993; 37 5 1073 1081
72. Peloquin C. A.; Cumbo T. J.; Nix D. E.; Sands M. F.; Schentag J. J. Evaluation of intravenous ciprofloxacin in patients with nosocomial lower respiratory tract infections. Impact of plasma concentrations, organism, minimum inhibitory concentration, and clinical condition on bacterial eradication. Arch Intern Med: 1989; 149 10 2269 2273
73. Zelenitsky S. A.; Ariano R. E. Support for higher ciprofloxacin AUC 24/MIC targets in treating Enterobacteriaceae bloodstream infection. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2010; 65 8 1725 1732
74. Drusano G. L.; Preston S. L.; Fowler C.; Corrado M.; Weisinger B.; Kahn J. Relationship between fluoroquinolone area under the curve: minimum inhibitory concentration ratio and the probability of eradication of the infecting pathogen, in patients with nosocomial pneumonia. J Infect Dis: 2004; 189 9 1590 1597
75. Ambrose P. G.; Grasela D. M.; Grasela T. H.; Passarell J.; Mayer H. B.; Pierce P. F. Pharmacodynamics of fluoroquinolones against Streptococcus pneumoniae in patients with community-acquired respiratory tract infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2001; 45 10 2793 2797
76. Mattoes H. M.; Banevicius M.; Li D.; et al. Pharmacodynamic assessment of gatifloxacin against Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2001; 45 7 2092 2097
77. Bédos J. P.; Azoulay-Dupuis E.; Moine P.; et al. Pharmacodynamic activities of ciprofloxacin and sparfloxacin in a murine pneumococcal pneumonia model: relevance for drug efficacy. J Pharmacol Exp Ther: 1998; 286 1 29 35
78. Thomas J. K.; Forrest A.; Bhavnani S. M.; et al. Pharmacodynamic evaluation of factors associated with the development of bacterial resistance in acutely ill patients during therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 1998; 42 3 521 527
79. Schentag J. J.; Gilliland K. K.; Paladino J. A. What have we learned from pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic theories? Clin Infect Dis: 2001; 32 1 01 S39 S46
80. Burgess D. S.; Hall R. G. II. Simulated comparison of the pharmacodynamics of ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa using pharmacokinetic data from healthy volunteers and 2002 minimum inhibitory concentration data. Clin Ther: 2007; 29 7 1421 1427
81. Gebru E.; Choi M. J.; Lee S. J.; Damte D.; Park S. C. Mutant-prevention concentration and mechanism of resistance in clinical isolates and enrofloxacin/marbofloxacin-selected mutants of Escherichia coli of canine origin. J Med Microbiol: 2011; 60 Pt 10 1512 1522
82. Firsov A. A.; Vostrov S. N.; Lubenko I. Y.; Zinner S. H.; Portnoy Y. A. Concentration-dependent changes in the susceptibility and killing of Staphylococcus aureus in an in vitro dynamic model that simulates normal and impaired gatifloxacin elimination. Int J Antimicrob Agents: 2004; 23 1 60 66
83. Khachman D.; Conil J. M.; Georges B.; et al. Optimizing ciprofloxacin dosing in intensive care unit patients through the use of population pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic analysis and Monte Carlo simulations. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2011; 66 8 1798 1809
84. MacArthur R. D.; Lolans V.; Zar F. A.; Jackson G. G. Biphasic, concentration-dependent and rate-limited, concentration-independent bacterial killing by an aminoglycoside antibiotic. J Infect Dis: 1984; 150 5 778 779
85. Mouton J. W.; Vinks A. A. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic modelling of antibacterials in vitro and in vivo using bacterial growth and kill kinetics: the minimum inhibitory concentration versus stationary concentration. Clin Pharmacokinet: 2005; 44 2 201 210
86. Vogelman B.; Gudmundsson S.; Leggett J.; Turnidge J.; Ebert S.; Craig W. A. Correlation of antimicrobial pharmacokinetic parameters with therapeutic efficacy in an animal model. J Infect Dis: 1988; 158 4 831 847
87. Kashuba A. D.; Nafziger A. N.; Drusano G. L.; Bertino J. S. Jr. Optimizing aminoglycoside therapy for nosocomial pneumonia caused by gram-negative bacteria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 1999; 43 3 623 629
88. Zelenitsky S. A.; Harding G. K.; Sun S.; Ubhi K.; Ariano R. E. Treatment and outcome of Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteraemia: an antibiotic pharmacodynamic analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2003; 52 4 668 674
89. Drusano G. L.; Ambrose P. G.; Bhavnani S. M.; Bertino J. S.; Nafziger A. N.; Louie A. Back to the future: using aminoglycosides again and how to dose them optimally. Clin Infect Dis: 2007; 45 6 753 760
