Special measures to reduce the risk for consumers through Salmonella in table eggs – e.g. cooling of table eggs

EFSA Journal

Volumn 7, Issue 2, 2009, Pages

[No Author Info available]

Author keywords

consumer risk; cooling; egg; Salmonella

Indexed keywords

EID: 84958762313     PISSN: None     EISSN: 18314732     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2009.957     Document Type: Article

References (118)

1. Anderson, K. E. 1993. Refrigeration and removal of heat from eggs. Misset World Poultry 9 (11): 40–41, 43.
2. Anderson, K. E., Jones, F. T. and Curtis, P. A., 1992. Heat loss from commercially packed eggs in post-processing coolers. Commercial egg special report. North Carolina State University, Cooperative Extension Service, Raleigh.
3. Anonymous, 2004. Report of the survey of Salmonella contamination of UK produced shell eggs on retail sale. Food Standards Agency. HMSO, London, UK. www.food.gov.uk/science/surveillance/fsis2004branch/fsis5004eggs. (accessed 11 January 2009).
4. Anonymous, 2007. UK wide survey of Salmonella in raw shell eggs used in catering premises. Final report. Food Standards Agency, HMSO, London, UK. www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/eggsurvey2007.pdf. (accessed 11 January 2009).
5. Back, J. F., Bain, J. M., Vadehra, D. V. and Burley, R. W. 1982. Proteins of the outer layer of the vitelline membrane of hen's eggs. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 705 (1): 12–19.
6. Baker, R. C. 1990. Survival of Salmonella Enteritidis on and in shelled eggs, liquid eggs and cooked egg products. Dairy, Food and Environmental Sanitation 10: 273–275.
7. Baur, E. 1975. [Cold storage of raw eggs under commercial and domestic conditions]. Archiv fuer Lebensmittelhygiene 26 (5): 188–190.
8. Bell, D. 1996. Effects of temperature and storage time on egg weight loss. Poultry International 35 (14): 56–64.
9. Board, P. A. and Board, R. G. 1968. A diagnostic dye for identifying organisms recovered from rotten eggs. Br. Poult. Sci. 9 (1): 111–120.
10. Board, R. G. 1982. Properties of avian egg shells and their adaptive value. Biological Reviews 57 (1): 1–28.
11. Board, R. G., Tranter, H. S., Stadelman, W. J. and Cotterill, O. J. 2008. The microbiology of eggs. In: Egg science and technology. Food Products Press - The Haword Press, New York, 81–104.
12. Bradshaw, J. G., Shah, D. B., Forney, E. and Madden, J. M. 1990. Growth of Salmonella Enteritidis in yolk of shell eggs from normal and seropositive hens. J. Food Prot. 53 (12): 1033–1036.
13. Braun, P. 2000. Freshness of table eggs during storage. World Poultry 16 (10): 40–41.
14. Braun, P. and Fehlhaber, K. 1995. Migration of Salmonella Enteritidis from the albumen into the egg yolk. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 25 (1): 95–99.
15. Braun, P., Fehlhaber, K. and Wicke, A. 1999. Salmonella Enteritidis invades the egg through the shell. World Poultry special: 23–24.
16. Braun, P., Meyer, K., Reglich, K., Wicke, A. and Fehlhaber, K. 2005. Investigations for risk assessment on the behavior of Salmonella Enteritidis in hen's egg. In: Food safety assurance and veterinary public health. Risk management strategies: Monitoring and surveillance. F. J. M. Smulders and J. D. Collins. Wageningen Academic Publishers.
17. Braun, P. G. 2008. Status of Salmonella Enteritidis in freshly laid eggs. XXIII World's Poultry Congress, 30 June-4 July 2008, Brisbane, Australia.
18. Bruce, J. and Drysdale, E. M. 1994. Trans-shell transmission. In: Microbiology of the avian egg. R. G. Board and R. Fuller. Chapman & Hall, London, 63–91.
19. Catalano, C. R. and Knabel, S. J. 1994. Destruction of Salmonella Enteritidis by high ph and rapid chilling during simulated commercial processing. J. Food Prot. 57 (7): 592–595.
20. Cepero, R., Alfonso, M., Arnaiz, A., Elía, J. R. and Enfadaque, A. 1995. Effects of transport and storage conditions on the commercial quality of eggs. European Symposium of the Quality of Eggs and Egg Products, Zaragoza, Spain.
