Sensitivity of nitrate aerosols to ammonia emissions and to nitrate chemistry: Implications for present and future nitrate optical depth

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Volumn 16, Issue 3, 2016, Pages 1459-1477

  Paulot, F ^a,b   Ginoux, P ^a   Cooke, W F ^a   Donner, L J ^a   Fan, S ^a   Lin, M Y ^a,b   Mao, J ^a,b   Naik, V ^a   Horowitz, L W ^a  

^a NOAA EARTH SYSTEM RESEARCH LABORATORY   (United States)

^b PRINCETON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AEROSOL; AMMONIA; EMISSION; NITRATE; NITRIC ACID; OPTICAL DEPTH; RADIATIVE FORCING; SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS;

NORTH AMERICA; WESTERN EUROPE;

EID: 84958093584     PISSN: 16807316     EISSN: 16807324     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/acp-16-1459-2016     Document Type: Article

References (116)

1. Adams, P. J., Seinfeld, J. H., Koch, D., Mickley, L., Jacob, D.: General circulation model assessment of direct radiative forcing by the sulfate-nitrate-ammonium-water inorganic aerosol system, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 106, 1097-1111, doi:10.1029/2000JD900512, 2001.
2. Aneja, V. P., Schlesinger, W. H., Erisman, J. W., Behera, S. N., Sharma, M., Battye, W.: Reactive nitrogen emissions from crop and livestock farming in India, Atmos. Environ., 47, 92-103, 2012.
3. Ansari, A. S., Pandis, S. N.: Response of Inorganic PM to Precursor Concentrations, Environ. Sci. Technol., 32, 2706-2714, 1998.
4. Barbaro, E., Krol, M. C., Vilà-Guerau de Arellano, J.: Numerical simulation of the interaction between ammonium nitrate aerosol and convective boundary-layer dynamics, Atmos. Environ., 105, 202-211, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.01.048, 2015.
5. Bauer, S. E., Koch, D., Unger, N., Metzger, S. M., Shindell, D. T., Streets, D. G.: Nitrate aerosols today and in 2030: a global simulation including aerosols and tropospheric ozone, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 5043-5059, doi:10.5194/acp-7-5043-2007, 2007.
6. Bellouin, N., Rae, J., Jones, A., Johnson, C., Haywood, J., Boucher, O.: Aerosol forcing in the Climate Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) simulations by HadGEM2-ES and the role of ammonium nitrate, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 116, D20206, doi:10.1029/2011JD016074, 2011.
7. Bergin, M. H., Ogren, J. A., Schwartz, S. E., McInnes, L. M.: Evaporation of Ammonium Nitrate Aerosol in a Heated Nephelometer: Implications for Field Measurements, Environ. Sci. Technol., 31, 2878-2883, doi:10.1021/es970089h, 1997.
8. Bertram, T. H., Thornton, J. A.: Toward a general parameterization of N2O5 reactivity on aqueous particles: the competing effects of particle liquid water, nitrate and chloride, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 8351-8363, doi:10.5194/acp-9-8351-2009, 2009.
9. Bouwman, A. F., Lee, D. S., Asman, W. A. H., Dentener, F. J., Van Der Hoek, K. W., Olivier, J. G. J.: A global high-resolution emission inventory for ammonia, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 11, 561-587, 1997.
10. Brown, S. S., Stutz, J.: Nighttime radical observations and chemistry, Chem. Soc. Rev., 41, 6405-6447, doi:10.1039/C2CS35181A, 2012.
11. Brown, S. S., Dubé, W. P., Fuchs, H., Ryerson, T. B., Wollny, A. G., Brock, C. A., Bahreini, R., Middlebrook, A. M., Neuman, J. A., Atlas, E., Roberts, J. M., Osthoff, H. D., Trainer, M., Fehsenfeld, F. C., Ravishankara, A. R.: Reactive uptake coefficients for N2O5 determined from aircraft measurements during the Second Texas Air Quality Study: Comparison to current model parameterizations, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 114, D00F10, doi:10.1029/2008JD011679, 2009.
12. Chang, W. L., Bhave, P. V., Brown, S. S., Riemer, N., Stutz, J., Dabdub, D.: Heterogeneous Atmospheric Chemistry, Ambient Measurements, and Model Calculations of N2O5: A Review, Aerosol Sci. Technol., 45, 665-695, doi:10.1080/02786826.2010.551672, 2011.
13. Claquin, T., Schulz, M., Balkanski, Y. J.: Modeling the mineralogy of atmospheric dust sources, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 104, 22243-22256, doi:10.1029/1999JD900416, 1999.
14. Delene, D. J., Ogren, J. A.: Variability of Aerosol Optical Properties at Four North American Surface Monitoring Sites, J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 1135-1150, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2002)0592.0.CO;2, 2002.
15. Dentener, F. J., Crutzen, P. J.: Reaction of N2O5 on Tropospheric Aerosols: Impact on the Global Distributions of NOx , O3, and OH, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 7149-7163, 1993.
16. Donner, L. J.: A Cumulus Parameterization Including Mass Fluxes, Vertical Momentum Dynamics, and Mesoscale Effects, J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 889-906, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1993)0502.0.CO;2, 1993.