90. Smith P. F.; Ballow C. H.; Booker B. M.; Forrest A.; Schentag J. J. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of aztreonam and tobramycin in hospitalized patients. Clin Ther: 2001; 23 8 1231 1244
91. Xiong Y. Q.; Caillon J.; Kergueris M. F.; et al. Adaptive resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa induced by aminoglycosides and killing kinetics in a rabbit endocarditis model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 1997; 41 4 823 826
92. Barclay M. L.; Begg E. J.; Chambers S. T. Adaptive resistance following single doses of gentamicin in a dynamic in vitro model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 1992; 36 9 1951 1957
93. Daikos G. L.; Lolans V. T.; Jackson G. G. First-exposure adaptive resistance to aminoglycoside antibiotics in vivo with meaning for optimal clinical use. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 1991; 35 1 117 123
94. Tam V. H.; Ledesma K. R.; Vo G.; Kabbara S.; Lim T. P.; Nikolaou M. Pharmacodynamic modeling of aminoglycosides against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii: identifying dosing regimens to suppress resistance development. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2008; 52 11 3987 3993
95. Marik P. E.; Lipman J.; Kobilski S.; Scribante J. A prospective randomized study comparing once- versus twice-daily amikacin dosing in critically ill adult and paediatric patients. J Antimicrob Chemother: 1991; 28 5 753 764
96. Prins J. M.; Büller H. R.; Kuijper E. J.; Tange R. A.; Speelman P. Once versus thrice daily gentamicin in patients with serious infections. Lancet: 1993; 341 8841 335 339
97. Bailey T. C.; Little J. R.; Littenberg B.; Reichley R. M.; Dunagan W. C. A meta-analysis of extended-interval dosing versus multiple daily dosing of aminoglycosides. Clin Infect Dis: 1997; 24 5 786 795
98. Munckhof W. J.; Grayson M. L.; Turnidge J. D. A meta-analysis of studies on the safety and efficacy of aminoglycosides given either once daily or as divided doses. J Antimicrob Chemother: 1996; 37 4 645 663
99. Crandon J. L.; Bulik C. C.; Kuti J. L.; Nicolau D. P. Clinical pharmacodynamics of cefepime in patients infected with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2010; 54 3 1111 1116
100. Mouton J. W.; Punt N.; Vinks A. A. Concentration-effect relationship of ceftazidime explains why the time above the MIC is 40 percent for a static effect in vivo. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2007; 51 9 3449 3451
101. Ong C. T.; Tessier P. R.; Li C.; Nightingale C. H.; Nicolau D. P. Comparative in vivo efficacy of meropenem, imipenem, and cefepime against Pseudomonas aeruginosa expressing MexA-MexB-OprM efflux pumps. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis: 2007; 57 2 153 161
102. Muller A. E.; Punt N.; Mouton J. W. Exposure to ceftobiprole is associated with microbiological eradication and clinical cure in patients with nosocomial pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2014; 58 5 2512 2519
103. Muller A. E.; Punt N.; Mouton J. W. Optimal exposures of ceftazidime predict the probability of microbiological and clinical outcome in the treatment of nosocomial pneumonia. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2013; 68 4 900 906
104. Roberts J. A.; Paul S. K.; Akova M.; et al. DALI Study. DALI: defining antibiotic levels in intensive care unit patients: are current β-lactam antibiotic doses sufficient for critically ill patients? Clin Infect Dis: 2014; 58 8 1072 1083
105. Ariano R. E.; Nyhlén A.; Donnelly J. P.; Sitar D. S.; Harding G. K.; Zelenitsky S. A. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of meropenem in febrile neutropenic patients with bacteremia. Ann Pharmacother: 2005; 39 1 32 38
106. Mouton J. W.; den Hollander J. G. Killing of Pseudomonas aeruginosa during continuous and intermittent infusion of ceftazidime in an in vitro pharmacokinetic model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 1994; 38 5 931 936
107. Li C.; Du X.; Kuti J. L.; Nicolau D. P. Clinical pharmacodynamics of meropenem in patients with lower respiratory tract infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2007; 51 5 1725 1730
108. Tam V. H.; McKinnon P. S.; Akins R. L.; Rybak M. J.; Drusano G. L. Pharmacodynamics of cefepime in patients with Gram-negative infections. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2002; 50 3 425 428
109. Abdul-Aziz M. H.; Dulhunty J. M.; Bellomo R.; Lipman J.; Roberts J. A. Continuous beta-lactam infusion in critically ill patients: the clinical evidence. Ann Intensive Care: 2012; 2 1 37