21. Chen, H., Anantheswaran, R. C. and Knabel, S. J. 2002a. Effect of rapid cooling on the growth and penetration of Salmonella Enteritidis into egg contents. J. Food Saf. 22: 255–271.
22. Chen, H. Q., Anantheswaran, R. C. and Knabel, S. J. 2002b. Effect of rapid cooling on the growth and penetration of Salmonella Enteritidis into egg contents. Journal of Food Safety 22 (4): 255–271.
23. Chen, J., Clarke, R. C. and Griffiths, M. W. 1996. Use of luminescent strains of Salmonella Enteritidis to monitor contamination and survival in eggs. Journal of Food Protection 59 (9): 915–921.
24. Cogan, T. A., Domingue, G., Lappin-Scott, H. M., Benson, C. E., Woodward, M. J. and Humphrey, T. J. 2001. Growth of Salmonella Enteritidis in artificially contaminated eggs: The effects of inoculum size and suspending media. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 70 (1–2): 131–141.
25. Cooke, A. S. and Balch, D. A. 1970. Studies of membrane, mammilary cores and cuticle of the hen egg shell. British Poultry Science 11 (3): 345–352.
26. Czarick, M. and Savage, S. 1992. Egg cooling in commercial coolers. Poultry International 31 (8): 56, 58, 60–61.
27. Davies, R. and Breslin, M. 2004. Observations on Salmonella contamination of eggs from infected commercial laying flocks where vaccination for Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis had been used. Avian Pathology 33 (2): 133–144.
28. Davies, R. H. and Breslin, M. 2003. Investigation of Salmonella contamination and disinfection in farm egg-packing plants. J. Appl. Microbiol. 94 (2): 191–196.
29. De Louvois, J. 1993. Salmonella contamination of eggs. Lancet 342 (8867): 366–367.
30. De Reu, K., Grijspeerdt, K., Heyndrickx, M., Messens, W., Uyttendaele, M., Debevere, J. and Herman, L. 2006. Influence of eggshell condensation on eggshell penetration and whole egg contamination with Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis. J. Food Prot. 69 (7): 1539–1545.
31. De Reu, K., Grijspeerdt, K., Heyndrickx, M., Uyttendaele, M. and Herman, L. 2005. The use of total aerobic and gram-negative flora for quality assurance in the production chain of consumption eggs. Food Control 16: 147–155.
32. Dolman, J. and Board, R. G. 1992. The influence of temperature on the behaviour of mixed bacterial contamination of the shell membrane of the hen's egg. Epidemiol. Infect. 108 (1): 115–121.
33. EFSA 2004. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on biological hazards on a request from the Commission related to the use of antimicrobials for the control of Salmonella in poultry. The EFSA Journal 115: 1–76.
34. EFSA 2005. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on biological hazards on the request from the Commission related to the microbiological risks on washing of table eggs. The EFSA Journal 269: 1–39.
35. EFSA, 2007a. The Community Summary Report on trends and sources of zoonoses, zoonotic agents, antimicrobial resistance and foodborne outbreaks in the European Union in 2006. The EFSA Journal: 130 pages.
36. EFSA, 2007b. Report of the Task Force on zoonoses data collection on the analysis of the baseline study on the prevalence of Salmonella in holdings of laying hen flocks of Gallus gallus. The EFSA Journal: 97 pages.
37. EFSA 2009. The Community Summary Report on trends and sources of zoonoses and zoonotic agents in the European Union in 2007. The EFSA Journal: 223.
38. Ernst, R. A., Fuqua, L., Riemann, H. P. and Himathongkham, S. 1998. Effect of sweating on shell penetration of Salmonella Enteritidis. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 7: 81–84.
39. European Commission, 2003. Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Veterinary Measures relating to Public Health on Salmonellae in foodstuffs. ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scv/out66_en.pdf. (accessed 26 January 2009).
40. Fajardo, T. A., Anantheswaran, R. C., Puri, V. M. and Knabel, S. J. 1995. Penetration of Salmonella Enteritidis into eggs subjected to rapid cooling. Journal of Food Protection 58 (5): 473–477.
41. Fromm, D. 1964. Strength, distribution and chemical changes in the vitelline membrane of the hen's egg during storage. Poult. Sci. 45: 374–379.