17. Donner, L. J.,Wyman, B. L., Hemler, R. S., Horowitz, L.W., Ming, Y., Zhao, M., Golaz, J.-C., Ginoux, P., Lin, S.-J., Schwarzkopf, M. D., Austin, J., Alaka, G., Cooke, W. F., Delworth, T. L., Freidenreich, S. M., Gordon, C. T., Griffies, S. M., Held, I. M., Hurlin, W. J., Klein, S. A., Knutson, T. R., Langenhorst, A. R., Lee, H.-C., Lin, Y., Magi, B. I., Malyshev, S. L., Milly, P. C. D., Naik, V., Nath, M. J., Pincus, R., Ploshay, J. J., Ramaswamy, V., Seman, C. J., Shevliakova, E., Sirutis, J. J., Stern,W. F., Stouffer, R. J., Wilson, R. J., Winton, M., Wittenberg, A. T., Zeng, F.: The Dynamical Core, Physical Parameterizations, and Basic Simulation Characteristics of the Atmospheric Component AM3 of the GFDL Global Coupled Model CM3, J. Clim., 24, 3484-3519, doi:10.1175/2011JCLI3955.1, 2011.
18. Esteve, A. R., Ogren, J. A., Sheridan, P. J.,rews, E., Holben, B. N., Utrillas, M. P.: Sources of discrepancy between aerosol optical depth obtained from AERONET and in-situ aircraft profiles, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 2987-3003, doi:10.5194/acp-12-2987-2012, 2012.
19. Fairlie, T. D., Jacob, D. J., Dibb, J. E., Alexander, B., Avery, M. A., van Donkelaar, A., Zhang, L.: Impact of mineral dust on nitrate, sulfate, and ozone in transpacific Asian pollution plumes, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 3999-4012, doi:10.5194/acp-10-3999-2010, 2010.
20. Fan, S.-M., Schwarz, J. P., Liu, J., Fahey, D. W., Ginoux, P., Horowitz, L. W., Levy, H., Ming, Y., Spackman, J. R.: Inferring ice formation processes from global-scale black carbon profiles observed in the remote atmosphere and model simulations, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 117, D23205, doi:10.1029/2012JD018126, 2012.
21. Fang, Y., Fiore, A. M., Horowitz, L. W., Gnanadesikan, A., Held, I., Chen, G., Vecchi, G., Levy, H.: The impacts of changing transport and precipitation on pollutant distributions in a future climate, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 116, D18303, doi:10.1029/2011JD015642, 2011.
22. Feng, Y., Penner, J. E.: Global modeling of nitrate and ammonium: Interaction of aerosols and tropospheric chemistry, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 112, D01304, doi:10.1029/2005JD006404, 2007.
23. Folkins, I., Bernath, P., Boone, C., Donner, L. J., Eldering, A., Lesins, G., Martin, R. V., Sinnhuber, B., Walker, K.: Testing convective parameterizations with tropical measurements of HNO3, CO, H2O, and O3: Implications for the water vapor budget, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 111, D23304, doi:10.1029/2006JD007325, 2006.
24. Fountoukis, C., Nenes, A.: ISORROPIA II: a computationally efficient thermodynamic equilibrium model for KC-Ca2C-Mg2C-NH C 4-NaC-SO2 4-NO 3-Cl-H2O aerosols, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 4639-4659, doi:10.5194/acp-7-4639-2007, 2007.
25. Fowler, D., Pilegaard, K., Sutton, M., Ambus, P., Raivonen, M., Duyzer, J., Simpson, D., Fagerli, H., Fuzzi, S., Schjoerring, J., Granier, C., Neftel, A., Isaksen, I., Laj, P., Maione, M., Monks, P., Burkhardt, J., Daemmgen, U., Neirynck, J., Personne, E., Wichink-Kruit, R., Butterbach-Bahl, K., Flechard, C., Tuovinen, J., Coyle, M., Gerosa, G., Loubet, B., Altimir, N., Gruenhage, L., Ammann, C., Cieslik, S., Paoletti, E., Mikkelsen, T., Ro-Poulsen, H., Cellier, P., Cape, J., Horvàth, L., Loreto, F., Niinemets, U., Palmer, P., Rinne, J., Misztal, P., Nemitz, E., Nilsson, D., Pryor, S., Gallagher, M., Vesala, T., Skiba, U., Brïggemann, N., Zechmeister-Boltenstern, S., Williams, J., O'Dowd, C., Facchini, M., de Leeuw, G., Flossman, A., Chaumerliac, N., Erisman, J.: Atmospheric composition change: Ecosystems-Atmosphere interactions, Atmos. Environ., 43, 5193-5267, aCCENT Synthesis, 2009.
26. Gaston, C. J., Thornton, J. A., Ng, N. L.: Reactive uptake of N2O5 to internally mixed inorganic and organic particles: the role of organic carbon oxidation state and inferred organic phase separations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 5693-5707, doi:10.5194/acp-14-5693-2014, 2014.
27. Ginoux, P., Chin, M., Tegen, I., Prospero, J. M., Holben, B., Dubovik, O., Lin, S.-J.: Sources and distributions of dust aerosols simulated with the GOCART model, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 106, 20255-20273, doi:10.1029/2000JD000053, 2001.