110. Fantin B.; Farinotti R.; Thabaut A.; Carbon C. Conditions for the emergence of resistance to cefpirome and ceftazidime in experimental endocarditis due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Antimicrob Chemother: 1994; 33 3 563 569
111. Olofsson S. K.; Geli P.; Andersson D. I.; Cars O. Pharmacodynamic model to describe the concentration-dependent selection of cefotaxime-resistant Escherichia coli. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2005; 49 12 5081 5091
112. Goessens W. H.; Mouton J. W.; ten Kate M. T.; Bijl A. J.; Ott A.; Bakker-Woudenberg I. A. Role of ceftazidime dose regimen on the selection of resistant Enterobacter cloacae in the intestinal flora of rats treated for an experimental pulmonary infection. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2007; 59 3 507 516
113. Tam V. H.; Schilling A. N.; Melnick D. A.; Coyle E. A. Comparison of beta-lactams in counter-selecting resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis: 2005; 52 2 145 151
114. Gudmundsson S.; Vogelman B.; Craig W. A. The in-vivo postantibiotic effect of imipenem and other new antimicrobials. J Antimicrob Chemother: 1986; 18 (Suppl E): 67 73
115. Fuentes F.; Martín M. M.; Izquierdo J.; Gomez-Lus M. L.; Prieto J. In vivo and in vitro study of several pharmacodynamic effects of meropenem. Scand J Infect Dis: 1995; 27 5 469 474
116. Tam V. H.; Ledesma K. R.; Schilling A. N.; et al. In vivo dynamics of carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa selection after suboptimal dosing. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis: 2009; 64 4 427 433
117. Zinner S. H.; Gilbert D.; Greer K.; Portnoy Y. A.; Firsov A. A. Concentration-resistance relationships with Pseudomonas aeruginosa exposed to doripenem and ciprofloxacin in an in vitro model. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2013; 68 4 881 887
118. Roberts J. A.; Kirkpatrick C. M.; Roberts M. S.; Robertson T. A.; Dalley A. J.; Lipman J. Meropenem dosing in critically ill patients with sepsis and without renal dysfunction: intermittent bolus versus continuous administration? Monte Carlo dosing simulations and subcutaneous tissue distribution. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2009; 64 1 142 150
119. Lorente L.; Lorenzo L.; Martín M. M.; Jiménez A.; Mora M. L. Meropenem by continuous versus intermittent infusion in ventilator-associated pneumonia due to gram-negative bacilli. Ann Pharmacother: 2006; 40 2 219 223
120. Krueger W. A.; Bulitta J.; Kinzig-Schippers M.; et al. Evaluation by monte carlo simulation of the pharmacokinetics of two doses of meropenem administered intermittently or as a continuous infusion in healthy volunteers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2005; 49 5 1881 1889
121. Louie A.; Bied A.; Fregeau C.; et al. Impact of different carbapenems and regimens of administration on resistance emergence for three isogenic Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains with differing mechanisms of resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2010; 54 6 2638 2645
122. Chastre J.; Wunderink R.; Prokocimer P.; Lee M.; Kaniga K.; Friedland I. Efficacy and safety of intravenous infusion of doripenem versus imipenem in ventilator-associated pneumonia: a multicenter, randomized study. Crit Care Med: 2008; 36 4 1089 1096
123. Löwdin E.; Odenholt I.; Cars O. In vitro studies of pharmacodynamic properties of vancomycin against Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 1998; 42 10 2739 2744
124. Larsson A. J.; Walker K. J.; Raddatz J. K.; Rotschafer J. C. The concentration-independent effect of monoexponential and biexponential decay in vancomycin concentrations on the killing of Staphylococcus aureus under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. J Antimicrob Chemother: 1996; 38 4 589 597
125. Chambers H. F.; Kennedy S. Effects of dosage, peak and trough concentrations in serum, protein binding, and bactericidal rate on efficacy of teicoplanin in a rabbit model of endocarditis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 1990; 34 4 510 514
126. Knudsen J. D.; Fuursted K.; Raber S.; Espersen F.; Frimodt-Moller N. Pharmacodynamics of glycopeptides in the mouse peritonitis model of Streptococcus pneumoniae or Staphylococcus aureus infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2000; 44 5 1247 1254