42. Fromm, D. 1967. Some physical and chemical changes in the vitelline membrane of the hen's egg during storage. J. Food Sci. 32: 32–56.
43. Fromm, D. and Margolf, P. H. 1958. The influence of sweating and washing on weight loss, bacterial contamination and interior physical quality of 12-day old shell eggs. Poultry Science 37: 1273–1278.
44. FSIS, 1998. Salmonella Enteritidis risk assessment - shell eggs and egg products. Final report prepared for the Food Safety and Inspection Service by the Salmonella Enteritidis Risk Assessment Team. www.fsis.usda.gov/ophs/risk/contents.htm. (accessed 26 January 2009).
45. Gast, R. K. and Beard, C. W. 1990. Production of Salmonella Enteritidis-contaminated eggs by experimentally infected hens. Avian Dis. 34 (2): 438–446.
46. Gast, R. K. and Beard, C. W. 1992. Detection and enumeration of Salmonella Enteritidis in fresh and stored eggs laid by experimentally infected hens. J. Food Prot. 55 (3): 152–156.
47. Gast, R. K., Guard-Petter, J. and Holt, P. S. 2002. Characteristics of Salmonella Enteritidis contamination in eggs after oral, aerosol, and intravenous inoculation of laying hens. Avian Dis. 46 (3): 629–635.
48. Gast, R. K., Guraya, R., Guard-Bouldin, J. and Holt, P. S. 2007. In vitro penetration of egg yolks by Salmonella Enteritidis and Salmonella Heidelberg strains during thirty-six-hour ambient temperature storage. Poult. Sci. 86 (7): 1431–1435.
49. Gast, R. K. and Holt, P. S. 2000a. Deposition of phage type 4 and 13a Salmonella Enteritidis strains in the yolk and albumen of eggs laid by experimentally infected hens. Avian Dis. 44 (3): 706–710.
50. Gast, R. K. and Holt, P. S. 2000b. Influence of the level and location of contamination on the multiplication of Salmonella Enteritidis at different storage temperatures in experimentally inoculated eggs. Poult. Sci. 79 (4): 559–563.
51. Gast, R. K. and Holt, P. S. 2001a. Assessing the frequency and consequences of Salmonella Enteritidis deposition on the egg yolk membrane. Poult. Sci. 80 (7): 997–1002.
52. Gast, R. K. and Holt, P. S. 2001b. Multiplication in egg yolk and survival in egg albumen of Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis strains of phage types 4, 8, 13a, and 14b. J. Food Prot. 64 (6): 865–868.
53. Grijspeerdt, K., Kreft, J. U. and Messens, W. 2005. Individual-based modelling of growth and migration of Salmonella Enteritidis in hens' eggs. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 100 (1–3): 323–333.
54. Guertler, M. and Fehlhaber, K. 2004. Growth of Salmonella Enteritidis in yolk from eggs laid by immunized hens. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 90 (1): 107–113.
55. Haugh, R. R. 1937. The Haugh unit for measuring egg quality. US Egg Poult. Mag 43: 552–555.
56. Henzler, D. J., Ebel, E., Sanders, J., Kradel, D. and Mason, J. 1994. Salmonella Enteritidis in eggs from commercial chicken layer flocks implicated in human outbreaks. Avian Dis. 38 (1): 37–43.
57. Hincke, M. T., Gautron, J., Panheleux, M., Garcia-Ruiz, J., McKee, M. D. and Nys, Y. 2000. Identification and localization of lysozyme as a component of eggshell membranes and eggshell matrix. Matrix Biology 19 (5): 443–453.
58. Hu, Y., Blank, G., Przybylski, R. and Ismond, A. 2001. Growth, survival and heat resistance of Salmonella Typhimurium and Escherichia coli in regular and omega-3 hens egg products. J. Food Saf. 21: 245–261.
59. Humphrey, T. J. 1994. Contamination of egg shell and contents with Salmonella Enteritidis: A review. Int. J. Food Microbiol 21 (1–2): 31–40.
60. Humphrey, T. J., Baskerville, A., Mawer, S., Rowe, B. and Hopper, S. 1989a. Salmonella Enteritidis phage type 4 from the contents of intact eggs: A study involving naturally infected hens. Epidemiol. Infect. 103 (3): 415–423.