28. Ginoux, P., Clarisse, L., Clerbaux, C., Coheur, P.-F., Dubovik, O., Hsu, N. C., Van Damme, M.: Mixing of dust and NH3 observed globally over anthropogenic dust sources, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 7351-7363, doi:10.5194/acp-12-7351-2012, 2012a.
29. Ginoux, P., Prospero, J. M., Gill, T. E., Hsu, N. C., Zhao, M.: Global-scale attribution of anthropogenic and natural dust sources and their emission rates based on MODIS Deep Blue aerosol products, Rev. Geophys., 50, RG3005, doi:10.1029/2012RG000388, 2012b.
30. Granier, C., Bessagnet, B., Bond, T., D'Angiola, A., Gon, H. D. v. d., Frost, G. J., Heil, A., Kaiser, J. W., Kinne, S., Klimont, Z., Kloster, S., Lamarque, J.-F., Liousse, C., Masui, T., Meleux, F., Mieville, A., Ohara, T., Raut, J.-C., Riahi, K., Schultz, M. G., Smith, S. J., Thompson, A., Aardenne, J. v., Werf, G. R. v. d., Vuuren, D. P. v.: Evolution of anthropogenic and biomass burning emissions of air pollutants at global and regional scales during the 1980-2010 period, Clim. Chang., 109, 163-190, doi:10.1007/s10584-011-0154-1, 2011.
31. Griffiths, P. T., Anthony Cox, R.: Temperature dependence of heterogeneous uptake of N2O5 by ammonium sulfate aerosol, Atmos. Sci. Lett., 10, 159-163, doi:10.1002/asl.225, 2009.
32. Grubbs, F. E.: Sample Criteria for Testing Outlying Observations, Ann. Math. Statist., 21, 27-58, doi:10.1214/aoms/1177729885, 1950.
33. Guenther, A., Karl, T., Harley, P., Wiedinmyer, C., Palmer, P. I., Geron, C.: Estimates of global terrestrial isoprene emissions using MEGAN (Model of Emissions of Gases and Aerosols from Nature), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 3181-3210, doi:10.5194/acp-6-3181-2006, 2006.
34. Hand, J., Gebhart, K., Schichtel, B., Malm, W.: Increasing trends in wintertime particulate sulfate and nitrate ion concentrations in the Great Plains of the United States (2000-2010), Atmos. Environ., 55, 107-110, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.03.050, 2012.
35. Hauglustaine, D. A., Balkanski, Y., Schulz, M.: A global model simulation of present and future nitrate aerosols and their direct radiative forcing of climate, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 11031-11063, doi:10.5194/acp-14-11031-2014, 2014.
36. Haywood, J. M., Ramaswamy, V.: Global sensitivity studies of the direct radiative forcing due to anthropogenic sulfate and black carbon aerosols, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 103, 6043-6058, doi:10.1029/97JD03426, 1998.
37. Heald, C. L., Spracklen, D. V.: Land Use Change Impacts on Air Quality and Climate, Chem. Rev., 115, 4476-4496, doi:10.1021/cr500446g, 2015.
38. Heald, C. L., Collett Jr., J. L., Lee, T., Benedict, K. B., Schwandner, F. M., Li, Y., Clarisse, L., Hurtmans, D. R., Van Damme, M., Clerbaux, C., Coheur, P.-F., Philip, S., Martin, R. V., Pye, H. O. T.: Atmospheric ammonia and particulate inorganic nitrogen over the United States, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 10295-10312, doi:10.5194/acp-12-10295-2012, 2012.
39. Henning, S., Bojinski, S., Diehl, K., Ghan, S., Nyeki, S., Weingartner, E., Wurzler, S., Baltensperger, U.: Aerosol partitioning in natural mixed-phase clouds, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L06101, doi:10.1029/2003GL019025, 2004.
40. Henze, D. K., Shindell, D. T., Akhtar, F., Spurr, R. J. D., Pinder, R. W., Loughlin, D., Kopacz, M., Singh, K., Shim, C.: Spatially Refined Aerosol Direct Radiative Forcing Efficiencies, Environ. Sci. Technol., 46, 9511-9518, doi:10.1021/es301993s, 2012.
41. Horowitz, L. W., Walters, S., Mauzerall, D. L., Emmons, L. K., Rasch, P. J., Granier, C., Tie, X., Lamarque, J.-F., Schultz, M. G., Tyndall, G. S., Orlando, J. J., Brasseur, G. P.: A global simulation of tropospheric ozone and related tracers: Description and evaluation of MOZART, version 2, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 108, doi:10.1029/2002JD002853, 2003.
42. Huebert, B. J., Luke, W. T., Delany, A. C., Brost, R. A.: Measurements of concentrations and dry surface fluxes of atmospheric nitrates in the presence of ammonia, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 93, 7127-7136, doi:10.1029/JD093iD06p07127, 1988.