127. Moise P. A.; Forrest A.; Bhavnani S. M.; Birmingham M. C.; Schentag J. J. Area under the inhibitory curve and a pneumonia scoring system for predicting outcomes of vancomycin therapy for respiratory infections by Staphylococcus aureus. Am J Health Syst Pharm: 2000; 57 2 02 S4 S9
128. Zelenitsky S.; Rubinstein E.; Ariano R.; et al. Cooperative Antimicrobial Therapy of Septic Shock-CATSS Database Research Group. Vancomycin pharmacodynamics and survival in patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus -associated septic shock. Int J Antimicrob Agents: 2013; 41 3 255 260
129. Rybak M. J.; Lomaestro B. M.; Rotschafer J. C.; et al. Vancomycin therapeutic guidelines: a summary of consensus recommendations from the infectious diseases Society of America, the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, and the Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists. Clin Infect Dis: 2009; 49 3 325 327
130. American Thoracic Society; Infectious Diseases Society of America Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 2005; 171 4 388 416
131. Tsuji B. T.; Rybak M. J.; Lau K. L.; Sakoulas G. Evaluation of accessory gene regulator (agr) group and function in the proclivity towards vancomycin intermediate resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2007; 51 3 1089 1091
132. Charles P. G.; Ward P. B.; Johnson P. D.; Howden B. P.; Grayson M. L. Clinical features associated with bacteremia due to heterogeneous vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis: 2004; 38 3 448 451
133. Sakoulas G.; Gold H. S.; Cohen R. A.; Venkataraman L.; Moellering R. C.; Eliopoulos G. M. Effects of prolonged vancomycin administration on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in a patient with recurrent bacteraemia. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2006; 57 4 699 704
134. Howden B. P.; Ward P. B.; Charles P. G.; et al. Treatment outcomes for serious infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with reduced vancomycin susceptibility. Clin Infect Dis: 2004; 38 4 521 528
135. del Mar Fernández de Gatta Garcia M.; Revilla N.; Calvo M. V.; Domínguez-Gil A.; Sánchez Navarro A. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic analysis of vancomycin in ICU patients. Intensive Care Med: 2007; 33 2 279 285
136. Andes D.; van Ogtrop M. L.; Peng J.; Craig W. A. In vivo pharmacodynamics of a new oxazolidinone (linezolid). Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2002; 46 11 3484 3489
137. Rayner C. R.; Forrest A.; Meagher A. K.; Birmingham M. C.; Schentag J. J. Clinical pharmacodynamics of linezolid in seriously ill patients treated in a compassionate use programme. Clin Pharmacokinet: 2003; 42 15 1411 1423
138. Buchanan L. V.; Dailey C. F.; LeMay R. J.; Zielinski R. J.; Kuo M. S.; Gibson J. K. Time-dependent antibacterial effects of linezolid in experimental rabbit endocarditis. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2002; 50 3 440 442
139. Zoller M.; Maier B.; Hornuss C.; et al. Variability of linezolid concentrations after standard dosing in critically ill patients: a prospective observational study. Crit Care: 2014; 18 4 R148
140. Dong H.; Wang X.; Dong Y.; et al. Clinical pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic profile of linezolid in severely ill intensive care unit patients. Int J Antimicrob Agents: 2011; 38 4 296 300
141. Adembri C.; Fallani S.; Cassetta M. I.; et al. Linezolid pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic profile in critically ill septic patients: intermittent versus continuous infusion. Int J Antimicrob Agents: 2008; 31 2 122 129
142. Cattaneo D.; Orlando G.; Cozzi V.; et al. Linezolid plasma concentrations and occurrence of drug-related haematological toxicity in patients with gram-positive infections. Int J Antimicrob Agents: 2013; 41 6 586 589
143. Livermore D. M. Linezolid in vitro: mechanism and antibacterial spectrum. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2003; 51 02 ii9 ii16
144. Sánchez García M.; De la Torre M. A.; Morales G.; et al. Clinical outbreak of linezolid-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in an intensive care unit. JAMA: 2010; 303 22 2260 2264
145. Hentschke M.; Saager B.; Horstkotte M. A.; et al. Emergence of linezolid resistance in a methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus strain. Infection: 2008; 36 1 85 87
146. Pai M. P.; Rodvold K. A.; Schreckenberger P. C.; Gonzales R. D.; Petrolatti J. M.; Quinn J. P. Risk factors associated with the development of infection with linezolid- and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Clin Infect Dis: 2002; 35 10 1269 1272