61. Humphrey, T. J., Greenwood, M., Gilbert, R. J., Rowe, B. and Chapman, P. A. 1989b. The survival of Salmonellas in shell eggs cooked under simulated domestic conditions. Epidemiol. Infect. 103 (1): 35–45.
62. Humphrey, T. J. and Whitehead, A. 1993. Egg age and the growth of Salmonella Enteritidis pt4 in egg contents. Epidemiol. Infect. 111 (2): 209–219.
63. Humphrey, T. J., Whitehead, A., Gawler, A. H., Henley, A. and Rowe, B. 1991. Numbers of Salmonella Enteritidis in the contents of naturally contaminated hens' eggs. Epidemiol. Infect. 106 (3): 489–496.
64. ICMSF 2005. Eggs and egg products. In: Microorganisms in foods 6: Microbial ecology of food commodities. Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers, New York, 597–642.
65. Jones, D. R., Anderson, K. E., Curtis, P. A. and Jones, F. T. 2002a. Microbial contamination in inoculated shell eggs: I. Effects of layer strain and hen age. Poult. Sci. 81 (5): 715–720.
66. Jones, D. R. and Musgrove, M. T. 2005. Effects of extended storage on egg quality factors. Poultry Science 84 (11): 1774–1777.
67. Jones, D. R., Musgrove, M. T., Caudill, A. B., Curtis, P. A. and Northcutt, J. K. 2005. Microbial quality of cool water washed shell eggs. International Journal of Poultry Science 4 (12): 938–943.
68. Jones, D. R., Tharrington, J. B., Curtis, P. A., Anderson, K. E., Keener, K. M. and Jones, F. T. 2002b. Effects of cryogenic cooling of shell eggs on egg quality. Poult. Sci. 81 (5): 727–733.
69. Kaess, G. 1960. Eier. In: Handbuch der Kaeltetechnik. R. Plank. Springer Verlag Berlin/Goettingen/Heidelberg, Karlsruhe, 264–308.
70. Kang, H., Loui, C., Clavijo, R. I., Riley, L. W. and Lu, S. 2006. Survival characteristics of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis in chicken egg albumen. Epidemiol. Infect. 134 (5): 967–976.
71. Kido, S., Janado, M. and Nunoura, H. 1975. Macromolecular components of the vitelline membrane of hen's egg. I. Membrane structure and its deterioration with age. J. Biochem. 78 (2): 261–268.
72. Kido, S., Morimoto, A., Kim, F. and Doi, Y. 1992. Isolation of a novel protein from the outer layer of the vitelline membrane. Biochem. J. 286: 17–22.
73. Kiefer, H. 1976. [Microbiology of eggs and egg products.]. Archiv fuer Lebensmittelhygiene 27 (6): 218–223.
74. Kim, C. J., Emery, D. A., Rinke, H., Nagaraja, K. V. and Halvorson, D. A. 1989. Effect of time and temperature on growth of Salmonella Enteritidis in experimentally inoculated eggs. Avian Dis. 33 (4): 735–742.
75. Kinde, H., Read, D. H., Chin, R. P., Bickford, A. A., Walker, R. L., Ardans, A., Breitmeyer, R. E., Willoughby, D., Little, H. E., Kerr, D. and Gardner, I. A. 1996. Salmonella Enteritidis, phage type 4 infection in a commercial layer flock in southern California: Bacteriologic and epidemiologic findings. Avian Diseases 40 (3): 665–671.
76. Kirunda, D. F. and McKee, S. R. 2000. Relating quality characteristics of aged eggs and fresh eggs to vitelline membrane strength as determined by a texture analyzer. Poult. Sci. 79 (8): 1189–1193.
77. Koelkebeck, K. W., Patterson, P. H., Anderson, K. E., Darre, M. J., Carey, J. B., Ahn, D. U., Ernst, R. A., Kuney, D. R. and Jones, D. 2008. Temperature sequence of eggs from oviposition through distribution: Processing - part 2. Poult. Sci. 87 (6): 1187–1194.
78. Li-Chan, E. C. Y., Powrie, W. D. and Nakai, S. 1995. The chemistry of eggs and egg products. In: Egg science and technology. W. J. Stadelman and O. J. Cotterill. The Haword Press, New York, 105–175.