43. Huneeus, N., Schulz, M., Balkanski, Y., Griesfeller, J., Prospero, J., Kinne, S., Bauer, S., Boucher, O., Chin, M., Dentener, F., Diehl, T., Easter, R., Fillmore, D., Ghan, S., Ginoux, P., Grini, A., Horowitz, L., Koch, D., Krol, M. C., Landing, W., Liu, X., Mahowald, N., Miller, R., Morcrette, J.-J., Myhre, G., Penner, J., Perlwitz, J., Stier, P., Takemura, T., Zender, C. S.: Global dust model intercomparison in AeroCom phase I, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 7781-7816, doi:10.5194/acp-11-7781-2011, 2011.
44. Jacobson, M. Z.: Studying the effects of calcium and magnesium on size-distributed nitrate and ammonium with EQUISOLV II, Atmos. Environ., 33, 3635-3649, doi:10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00105-3, 1999.
45. Janssens-Maenhout, G., Crippa, M., Guizzardi, D., Dentener, F., Muntean, M., Pouliot, G., Keating, T., Zhang, Q., Kurokawa, J., Wankmüller, R., Denier van der Gon, H., Kuenen, J. J. P., Klimont, Z., Frost, G., Darras, S., Koffi, B., Li, M.: HTAP-v2.2: a mosaic of regional and global emission grid maps for 2008 and 2010 to study hemispheric transport of air pollution, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 11411-11432, doi:10.5194/acp-15-11411-2015, 2015.
46. Jordan, C. E., Dibb, J. E.,erson, B. E., Fuelberg, H. E.: Uptake of nitrate and sulfate on dust aerosols during TRACE-P, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 108, 8817, doi:10.1029/2002JD003101, 2003.
47. Kahn, R., Nelson, D., Garay, M., Levy, R., Bull, M., Diner, D., Martonchik, J., Paradise, S., Hansen, E., Remer, L.: MISR Aerosol Product Attributes and Statistical Comparisons With MODIS, IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., 47, 4095-4114, doi:10.1109/TGRS.2009.2023115, 2009.
48. Kalnay, E., Kanamitsu, M., Kistler, R., Collins, W., Deaven, D., Gandin, L., Iredell, M., Saha, S., White, G., Woollen, J., Zhu, Y., Leetmaa, A., Reynolds, R., Chelliah, M., Ebisuzaki, W., Higgins, W., Janowiak, J., Mo, K. C., Ropelewski, C., Wang, J., Jenne, R., Joseph, D.: The NCEP/NCAR 40-Year Reanalysis Project, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 77, 437-471, doi:10.1175/1520-0477(1996)0772.0.CO;2, 1996.
49. Kim, Y. J., Spak, S. N., Carmichael, G. R., Riemer, N., Stanier, C. O.: Modeled aerosol nitrate formation pathways during wintertime in the Great Lakes region of North America, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 119, 2014JD022320, doi:10.1002/2014JD022320, 2014.
50. Lamarque, J.-F., Bond, T. C., Eyring, V., Granier, C., Heil, A., Klimont, Z., Lee, D., Liousse, C., Mieville, A., Owen, B., Schultz, M. G., Shindell, D., Smith, S. J., Stehfest, E., Van Aardenne, J., Cooper, O. R., Kainuma, M., Mahowald, N., Mc-Connell, J. R., Naik, V., Riahi, K., van Vuuren, D. P.: Historical (1850-2000) gridded anthropogenic and biomass burning emissions of reactive gases and aerosols: methodology and application, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 7017-7039, doi:10.5194/acp-10-7017-2010, 2010.
51. Lamarque, J.-F., Dentener, F., McConnell, J., Ro, C.-U., Shaw, M., Vet, R., Bergmann, D., Cameron-Smith, P., Dalsoren, S., Doherty, R., Faluvegi, G., Ghan, S. J., Josse, B., Lee, Y. H., MacKenzie, I. A., Plummer, D., Shindell, D. T., Skeie, R. B., Stevenson, D. S., Strode, S., Zeng, G., Curran, M., Dahl-Jensen, D., Das, S., Fritzsche, D., Nolan, M.: Multi-model mean nitrogen and sulfur deposition from the Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Model Intercomparison Project (ACCMIP): evaluation of historical and projected future changes, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 7997-8018, doi:10.5194/acp-13-7997-2013, 2013.
52. Lamsal, L. N., Martin, R. V., van Donkelaar, A., Celarier, E. A., Bucsela, E. J., Boersma, K. F., Dirksen, R., Luo, C., Wang, Y.: Indirect validation of tropospheric nitrogen dioxide retrieved from the OMI satellite instrument: Insight into the seasonal variation of nitrogen oxides at northern midlatitudes, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 115, D05302, doi:10.1029/2009JD013351, 2010.
53. Lee, C., Martin, R. V., van Donkelaar, A., Lee, H., Dickerson, R. R., Hains, J. C., Krotkov, N., Richter, A., Vinnikov, K., Schwab, J. J.: SO2 emissions and lifetimes: Estimates from inverse modeling using in situ and global, space-based (SCIAMACHY and OMI) observations, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 116, D06304, doi:10.1029/2010JD014758, 2011.
54. Lee, Y. H., Adams, P. J.: Evaluation of aerosol distributions in the GISS-TOMAS global aerosol microphysics model with re-mote sensing observations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 2129-2144, doi:10.5194/acp-10-2129-2010, 2010.