147. Wunderink R. G.; Niederman M. S.; Kollef M. H.; et al. Linezolid in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial pneumonia: a randomized, controlled study. Clin Infect Dis: 2012; 54 5 621 629
148. Herrmann D. J.; Peppard W. J.; Ledeboer N. A.; Theesfeld M. L.; Weigelt J. A.; Buechel B. J. Linezolid for the treatment of drug-resistant infections. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther: 2008; 6 6 825 848
149. Safdar N.; Andes D.; Craig W. A. In vivo pharmacodynamic activity of daptomycin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2004; 48 1 63 68
150. Dandekar P. K.; Tessier P. R.; Williams P.; Zhang C.; Nightingale C. H.; Nicolau D. P. Determination of the pharmacodynamic profile of daptomycin against Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates with varying susceptibility to penicillin in a murine thigh infection model. Chemotherapy: 2004; 50 1 11 16
151. Louie A.; Kaw P.; Liu W.; Jumbe N.; Miller M. H.; Drusano G. L. Pharmacodynamics of daptomycin in a murine thigh model of Staphylococcus aureus infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2001; 45 3 845 851
152. Dvorchik B. H.; Brazier D.; DeBruin M. F.; Arbeit R. D. Daptomycin pharmacokinetics and safety following administration of escalating doses once daily to healthy subjects. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2003; 47 4 1318 1323
153. Woodworth J. R.; Nyhart E. H. Jr, Brier G. L.; Wolny J. D.; Black H. R. Single-dose pharmacokinetics and antibacterial activity of daptomycin, a new lipopeptide antibiotic, in healthy volunteers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 1992; 36 2 318 325
154. Gould I. M.; David M. Z.; Esposito S.; et al. New insights into meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) pathogenesis, treatment and resistance. Int J Antimicrob Agents: 2012; 39 2 96 104
155. Fowler V. G. Jr, Boucher H. W.; Corey G. R.; et al. S. aureus Endocarditis and Bacteremia Study Group. Daptomycin versus standard therapy for bacteremia and endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus. N Engl J Med: 2006; 355 7 653 665
156. Liu C.; Bayer A.; Cosgrove S. E.; et al. Clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the treatment of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children: executive summary. Clin Infect Dis: 2011; 52 3 285 292
157. Moise P. A.; Hershberger E.; Amodio-Groton M. I.; Lamp K. C. Safety and clinical outcomes when utilizing high-dose (> or =8 mg/kg) daptomycin therapy. Ann Pharmacother: 2009; 43 7 1211 1219
158. Bassetti M.; Nicco E.; Ginocchio F.; Ansaldi F.; de Florentiis D.; Viscoli C. High-dose daptomycin in documented Staphylococcus aureus infections. Int J Antimicrob Agents: 2010; 36 5 459 461
159. Figueroa D. A.; Mangini E.; Amodio-Groton M.; et al. Safety of high-dose intravenous daptomycin treatment: three-year cumulative experience in a clinical program. Clin Infect Dis: 2009; 49 2 177 180
160. Falagas M. E.; Maraki S.; Karageorgopoulos D. E.; Kastoris A. C.; Mavromanolakis E.; Samonis G. Antimicrobial susceptibility of multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) Enterobacteriaceae isolates to fosfomycin. Int J Antimicrob Agents: 2010; 35 3 240 243
161. Patel S. S.; Balfour J. A.; Bryson H. M. Fosfomycin tromethamine. A review of its antibacterial activity, pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic efficacy as a single-dose oral treatment for acute uncomplicated lower urinary tract infections. Drugs: 1997; 53 4 637 656
162. Dinh A.; Salomon J.; Bru J. P.; Bernard L. Fosfomycin: efficacy against infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria. Scand J Infect Dis: 2012; 44 3 182 189
163. Thauvin C.; Lemeland J. F.; Humbert G.; Fillastre J. P. Efficacy of pefloxacin-fosfomycin in experimental endocarditis caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 1988; 32 6 919 921
164. Portier H.; Kazmierczak A.; Lucht F.; Tremeaux J. C.; Chavanet P.; Duez J. M. Cefotaxime in combination with other antibiotics for the treatment of severe methicillin-resistant staphylococcal infections. Infection: 1985; 13 01 S123 S128
165. Komatsuzawa H.; Suzuki J.; Sugai M.; Miyake Y.; Suginaka H. Effect of combination of oxacillin and non-beta-lactam antibiotics on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Antimicrob Chemother: 1994; 33 6 1155 1163