79. Lin, J., Puri, V. M. and Anantheswaran, R. C. 1996. Strains in eggshell during cooling of eggs - measurement and prediction using the finite element method. Transactions of the ASAE 39 (3): 1005–1012.
80. Lock, J. L. and Board, R. G. 1992. Persistence of contamination of hens' egg albumen in vitro with Salmonella serotypes. Epidemiol. Infect. 108 (3): 389–396.
81. Mawer, S. L., Spain, G. E. and Rowe, B. 1989. Salmonella Enteritidis phage type 4 and hen's eggs. The Lancet 4: 280–281.
82. Mayes, F. J. and Timoney, J. F. 1983. Microbial contamination of the hen's egg: A review. J. Food Prot. 46 (12): 1092–1098.
83. Meijerhof, R. and Van Beek, G. 1994. Mathematical modelling of temperature and moisture loss of hatching eggs. Journal of Theoretical Biology 166 (1): 27–41.
84. Mermelstein, N. H. 2001. Pasteurization of shell eggs. Food Technology 55 (12): 72–+.
85. Messens, W., Duboccage, L., Grijspeerdt, K., Heyndrickx, M. and Herman, L. 2004. Growth of Salmonella serovars in hen's egg albumen as affected by storage prior to inoculation. Food Microbiol. 21: 25–32.
86. Messens, W., Grijspeerdt, K., De Reu, K., De Ketelaere, B., Mertens, K., Bamelis, F., Kemps, B., De Baerdemaeker, J., Decuypere, E. and Herman, L. 2007. Eggshell penetration of various types of hens' eggs by Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis. J. Food Prot. 70 (3): 623–628.
87. Messens, W., Grijspeerdt, K. and Herman, L. 2006. Eggshell penetration of hen's eggs by Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis upon various storage conditions. Br. Poult. Sci 47 (5): 554–560.
88. Meyer, K. 2001. Salmonella Enteritidis Uebertragung von der Eischalenoberflaeche in die Eimasse als Folge des Eischlagprozesses. Veterinaermedizinische Fakultaet, Universitaet Leipzig, 107 pages.
89. Miyamoto, T., Horie, T., Baba, E., Sasai, K., Fukata, T. and Arakawa, A. 1998. Salmonella penetration through eggshell associated with freshness of laid eggs and refrigeration. J. Food Prot. 61 (3): 350–353.
90. Moats, W. A. 1980. Classification of bacteria from commercial egg washers and washed and unwashed eggs. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 40 (4): 710–714.
91. Murchie, L., Whyte, P., Xia, B., Horrigan, S., Kelly, L. and Madden, R. H. 2007. Prevalence of Salmonella in grade A whole shell eggs in the island of Ireland. J. Food Prot. 70 (5): 1238–1240.
92. Nascimento, V. P., Cranstoun, S. and Solomon, S. E. 1992. Relationship between shell structure and movement of Salmonella Enteritidis across the eggshell wall. Br. Poult. Sci. 33 (1): 37–48.
93. Okamura, M., Kikuchi, S., Suzuki, A., Tachizaki, H., Takehara, K. and Nakamura, M. 2008. Effect of fixed or changing temperatures during prolonged storage on the growth of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis inoculated artificially into shell eggs. Epidemiol. Infect. 136 (9): 1210–1216.
94. Padron, N. M. 1990. Salmonella Typhimurium penetration through the eggshell of hatching eggs. Avian Diseases 34 (2): 463–465.
95. Patterson, P. H., Koelkebeck, K. W., Anderson, K. E., Darre, M. J., Carey, J. B., Ahn, D. U., Ernst, R. A., Kuney, D. R. and Jones, D. R. 2008. Temperature sequence of eggs from oviposition through distribution: Production-part 1. Poult. Sci. 87 (6): 1182–1186.
96. Perales, I. and Audicana, A. 1989. The role of hen's eggs in outbreaks of salmonellosis in north Spain. International Journal of Food Microbiology 8 (2): 175–180.
97. Pfennig, I. 1974. Versuche zur Penetration von Enterobacteriaceaeen durch die Schale des Huehnereies bei Zimmertemperatur. Inaugural Dissertation. Rheinische FriedrichWilhelm Universitaet Bonn.