55. Li, F., Ginoux, P., Ramaswamy, V.: Distribution, transport, and deposition of mineral dust in the Southern Ocean and Antarctica: Contribution of major sources, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 113, D10207, doi:10.1029/2007JD009190, 2008.
56. Liao, H., Chen, W., Seinfeld, J. H.: Role of climate change in global predictions of future tropospheric ozone and aerosols, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 111, 12304, doi:10.1029/2005JD006852, 2006.
57. Lin, M., Fiore, A. M., Horowitz, L. W., Cooper, O. R., Naik, V., Holloway, J., Johnson, B. J., Middlebrook, A. M., Oltmans, S. J., Pollack, I. B., Ryerson, T. B.,Warner, J. X.,Wiedinmyer, C.,Wilson, J., Wyman, B.: Transport of Asian ozone pollution into surface air over the western United States in spring, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 117, D00V07, doi:10.1029/2011JD016961, 2012.
58. Liu, J., Fan, S., Horowitz, L. W., Levy, H.: Evaluation of factors controlling long-range transport of black carbon to the Arctic, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 116, D04307, doi:10.1029/2010JD015145, 2011.
59. Ma, J., Xie, S.-P., Kosaka, Y.: Mechanisms for Tropical Tropospheric Circulation Change in Response to Global Warming, J. Climate, 25, 2979-2994, doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00048.1, 2012.
60. Malm, W. C., Schichtel, B. A., Pitchford, M. L., Ashbaugh, L. L., Eldred, R. A.: Spatial and monthly trends in speciated fine particle concentration in the United States, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 109, D03306, doi:10.1029/2003JD003739, 2004.
61. Mao, J., Fan, S., Jacob, D. J., Travis, K. R.: Radical loss in the atmosphere from Cu-Fe redox coupling in aerosols, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 509-519, doi:10.5194/acp-13-509-2013, 2013a.
62. Mao, J., Horowitz, L.W., Naik, V., Fan, S., Liu, J., Fiore, A. M.: Sensitivity of tropospheric oxidants to biomass burning emissions: implications for radiative forcing, Geophys. Res. Lett., 40, 1241-1246, doi:10.1002/grl.50210, 2013b.
63. Mao, J., Paulot, F., Jacob, D. J., Cohen, R. C., Crounse, J. D., Wennberg, P. O., Keller, C. A., Hudman, R. C., Barkley, M. P., Horowitz, L. W.: Ozone and organic nitrates over the eastern United States: Sensitivity to isoprene chemistry, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 118, 11256-11268, doi:10.1002/jgrd.50817, 2013c.
64. Martin, R. V., Sauvage, B., Folkins, I., Sioris, C. E., Boone, C., Bernath, P., Ziemke, J.: Space-based constraints on the production of nitric oxide by lightning, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 112, D09309, doi:10.1029/2006JD007831, 2007.
65. Mauldin III, R. L., Berndt, T., Sipila, M., Paasonen, P., Petaja, T., Kim, S., Kurten, T., Stratmann, F., Kerminen, V. M., Kulmala, M.: A new atmospherically relevant oxidant of sulphur dioxide, Nature, 488, 193-196, 2012.
66. Meng, Z., Seinfeld, J. H.: Time scales to achieve atmospheric gas-aerosol equilibrium for volatile species, Atmos. Environ., 30, 2889-2900, doi:10.1016/1352-2310(95)00493-9, 1996.
67. Ming, Y., Ramaswamy, V., Donner, L. J., Phillips, V. T. J.: A New Parameterization of Cloud Droplet Activation Applicable to General Circulation Models, J. Atmos. Sci., 63, 1348-1356, doi:10.1175/JAS3686.1, 2006.
68. Misselbrook, T., Sutton, M., Scholefield, D.: A simple processbased model for estimating ammonia emissions from agricultural land after fertilizer applications, Soil Use and Management, 20, 365-372, doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00385.x, 2004.
69. Murray, L. T., Jacob, D. J., Logan, J. A., Hudman, R. C., Koshak, W. J.: Optimized regional and interannual variability of lightning in a global chemical transport model constrained by LIS/OTD satellite data, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 117, D20307, doi:10.1029/2012JD017934, 2012.
70. Myhre, G., Samset, B. H., Schulz, M., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S., Berntsen, T. K., Bian, H., Bellouin, N., Chin, M., Diehl, T., Easter, R. C., Feichter, J., Ghan, S. J., Hauglustaine, D., Iversen, T., Kinne, S., Kirkevåg, A., Lamarque, J.-F., Lin, G., Liu, X., Lund, M. T., Luo, G., Ma, X., van Noije, T., Penner, J. E., Rasch, P. J., Ruiz, A., Seland, ∅., Skeie, R. B., Stier, P., Takemura, T., Tsigaridis, K., Wang, P., Wang, Z., Xu, L., Yu, H., Yu, F., Yoon, J.-H., Zhang, K., Zhang, H., Zhou, C.: Radiative forcing of the direct aerosol effect from AeroCom Phase II simulations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 1853-1877, doi:10.5194/acp-13-1853-2013, 2013.