166. Sahuquillo Arce J. M.; Colombo Gainza E.; Gil Brusola A.; Ortiz Estévez R.; Cantón E.; Gobernado M. In vitro activity of linezolid in combination with doxycycline, fosfomycin, levofloxacin, rifampicin and vancomycin against methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus. Rev Esp Quimioter: 2006; 19 3 252 257
167. Ferrara A.; Dos Santos C.; Cimbro M.; Gialdroni Grassi G. Effect of different combinations of sparfloxacin, oxacillin, and fosfomycin against methicillin-resistant staphylococci. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis: 1997; 16 7 535 537
168. Okazaki M.; Suzuki K.; Asano N.; et al. Effectiveness of fosfomycin combined with other antimicrobial agents against multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates using the efficacy time index assay. J Infect Chemother: 2002; 8 1 37 42
169. Hayami H.; Goto T.; Kawahara M.; Ohi Y. Activities of beta-lactams, fluoroquinolones, amikacin and fosfomycin alone and in combination against Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from complicated urinary tract infections. J Infect Chemother: 1999; 5 3 130 138
170. Reguera J. A.; Baquero F.; Berenguer J.; Martinez-Ferrer M.; Martinez J. L. Beta-lactam-fosfomycin antagonism involving modification of penicillin-binding protein 3 in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 1990; 34 11 2093 2096
171. Michalopoulos A.; Virtzili S.; Rafailidis P.; Chalevelakis G.; Damala M.; Falagas M. E. Intravenous fosfomycin for the treatment of nosocomial infections caused by carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae in critically ill patients: a prospective evaluation. Clin Microbiol Infect: 2010; 16 2 184 186
172. Li J.; Turnidge J.; Milne R.; Nation R. L.; Coulthard K. In vitro pharmacodynamic properties of colistin and colistin methanesulfonate against Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates from patients with cystic fibrosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2001; 45 3 781 785
173. Dudhani R. V.; Turnidge J. D.; Coulthard K.; et al. Elucidation of the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic determinant of colistin activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa in murine thigh and lung infection models. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2010; 54 3 1117 1124
174. Dudhani R. V.; Turnidge J. D.; Nation R. L.; Li J. fAUC/MIC is the most predictive pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic index of colistin against Acinetobacter baumannii in murine thigh and lung infection models. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2010; 65 9 1984 1990
175. Lim L. M.; Ly N.; Anderson D.; et al. Resurgence of colistin: a review of resistance, toxicity, pharmacodynamics, and dosing. Pharmacotherapy: 2010; 30 12 1279 1291
176. Yau W.; Owen R. J.; Poudyal A.; et al. Colistin hetero-resistance in multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii clinical isolates from the Western Pacific region in the SENTRY antimicrobial surveillance programme. J Infect: 2009; 58 2 138 144
177. Hawley J. S.; Murray C. K.; Jorgensen J. H. Colistin heteroresistance in acinetobacter and its association with previous colistin therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2008; 52 1 351 352
178. Poudyal A.; Howden B. P.; Bell J. M.; et al. In vitro pharmacodynamics of colistin against multidrug-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2008; 62 6 1311 1318
179. Bergen P. J.; Forrest A.; Bulitta J. B.; et al. Clinically relevant plasma concentrations of colistin in combination with imipenem enhance pharmacodynamic activity against multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa at multiple inocula. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2011; 55 11 5134 5142
180. Bergen P. J.; Li J.; Nation R. L.; Turnidge J. D.; Coulthard K.; Milne R. W. Comparison of once-, twice- and thrice-daily dosing of colistin on antibacterial effect and emergence of resistance: studies with Pseudomonas aeruginosa in an in vitro pharmacodynamic model. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2008; 61 3 636 642
181. Tan C. H.; Li J.; Nation R. L. Activity of colistin against heteroresistant Acinetobacter baumannii and emergence of resistance in an in vitro pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2007; 51 9 3413 3415
182. Garonzik S. M.; Li J.; Thamlikitkul V.; et al. Population pharmacokinetics of colistin methanesulfonate and formed colistin in critically ill patients from a multicenter study provide dosing suggestions for various categories of patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2011; 55 7 3284 3294