98. Pless, P. 1993. [Effects of storage and heating methods on Salmonella Enteritidis in eggs.]. Ernaehrung 17 (2): 87–91.
99. Radkowski, M. 2002. Effect of moisture and temperature on survival of Salmonella Enteritidis on shell eggs. Archiv fuer Gefluegelkunde 66: 119–123.
100. Rizk, S. S., Ayres, J. C. and Kraft, A. A. 1966. Effect of holding condition on the development of Salmonellae in artificially inoculated hens' eggs. Poult. Sci. 45 (4): 825–829.
101. Roberts, J. R. and Brackpool, C. E. 1994. The ultrastructure of avian egg shells. Poultry Science Review 5: 245–272.
102. Rose, M. E. and Orlans, E. 1981. Immunoglobulins in the egg, embryo and young chick. Developmental and Comparative Immunology 5 (1): 15–20.
103. Sauter, E. A. and Petersen, C. F. 1974. The effect of egg shell quality on penetration by various Salmonellae. Poultry Science 53 (No.6): 2159–2162.
104. Schlosser, W. D., Henzler, D. J., Mason, J., Kradel, D., Shipman, L., Trock, S., Hurd, S. H., Hogue, A. T., Sischo, W. and Ebel, E. D. 1999. The Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis pilot project. In: Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis in humans and animals: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, and control. A. M. Saeed, R. K. Gast and P. M.E. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, 353–365.
105. Schoeni, J. L., Glass, K. A., McDermott, J. L. and Wong, A. C. 1995. Growth and penetration of Salmonella Enteritidis, Salmonella Heidelberg and Salmonella Typhimurium in eggs. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 24 (3): 385–396.
106. Shivaprasad, H. L., Timoney, J. F., Morales, S., Lucio, B. and Baker, R. C. 1990. Pathogenesis of Salmonella Enteritidis infection in laying chickens. I. Studies on egg transmission, clinical signs, fecal shedding, and serologic responses. Avian Dis. 34 (3): 548–557.
107. Simmons, E. R., Ayres, J. C. and Kraft, A. A. 1970. Effect of moisture and temperature on ability of Salmonellae to infect shell eggs. Poult. Sci. 49 (3): 761–768.
108. Simons, P. and Wiertz, G. 1963. Notes on the structure of membranes and shell in the hen's egg - an electron microscopal study. Zeitschrift für Zellforschung 59: 555–567.
109. Timoney, J. F., Shivaprasad, H. L., Baker, R. C. and Rowe, B. 1989. Egg transmission after infection of hens with Salmonella Enteritidis phage type 4. Vet. Rec. 125 (24): 600–601.
110. Tranter, H. S., Sparks, N. H. C. and Board, R. G. 1983. A note on the structure and iron-binding properties of egg-shell membranes. Br. Poult. Sci. 24: 123–130.
111. Tung, M. A. and Richards, J. F. 1972. Ultrastructure of the hen's egg shell membranes by electron microscopy. J. Food Sci. 37: 277–281.
112. Vedehra, D. V., Baker, R. C. and Naylor, H. B. 1970. Infection routes of bacteria into chicken eggs. Journal of Food Science 35 (1): 61–62.
113. Wang, H. and Slavik, M. F. 1998. Bacterial penetration into eggs washed with various chemicals and stored at different temperatures and times. Journal of Food Protection 61 (3): 276–279.
114. WHO 2001. Surveillance programme for control of foodborne infections and intoxications in Europe. Seventh Report, 1993-1998. World Health Organisation, pp. 415–423.
115. WHO/FAO 2002. Risk assessments of Salmonella in eggs and broiler chickens. Microbiological Risk Assessment Series No 2. World Health Organisation, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, 302 pages.
116. Wong Liong, J., Frank, J. and Bailey, S. 1997. Visualization of eggshell membranes and their interaction with Salmonella enteritidis using confocal scanning laser microscopy. J. Food Prot. 60: 1022–1028.
117. Zeidler, G. 1994. Humidity plays an important role in egg refrigeration. Misset World Poultry: 10 (10): 33–38.
118. Zeidler, G., Thompson, J. F., Knutson, J., Ernst, R. A., Kuney, D., Himthongkham, S. and H, R. 1999. Low cost rapid cooling of packaged shell eggs. 8th Symposium on the Quality of Eggs and Egg Products, Bologna 19–23 September.