71. Naik, V., Horowitz, L. W., Fiore, A. M., Ginoux, P., Mao, J., Aghedo, A. M., Levy, H.: Impact of preindustrial to presentday changes in short-lived pollutant emissions on atmospheric composition and climate forcing, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 118, 8086-8110, doi:10.1002/jgrd.50608, 2013a.
72. Naik, V., Voulgarakis, A., Fiore, A. M., Horowitz, L. W., Lamarque, J.-F., Lin, M., Prather, M. J., Young, P. J., Bergmann, D., Cameron-Smith, P. J., Cionni, I., Collins, W. J., Dalsøren, S. B., Doherty, R., Eyring, V., Faluvegi, G., Folberth, G. A., Josse, B., Lee, Y. H., MacKenzie, I. A., Nagashima, T., van Noije, T. P. C., Plummer, D. A., Righi, M., Rumbold, S. T., Skeie, R., Shindell, D. T., Stevenson, D. S., Strode, S., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., Zeng, G.: Preindustrial to present-day changes in tropospheric hydroxyl radical and methane lifetime from the Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Model Intercomparison Project (ACCMIP), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 5277-5298, doi:10.5194/acp-13-5277-2013, 2013b.
73. Nemitz, E., Sutton, M. A., Wyers, G. P., Otjes, R. P., Mennen, M. G., van Putten, E. M., Gallagher, M. W.: Gas-particle interactions above a Dutch heathland: II. Concentrations and surface exchange fluxes of atmospheric particles, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 1007-1024, doi:10.5194/acp-4-1007-2004, 2004.
74. Neu, J. L., Prather, M. J.: Toward a more physical representation of precipitation scavenging in global chemistry models: cloud overlap and ice physics and their impact on tropospheric ozone, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 3289-3310, doi:10.5194/acp-12-3289-2012, 2012.
75. Nguyen, T. B., Crounse, J. D., Teng, A. P., Clair, J. M. S., Paulot, F., Wolfe, G. M.,Wennberg, P. O.: Rapid deposition of oxidized biogenic compounds to a temperate forest, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 112, E392-E401, doi:10.1073/pnas.1418702112, 2015.
76. Park, R. S., Lee, S., Shin, S.-K., Song, C. H.: Contribution of ammonium nitrate to aerosol optical depth and direct radiative forcing by aerosols over East Asia, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 2185-2201, doi:10.5194/acp-14-2185-2014, 2014.
77. Pathak, R. K., Wu, W. S., Wang, T.: Summertime PM2:5 ionic species in four major cities of China: nitrate formation in an ammonia-deficient atmosphere, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 1711-1722, doi:10.5194/acp-9-1711-2009, 2009.
78. Paulot, F., Jacob, D. J., Henze, D. K.: Sources and Processes Contributing to Nitrogen Deposition: An Adjoint Model Analysis Applied to Biodiversity Hotspots Worldwide, Environ. Sci. Technol., 47, 3226-3233, doi:10.1021/es3027727, 2013.
79. Paulot, F., Jacob, D. J., Pinder, R. W., Bash, J. O., Travis, K., Henze, D. K.: Ammonia emissions in the United States, European Union, and China derived by high-resolution inversion of ammonium wet deposition data: Interpretation with a new agricultural emissions inventory (MASAGE-NH3), J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 119, 4343-4364, doi:10.1002/2013JD021130, 2014.
80. Pinder, R. W., Adams, P. J., Pandis, S. N., Gilliland, A. B.: Temporally resolved ammonia emission inventories: Current estimates, evaluation tools, and measurement needs, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 111, D16310, doi:10.1029/2005JD006603, 2006.
81. Pinder, R. W., Dennis, R. L., Bhave, P. V.: Observable indicators of the sensitivity of PM2.5 nitrate to emission reductions-Part I: Derivation of the adjusted gas ratio and applicability at regulatory-relevant time scales, Atmos. Environ., 42, 1275-1286, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.10.039, 2008.
82. Pringle, K. J., Tost, H., Message, S., Steil, B., Giannadaki, D., Nenes, A., Fountoukis, C., Stier, P., Vignati, E., Lelieveld, J.: Description and evaluation of GMXe: a new aerosol submodel for global simulations (v1), Geosci. Model Dev., 3, 391-412, doi:10.5194/gmd-3-391-2010, 2010.
83. Pye, H. O. T., Liao, H., Wu, S., Mickley, L. J., Jacob, D. J., Henze, D. K., Seinfeld, J. H.: Effect of changes in climate and emissions on future sulfate-nitrate-ammonium aerosol levels in the United States, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 114, D01205, doi:10.1029/2008JD010701, 2009.
84. Rasmussen, D., Fiore, A., Naik, V., Horowitz, L., McGinnis, S., Schultz, M.: Surface ozone-temperature relationships in the eastern US: A monthly climatology for evaluating chemistry-climate models, Atmos. Environ., 47, 142-153, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.11.021, 2012.
85. Rattray, G., Sievering, H.: Dry deposition of ammonia, nitric acid, ammonium, and nitrate to alpine tundra at Niwot Ridge, Colorado, Atmos. Environ., 35, 1105-1109, doi:10.1016/S1352-2310(00)00276-4, 2001.