183. Marchand S.; Frat J. P.; Petitpas F.; et al. Removal of colistin during intermittent haemodialysis in two critically ill patients. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2010; 65 8 1836 1837
184. Plachouras D.; Karvanen M.; Friberg L. E.; et al. Population pharmacokinetic analysis of colistin methanesulfonate and colistin after intravenous administration in critically ill patients with infections caused by gram-negative bacteria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2009; 53 8 3430 3436
185. Dalfino L.; Puntillo F.; Mosca A.; et al. High-dose, extended-interval colistin administration in critically ill patients: is this the right dosing strategy? A preliminary study. Clin Infect Dis: 2012; 54 12 1720 1726
186. Karvanen M.; Plachouras D.; Friberg L. E.; et al. Colistin methanesulfonate and colistin pharmacokinetics in critically ill patients receiving continuous venovenous hemodiafiltration. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2013; 57 1 668 671
187. Markou N.; Fousteri M.; Markantonis S. L.; et al. Colistin pharmacokinetics in intensive care unit patients on continuous venovenous haemodiafiltration: an observational study. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2012; 67 10 2459 2462
188. Matthaiou D. K.; Michalopoulos A.; Rafailidis P. I.; et al. Risk factors associated with the isolation of colistin-resistant gram-negative bacteria: a matched case-control study. Crit Care Med: 2008; 36 3 807 811
189. Mentzelopoulos S. D.; Pratikaki M.; Platsouka E.; et al. Prolonged use of carbapenems and colistin predisposes to ventilator-associated pneumonia by pandrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Intensive Care Med: 2007; 33 9 1524 1532
190. Martínez J. A.; Cobos-Trigueros N.; Soriano A.; et al. Influence of empiric therapy with a beta-lactam alone or combined with an aminoglycoside on prognosis of bacteremia due to gram-negative microorganisms. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2010; 54 9 3590 3596
191. Kumar A.; Zarychanski R.; Light B.; et al. Cooperative Antimicrobial Therapy of Septic Shock (CATSS) Database Research Group. Early combination antibiotic therapy yields improved survival compared with monotherapy in septic shock: a propensity-matched analysis. Crit Care Med: 2010; 38 9 1773 1785
192. Kumar A.; Safdar N.; Kethireddy S.; Chateau D. A survival benefit of combination antibiotic therapy for serious infections associated with sepsis and septic shock is contingent only on the risk of death: a meta-analytic/meta-regression study. Crit Care Med: 2010; 38 8 1651 1664
193. Chamot E.; Boffi El Amari E.; Rohner P.; Van Delden C. Effectiveness of combination antimicrobial therapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2003; 47 9 2756 2764
194. Cosgrove S. E.; Vigliani G. A.; Fowler V. G. Jr.; et al. Initial low-dose gentamicin for Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia and endocarditis is nephrotoxic. Clin Infect Dis: 2009; 48 6 713 721
195. Riedel D. J.; Weekes E.; Forrest G. N. Addition of rifampin to standard therapy for treatment of native valve infective endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2008; 52 7 2463 2467
196. Falagas M. E.; Matthaiou D. K.; Bliziotis I. A. The role of aminoglycosides in combination with a beta-lactam for the treatment of bacterial endocarditis: a meta-analysis of comparative trials. J Antimicrob Chemother: 2006; 57 4 639 647
197. Vardakas K. Z.; Tansarli G. S.; Bliziotis I. A.; Falagas M. E. β-Lactam plus aminoglycoside or fluoroquinolone combination versus β-lactam monotherapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections: a meta-analysis. Int J Antimicrob Agents: 2013; 41 4 301 310
198. Peña C.; Suarez C.; Ocampo-Sosa A.; et al. Spanish Network for Research in Infectious Diseases (REIPI). Effect of adequate single-drug vs combination antimicrobial therapy on mortality in Pseudomonas aeruginosa bloodstream infections: a post hoc analysis of a prospective cohort. Clin Infect Dis: 2013; 57 2 208 216
199. Marcus R.; Paul M.; Elphick H.; Leibovici L. Clinical implications of β-lactam-aminoglycoside synergism: systematic review of randomised trials. Int J Antimicrob Agents: 2011; 37 6 491 503
200. Louie A.; Grasso C.; Bahniuk N.; et al. The combination of meropenem and levofloxacin is synergistic with respect to both Pseudomonas aeruginosa kill rate and resistance suppression. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2010; 54 6 2646 2654
201. den Hollander J. G.; Horrevorts A. M.; van Goor M. L.; Verbrugh H. A.; Mouton J. W. Synergism between tobramycin and ceftazidime against a resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain, tested in an in vitro pharmacokinetic model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 1997; 41 1 95 100
202. Mouton J. W.; van Ogtrop M. L.; Andes D.; Craig W. A. Use of pharmacodynamic indices to predict efficacy of combination therapy in vivo. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 1999; 43 10 2473 2478
203. Zavascki A. P.; Bulitta J. B.; Landersdorfer C. B. Combination therapy for carbapenem-resistant Gram-negative bacteria. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther: 2013; 11 12 1333 1353
204. Epstein B. J.; Gums J. G.; Drlica K. The changing face of antibiotic prescribing: the mutant selection window. Ann Pharmacother: 2004; 38 10 1675 1682
205. Zhanel G. G.; Mayer M.; Laing N.; Adam H. J. Mutant prevention concentrations of levofloxacin alone and in combination with azithromycin, ceftazidime, colistin (Polymyxin E), meropenem, piperacillin-tazobactam, and tobramycin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2006; 50 6 2228 2230
206. Lister P. D.; Wolter D. J. Levofloxacin-imipenem combination prevents the emergence of resistance among clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Clin Infect Dis: 2005; 40 2 02 S105 S114
207. Firsov A. A.; Vostrov S. N.; Lubenko I. Y.; Portnoy Y. A.; Zinner S. H. Prevention of the selection of resistant Staphylococcus aureus by moxifloxacin plus doxycycline in an in vitro dynamic model: an additive effect of the combination. Int J Antimicrob Agents: 2004; 23 5 451 456
208. Drusano G. L.; Liu W.; Fregeau C.; Kulawy R.; Louie A. Differing effects of combination chemotherapy with meropenem and tobramycin on cell kill and suppression of resistance of wild-type Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 and its isogenic MexAB efflux pump-overexpressed mutant. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2009; 53 6 2266 2273
209. Mendes R. E.; Fritsche T. R.; Sader H. S.; Jones R. N. Increased antimicrobial susceptibility profiles among polymyxin-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii clinical isolates. Clin Infect Dis: 2008; 46 8 1324 1326
210. Mantzarlis K.; Makris D.; Manoulakas E.; Karvouniaris M.; Zakynthinos E. Risk factors for the first episode of Klebsiella pneumoniae resistant to carbapenems infection in critically ill patients: a prospective study. Biomed Res Int: 2013; 2013 850547
211. Micek S. T.; Ward S.; Fraser V. J.; Kollef M. H. A randomized controlled trial of an antibiotic discontinuation policy for clinically suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest: 2004; 125 5 1791 1799
212. Chastre J.; Wolff M.; Fagon J. Y.; et al. PneumA Trial Group. Comparison of 8 vs 15 days of antibiotic therapy for ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults: a randomized trial. JAMA: 2003; 290 19 2588 2598
213. Singh N.; Rogers P.; Atwood C. W.; Wagener M. M.; Yu V. L. Short-course empiric antibiotic therapy for patients with pulmonary infiltrates in the intensive care unit. A proposed solution for indiscriminate antibiotic prescription. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 2000; 162 2, Pt 1 505 511
214. Taccone F. S.; Laterre P. F.; Spapen H.; et al. Revisiting the loading dose of amikacin for patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care: 2010; 14 2 R53
215. Rea R. S.; Capitano B.; Bies R.; Bigos K. L.; Smith R.; Lee H. Suboptimal aminoglycoside dosing in critically ill patients. Ther Drug Monit: 2008; 30 6 674 681
216. Gonçalves-Pereira J.; Póvoa P. Antibiotics in critically ill patients: a systematic review of the pharmacokinetics of β-lactams. Crit Care: 2011; 15 5 R206
217. Buerger C.; Plock N.; Dehghanyar P.; Joukhadar C.; Kloft C. Pharmacokinetics of unbound linezolid in plasma and tissue interstitium of critically ill patients after multiple dosing using microdialysis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2006; 50 7 2455 2463
218. Tsuji B. T.; Brown T.; Parasrampuria R.; et al. Front-loaded linezolid regimens result in increased killing and suppression of the accessory gene regulator system of Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother: 2012; 56 7 3712 3719
219. Mohd Hafiz A. A.; Staatz C. E.; Kirkpatrick C. M.; Lipman J.; Roberts J. A. Continuous infusion vs. bolus dosing: implications for beta-lactam antibiotics. Minerva Anestesiol: 2012; 78 1 94 104