86. Remer, L. A., Kleidman, R. G., Levy, R. C., Kaufman, Y. J., Tanré, D., Mattoo, S., Martins, J. V., Ichoku, C., Koren, I., Yu, H., Holben, B. N.: Global aerosol climatology from the MODIS satellite sensors, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 113, D14S07, doi:10.1029/2007JD009661, 2008.
87. Schaap, M., van Loon, M., ten Brink, H. M., Dentener, F. J., Builtjes, P. J. H.: Secondary inorganic aerosol simulations for Europe with special attention to nitrate, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 857-874, doi:10.5194/acp-4-857-2004, 2004.
88. Schiferl, L. D., Heald, C. L., Nowak, J. B., Holloway, J. S., Neuman, J. A., Bahreini, R., Pollack, I. B., Ryerson, T. B., Wiedinmyer, C., Murphy, J. G.: An investigation of ammonia and inorganic particulate matter in California during the Cal-Nex campaign, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 119, 2013JD020765, doi:10.1002/2013JD020765, 2014.
89. Schulz, M., Textor, C., Kinne, S., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S., Berntsen, T., Berglen, T., Boucher, O., Dentener, F., Guibert, S., Isaksen, I. S. A., Iversen, T., Koch, D., Kirkevåg, A., Liu, X., Montanaro, V., Myhre, G., Penner, J. E., Pitari, G., Reddy, S., Seland, ∅., Stier, P., Takemura, T.: Radiative forcing by aerosols as derived from the AeroCom present-day and pre-industrial simulations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 5225-5246, doi:10.5194/acp-6-5225-2006, 2006.
90. Sheridan, P. J.,rews, E., Ogren, J. A., Tackett, J. L.,Winker, D. M.: Vertical profiles of aerosol optical properties over central Illinois and comparison with surface and satellite measurements, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 11695-11721, doi:10.5194/acp-12-11695-2012, 2012.
91. Shindell, D. T., Lamarque, J.-F., Schulz, M., Flanner, M., Jiao, C., Chin, M., Young, P. J., Lee, Y. H., Rotstayn, L., Mahowald, N., Milly, G., Faluvegi, G., Balkanski, Y., Collins, W. J., Conley, A. J., Dalsoren, S., Easter, R., Ghan, S., Horowitz, L., Liu, X., Myhre, G., Nagashima, T., Naik, V., Rumbold, S. T., Skeie, R., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., Takemura, T., Voulgarakis, A., Yoon, J.-H., Lo, F.: Radiative forcing in the ACCMIP historical and future climate simulations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 2939-2974, doi:10.5194/acp-13-2939-2013, 2013.
92. Sofen, E. D., Alexander, B., Kunasek, S. A.: The impact of anthropogenic emissions on atmospheric sulfate production pathways, oxidants, and ice core 117O(SO2 4 ), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 3565-3578, doi:10.5194/acp-11-3565-2011, 2011.
93. Song, C. H., Carmichael, G. R.: Gas-Particle Partitioning of Nitric Acid Modulated by Alkaline Aerosol, J. Atmos. Chem., 40, 1-22, doi:10.1023/A:1010657929716, 2001.
94. Stelson, A. W., Seinfeld, J. H.: Relative humidity and temperature dependence of the ammonium nitrate dissociation constant, Atmos. Environ., 16, 983-992, doi:10.1016/0004-6981(82)90184-6, 1982.
95. Strong, J. D. O., Vecchi, G. A., Ginoux, P.: The Response of the Tropical Atlantic and West African Climate to Saharan Dust in a Fully Coupled GCM, J. Clim., 28, 7071-7092, doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00797.1, 2015.
96. Tang, I. N., Munkelwitz, H. R.: Water activities, densities, and refractive indices of aqueous sulfates and sodium nitrate droplets of atmospheric importance, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 99, 18801-18808, doi:10.1029/94JD01345, 1994.
97. Tie, X., Emmons, L., Horowitz, L., Brasseur, G., Ridley, B., Atlas, E., Stround, C., Hess, P., Klonecki, A., Madronich, S., Talbot, R., Dibb, J.: Effect of sulfate aerosol on tropospheric NOx and ozone budgets: Model simulations and TOPSE evidence, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 108, 8364, doi:10.1029/2001JD001508, 2003.
98. Tie, X., Madronich, S.,Walters, S., Edwards, D. P., Ginoux, P., Mahowald, N., Zhang, R., Lou, C., Brasseur, G.: Assessment of the global impact of aerosols on tropospheric oxidants, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 110, D03204, doi:10.1029/2004JD005359, 2005.
99. Val Martin, M., Logan, J. A., Kahn, R. A., Leung, F.-Y., Nelson, D. L., Diner, D. J.: Smoke injection heights from fires in North America: analysis of 5 years of satellite observations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 1491-1510, doi:10.5194/acp-10-1491-2010, 2010.
100. Van Damme, M., Clarisse, L., Heald, C. L., Hurtmans, D., Ngadi, Y., Clerbaux, C., Dolman, A. J., Erisman, J. W., Coheur, P. F.: Global distributions, time series and error characterization of atmospheric ammonia (NH3) from IASI satellite observations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 2905-2922, doi:10.5194/acp-14-2905-2014, 2014a.
101. Van Damme, M., Wichink Kruit, R. J., Schaap, M., Clarisse, L., Clerbaux, C., Coheur, P.-F., Dammers, E., Dolman, A. J., Erisman, J. W.: Evaluating 4 years of atmospheric ammonia (NH3) over Europe using IASI satellite observations and LOTOS-EUROS model results, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 119, 9549-9566, doi:10.1002/2014JD021911, 2014b.
102. Van Oss, R., Duyzer, J., Wyers, P.: The influence of gasto-particle conversion on measurements of ammonia exchange over forest, Atmos. Environ., 32, 465-471, doi:10.1016/S1352-2310(97)00280-X, 1998.
103. van Vuuren, D., Edmonds, J., Kainuma, M., Riahi, K., Thomson, A., Hibbard, K., Hurtt, G., Kram, T., Krey, V., Lamarque, J.-F., Masui, T., Meinshausen, M., Nakicenovic, N., Smith, S., Rose, S.: The representative concentration pathways: an overview, Clim. Change, 109, 5-31, doi:10.1007/s10584-011-0148-z, 2011.
104. Wagner, N. L., Riedel, T. P., Young, C. J., Bahreini, R., Brock, C. A., Dubé, W. P., Kim, S., Middlebrook, A. M., Öztürk, F., Roberts, J. M., Russo, R., Sive, B., Swarthout, R., Thornton, J. A., VandenBoer, T. C., Zhou, Y., Brown, S. S.: N2O5 uptake coefficients and nocturnal NO2 removal rates determined from ambient wintertime measurements, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 118, 9331-9350, doi:10.1002/jgrd.50653, 2013.
105. Walker, J. M., Philip, S., Martin, R. V., Seinfeld, J. H.: Simulation of nitrate, sulfate, and ammonium aerosols over the United States, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 11213-11227, doi:10.5194/acp-12-11213-2012, 2012.
106. Wang, Q., Jacob, D. J., Fisher, J. A., Mao, J., Leibensperger, E. M., Carouge, C. C., Le Sager, P., Kondo, Y., Jimenez, J. L., Cubison, M. J., Doherty, S. J.: Sources of carbonaceous aerosols and deposited black carbon in the Arctic in winter-spring: implications for radiative forcing, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 12453-12473, doi:10.5194/acp-11-12453-2011, 2011.
107. West, J. J., Pilinis, C., Nenes, A., Pandis, S. N.: Marginal direct climate forcing by atmospheric aerosols, Atmos. Environ., 32, 2531-2542, doi:10.1016/S1352-2310(98)00003-X, 1998.
108. Whitburn, S., Van Damme, M., Kaiser, J., van der Werf, G., Turquety, S., Hurtmans, D., Clarisse, L., Clerbaux, C., Coheur, P.-F.: Ammonia emissions in tropical biomass burning regions: Comparison between satellite-derived emissions and bottom-up fire inventories, Atmos. Environ., 121, 42-54, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.03.015, 2015.
109. Wiedinmyer, C., Akagi, S. K., Yokelson, R. J., Emmons, L. K., Al-Saadi, J. A., Orlando, J. J., Soja, A. J.: The Fire INventory from NCAR (FINN): a high resolution global model to estimate the emissions from open burning, Geosci. Model Dev., 4, 625-641, doi:10.5194/gmd-4-625-2011, 2011.
110. Wolff, V., Trebs, I., Foken, T., Meixner, F. X.: Exchange of reactive nitrogen compounds: concentrations and fluxes of total ammonium and total nitrate above a spruce canopy, Biogeosciences, 7, 1729-1744, doi:10.5194/bg-7-1729-2010, 2010.
111. Wyers, G. P., Duyzer, J. H.: Micrometeorological measurement of the dry deposition flux of sulphate and nitrate aerosols to coniferous forest, Atmos. Environ., 31, 333-343, doi:10.1016/S1352-2310(96)00188-4, 1997.
112. Xu, L., Penner, J. E.: Global simulations of nitrate and ammonium aerosols and their radiative effects, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 9479-9504, doi:10.5194/acp-12-9479-2012, 2012.
113. Ying, Q., Wu, L., Zhang, H.: Local and inter-regional contributions to PM2.5 nitrate and sulfate in China, Atmos. Environ., 94, 582-592, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.05.078, 2014.
114. Zhu, L., Henze, D. K., Cady-Pereira, K. E., Shephard, M. W., Luo, M., Pinder, R. W., Bash, J. O., Jeong, G.-R.: Constraining U.S. ammonia emissions using TES remote sensing observations and the GEOS-Chem adjoint model, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 118, 3355-3368, doi:10.1002/jgrd.50166, 2013.
115. Zhu, L., Henze, D., Bash, J., Jeong, G.-R., Cady-Pereira, K., Shephard, M., Luo, M., Paulot, F., Capps, S.: Global evaluation of ammonia bidirectional exchange and livestock diurnal variation schemes, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 12823-12843, doi:10.5194/acp-15-12823-2015, 2015.
116. Zhuang, H., Chan, C. K., Fang, M., Wexler, A. S.: Size distributions of particulate sulfate, nitrate, and ammonium at a coastal site in Hong Kong, Atmos. Environ., 33, 843-853, doi:10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00186-7, 1999.